The use of flipped instructional methods have become commonplace in business schools, despite a m... more The use of flipped instructional methods have become commonplace in business schools, despite a mix of potential benefits and pitfalls. To explore why flipped classes may have both benefits and pitfalls, we applied psychological contract theory and a person-situation fit perspective. We found undergraduate organisational behaviour students who expected traditional in-person lecture-based instruction, yet received flipped instruction (indicative of contract violation) were less satisfied and less intent on taking a flipped class later, yet they showed more in-class effort than students who expected and received traditional instruction. Moreover, autonomously motivated students were more intent on taking a flipped class in the future (indicative of a better fit), and satisfaction mediated this relationship. Autonomous motivation also predicted outside-of-class effort and selfregulated learning strategies. Flipped classes may benefit autonomously motivated students who can self-select such classes, while less autonomously motivated students or those with violated psychological contracts may experience pitfalls.
Employers and students concur that soft skills or interpersonal skills are critical to managerial... more Employers and students concur that soft skills or interpersonal skills are critical to managerial success, yet we know little about how MBA program admissions professionals conceptualize and assess these skills in the context of global management education. Such practices have key implications for interpersonal skills curriculum and training in MBA programs around the globe. A survey of 182 MBA admissions professionals from 24 countries revealed surprising agreement in how interpersonal skills were conceptualized, and suggest interpersonal skills and soft skills are not synonymous. Results also indicated that only 30% of U.S. and international MBA programs use specific criteria to assess applicants' interpersonal skills, with the remainder using nonspecific criteria or no assessment method. We discuss the need for more rigorous assessment of interpersonal skills in MBA admissions, closer coordination between admissions officers and curriculum developers, and tighter alignment between interpersonal skills assessment and MBA curriculum and learning outcomes.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, Feb 25, 2018
Performance appraisals provide employees with feedback that helps them improve subsequent perform... more Performance appraisals provide employees with feedback that helps them improve subsequent performance, with acceptance of feedback as a key precondition to improve performance. In this study, we use the due process model of performance feedback to better understand predictors of favorable employee reactions to performance appraisal. The due process model views knowledge of performance standards and frequent feedback as aspects of adequate notice in performance appraisal, and as key predictors of favorable appraisal reactions. Empirical findings to date, however, have been inconsistent on this issue. Feedback frequency has not been consistently related to appraisal reactions in primary studies, suggesting the potential for moderator effects. We therefore meta-analyzed the relationships between knowledge of performance standards and feedback frequency with appraisal reactions through the due process lens with performance rating favorability and knowledge of performance standards as moderators. Our findings suggest prior inconsistent results could be partly explained by the moderating effects of performance rating favorability and knowledge of performance standards on the relationship between feedback frequency and appraisal reactions. We discuss the implications of our results for theory, research and practice. Keywords performance appraisal; due process; feedback; feedback frequency; appraisal reactions RUNNING HEAD: Meta Analysis of Feedback Frequency and Appraisal Reactions 3 Scholars and practitioners agree that managers and employees are often dissatisfied with the performance appraisal process (e.g., Taylor, Tracy, Renard et al., 1995). Managers generally do not enjoy delivering bad news, and few employees are eager to accept it (Brett & Atwater, 2001). Nonetheless, performance appraisals should ideally provide employees with formal feedback that helps them identify performance improvement opportunities (Tziner, Murphy, & Cleveland, 2005). How employees react to feedback during the appraisal process is linked to job attitudes (e.g., Kuvaas, 2006), as well as subsequent performance (Anseel, Van Yperen, Janssen
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Mar 1, 2015
Today's organizations must foster conditions that motivate employees to develop creative solution... more Today's organizations must foster conditions that motivate employees to develop creative solutions that are both novel and useful. Yet product novelty and usefulness have been characterized by distinct, mutually exclusive motivational processes. We test theory on how learning and performance achievement goals can motivate individuals to develop products that are both novel and useful. In an experimental study (n = 189) using a product development task, a learning achievement goal enhanced novelty by increasing cognitive flexibility. A performance achievement goal enhanced usefulness by increasing cognitive closure. Furthermore, simultaneous inducement of learning and performance goals enhanced novelty and usefulness more than sequential inducement of each goal. Cognitive flexibility and closure mediated the effects of simultaneous goals on both creativity dimensions, with too much cognitive closure thwarting product novelty. The benefits of simultaneous over sequential goals were mitigated when individuals experienced negative affect. Implications for creativity in organizational settings are discussed.
In a longitudinal study of 122 MBA interns, task Role Clarity at the start of internships was pos... more In a longitudinal study of 122 MBA interns, task Role Clarity at the start of internships was positively related to learning at the end. Additionally, less experienced interns learned most under high Role Clarity/low Autonomy, and least under low Role Clarity/low Autonomy. MBA INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING This study investigates antecedents to learning in an MBA internship, defined as a fulltime job of 12 weeks or less, usually between the first and second year of a two year MBA program. There is a lack of research on internships as a means for learning, hiring, and doing work, despite their importance for MBAs and employers. In this study, learning effectiveness refers to task learning, that is, an MBA intern's self-reported positive change in competencies. Task learning focuses on competencies important to MBA students and employers (GMAC, 2006) (e.g., technical skills, interpersonal skills, communication). This learning requires a person to encode, store, or use skills (Anderson, 2000), facilitated by practice and feedback. Existing research on internships and newcomer socialization contribute little insight on learning in MBA internships. Research on internships focuses on undergrads (e.g., Taylor, 1988) with less prior experience and lower responsibility and pay. Newcomer socialization addresses how people adapt to new work roles (for a review, see Saks & Ashforth, 1997) in regular jobs over longer periods (e.g., 6-24 months). This has led scholars to call for research on internships (Saks & Ashforth, 1997).
Academy of Management Learning and Education, Mar 1, 2014
Achievement goal orientations provide a useful framework for understanding what motivates MBA int... more Achievement goal orientations provide a useful framework for understanding what motivates MBA intern learning and performance. A study of 508 MBA interns working in over 245 organizations showed learning mediated the relationship of intern learning goal orientations to performance, while intern performance goals only had direct effects on performance. As situational inducements, supervisor concern for learning and performance explained unique variance in performance beyond interns' own goal orientations. Support was found for a supplementary fit perspective between interns with prove-performance goals and supervisor concern for performance. Interns also performed better when they viewed their supervisors as advocating a balance of concerns for both learning and performance during the internship. Implications for interns, business schools, and employers are discussed.
Despite the overwhelming popularity of the graduate business degree, many business students enter... more Despite the overwhelming popularity of the graduate business degree, many business students enter graduate school without knowing what they want to accomplish. To assess graduate business students’...
George Langelett's How Do I Keep My Employees Motivated? The Practice of Empathy-Based Management... more George Langelett's How Do I Keep My Employees Motivated? The Practice of Empathy-Based Management is a well-intentioned book that a new manager or supervisor may find useful. The same may not be said for instructors seeking a classroom resource on workplace motivation. The core proposition of developing empathy as a metacompetency for effective employee motivation is sound. The author grounds this central idea on a basic understanding of how the limbic system, emotional experience, stress hormones, and cognition relate to one another. For instance, a negative emotional experience releases cortisol that impairs rational thinking. The author argues that empathy is foundational for relating to and motivating subordinates because, in order to problem solve and perform their best, subordinates must first feel understood by their supervisor. Beyond this helpful insight for the entry-level manager, the book lacks an overarching framework, is sparsely grounded in relevant research, and, from this reviewer's perspective, presents a somewhat misguided view of the practice of empathy. The lack of an overarching framework or model results in what feels like a repetitive set of managerial to dos and guidelines. The core proposition of empathy-based management is reiterated from a variety of angles that begin to blur into one another. There are core goals of empathybased management (Chapter 2), tips for empathizing with employees during crises (Chapter 3), tools for everyday empathy-based management (Chapter 4), and suggestions for practicing empathy-based management (Chapter 5). Each chapter has its own set of tips or to do lists. This reviewer would have made better sense of the material if the author had provided a visual model to organize the book's structure. For instance, a few boxes and arrows could have depicted relationships between a manager's empathy, a subordinate's limbic system and stress response, and a subordinate's cognitive and motivational resources for more effective problem solving. A simple model like this could have offered readers a more compelling and easier-to-follow framework. Although the main argument for empathy is grounded in basic cognitive neuroscience, much of the book lacks grounding in current research on workplace motivation. For instance, the author advocates an intrinsic perspective on motivation. Yet, references to this perspective rely on
The International Journal of Management Education, Nov 1, 2014
The distractions of higher rankings and better facilities are diluting business schools from thei... more The distractions of higher rankings and better facilities are diluting business schools from their intended focus on facilitating student learning. We propose organizational learning contracts (OLCs) can help B-schools regain their focus by creating shared expectations about the roles and responsibilities of relevant parties in regards to learning. We show students at an institution with a stronger OLC displayed more effective, self-regulated conceptions of the learning process (e.g., being self-motivated, seeking feedback), and less conventional beliefs regarding how to learn (e.g., attending class, doing homework). Given these benefits, we discuss how to implement an OLC, and its implications for management education.
Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Apr 21, 2022
While research on leadership has acknowledged the joint efforts of leaders and followers, advance... more While research on leadership has acknowledged the joint efforts of leaders and followers, advancements in conceptualizing the outcomes of such joint efforts have stagnated. Integrating leadership theory and research with multilevel theories on emergent states, we develop and propose a new framework of shared leader-follower outcomes (SLFOs). We reconceptualize SLFOs as four emergent states (presence, synergy, professionalism and chemistry) that are proximal outcomes in teams. Each SLFO is an early indicator of corresponding key traditional outcomes (absenteeism, productivity, quality and satisfaction) that focus on the leader, followers, or the team as a whole. We also discuss the dynamics of emergence of SLFOs from the dyadic leader-follower level to the team level through composition (i.e. convergent) and compilation (i.e., divergent) processes. Our framework extends leadership theories by accounting for emergent states as shared leader-follower outcomes that temporally unfold over multiple levels of analysis. We develop propositions to guide future empirical research on leader-follower proximal outcomes of presence, synergy, professionalism, and chemistry.
It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managersbut what about th... more It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managersbut what about the good ones? How can researchers and organizations differentiate individuals in terms of the interpersonal skills needed to perform well in the managerial role? Although these are fundamentally important questions to organizational psychologists, there exists no conceptual model, definition, or measure of interpersonal skills specific to the managerial role. We address these questions and research gaps by developing a conceptual model and validating a concomitant measure of managerial interpersonal skills (MIPS) through a research program that included four studies across three phases: First, through a review of the literature and structured interviews with practicing managers; next, three quantitative studies in which we develop, refine and validate our MIPS scale; and finally, in a fourth validation study with matched supervisoremployee data from a large healthcare organization. Results suggest that MIPS are best represented by a three-dimensional model comprised of supporting, motivating and managing conflict all indicating a higher-order latent MIPS factor. Results also indicate the MIPS Scale predicts job attitudes and performance among both employees and managers above and beyond personality traits and leader-member exchange, as well as constructs closely related to MIPS, such as social support and conflict management style.
Academy of Management Learning and Education, Dec 1, 2008
We present a new concept called an organizational learning contract. A learning contract creates ... more We present a new concept called an organizational learning contract. A learning contract creates specific, shared expectations among students, faculty and educational administrators concerning the learning outcomes, learning environments and educational assessment system of an institution. Learning contracts can serve as diagnostic tools to help educational institutions assess their effectiveness; they also can help prepare students for their university training by aligning their expectations with forthcoming experiences. We find little evidence that the main ideas underpinning learning contracts are being implemented by business education standard-setters, management educators or leading business programs. We discuss how learning contracts can be used in the diagnosis and redesign of management education.
It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managers- but what about ... more It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managers- but what about the good ones? How can researchers and organizations differentiate individuals with the necessary sk...
The use of flipped instructional methods have become commonplace in business schools, despite a m... more The use of flipped instructional methods have become commonplace in business schools, despite a mix of potential benefits and pitfalls. To explore why flipped classes may have both benefits and pitfalls, we applied psychological contract theory and a person-situation fit perspective. We found undergraduate organisational behaviour students who expected traditional in-person lecture-based instruction, yet received flipped instruction (indicative of contract violation) were less satisfied and less intent on taking a flipped class later, yet they showed more in-class effort than students who expected and received traditional instruction. Moreover, autonomously motivated students were more intent on taking a flipped class in the future (indicative of a better fit), and satisfaction mediated this relationship. Autonomous motivation also predicted outside-of-class effort and selfregulated learning strategies. Flipped classes may benefit autonomously motivated students who can self-select such classes, while less autonomously motivated students or those with violated psychological contracts may experience pitfalls.
Employers and students concur that soft skills or interpersonal skills are critical to managerial... more Employers and students concur that soft skills or interpersonal skills are critical to managerial success, yet we know little about how MBA program admissions professionals conceptualize and assess these skills in the context of global management education. Such practices have key implications for interpersonal skills curriculum and training in MBA programs around the globe. A survey of 182 MBA admissions professionals from 24 countries revealed surprising agreement in how interpersonal skills were conceptualized, and suggest interpersonal skills and soft skills are not synonymous. Results also indicated that only 30% of U.S. and international MBA programs use specific criteria to assess applicants' interpersonal skills, with the remainder using nonspecific criteria or no assessment method. We discuss the need for more rigorous assessment of interpersonal skills in MBA admissions, closer coordination between admissions officers and curriculum developers, and tighter alignment between interpersonal skills assessment and MBA curriculum and learning outcomes.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, Feb 25, 2018
Performance appraisals provide employees with feedback that helps them improve subsequent perform... more Performance appraisals provide employees with feedback that helps them improve subsequent performance, with acceptance of feedback as a key precondition to improve performance. In this study, we use the due process model of performance feedback to better understand predictors of favorable employee reactions to performance appraisal. The due process model views knowledge of performance standards and frequent feedback as aspects of adequate notice in performance appraisal, and as key predictors of favorable appraisal reactions. Empirical findings to date, however, have been inconsistent on this issue. Feedback frequency has not been consistently related to appraisal reactions in primary studies, suggesting the potential for moderator effects. We therefore meta-analyzed the relationships between knowledge of performance standards and feedback frequency with appraisal reactions through the due process lens with performance rating favorability and knowledge of performance standards as moderators. Our findings suggest prior inconsistent results could be partly explained by the moderating effects of performance rating favorability and knowledge of performance standards on the relationship between feedback frequency and appraisal reactions. We discuss the implications of our results for theory, research and practice. Keywords performance appraisal; due process; feedback; feedback frequency; appraisal reactions RUNNING HEAD: Meta Analysis of Feedback Frequency and Appraisal Reactions 3 Scholars and practitioners agree that managers and employees are often dissatisfied with the performance appraisal process (e.g., Taylor, Tracy, Renard et al., 1995). Managers generally do not enjoy delivering bad news, and few employees are eager to accept it (Brett & Atwater, 2001). Nonetheless, performance appraisals should ideally provide employees with formal feedback that helps them identify performance improvement opportunities (Tziner, Murphy, & Cleveland, 2005). How employees react to feedback during the appraisal process is linked to job attitudes (e.g., Kuvaas, 2006), as well as subsequent performance (Anseel, Van Yperen, Janssen
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Mar 1, 2015
Today's organizations must foster conditions that motivate employees to develop creative solution... more Today's organizations must foster conditions that motivate employees to develop creative solutions that are both novel and useful. Yet product novelty and usefulness have been characterized by distinct, mutually exclusive motivational processes. We test theory on how learning and performance achievement goals can motivate individuals to develop products that are both novel and useful. In an experimental study (n = 189) using a product development task, a learning achievement goal enhanced novelty by increasing cognitive flexibility. A performance achievement goal enhanced usefulness by increasing cognitive closure. Furthermore, simultaneous inducement of learning and performance goals enhanced novelty and usefulness more than sequential inducement of each goal. Cognitive flexibility and closure mediated the effects of simultaneous goals on both creativity dimensions, with too much cognitive closure thwarting product novelty. The benefits of simultaneous over sequential goals were mitigated when individuals experienced negative affect. Implications for creativity in organizational settings are discussed.
In a longitudinal study of 122 MBA interns, task Role Clarity at the start of internships was pos... more In a longitudinal study of 122 MBA interns, task Role Clarity at the start of internships was positively related to learning at the end. Additionally, less experienced interns learned most under high Role Clarity/low Autonomy, and least under low Role Clarity/low Autonomy. MBA INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING This study investigates antecedents to learning in an MBA internship, defined as a fulltime job of 12 weeks or less, usually between the first and second year of a two year MBA program. There is a lack of research on internships as a means for learning, hiring, and doing work, despite their importance for MBAs and employers. In this study, learning effectiveness refers to task learning, that is, an MBA intern's self-reported positive change in competencies. Task learning focuses on competencies important to MBA students and employers (GMAC, 2006) (e.g., technical skills, interpersonal skills, communication). This learning requires a person to encode, store, or use skills (Anderson, 2000), facilitated by practice and feedback. Existing research on internships and newcomer socialization contribute little insight on learning in MBA internships. Research on internships focuses on undergrads (e.g., Taylor, 1988) with less prior experience and lower responsibility and pay. Newcomer socialization addresses how people adapt to new work roles (for a review, see Saks & Ashforth, 1997) in regular jobs over longer periods (e.g., 6-24 months). This has led scholars to call for research on internships (Saks & Ashforth, 1997).
Academy of Management Learning and Education, Mar 1, 2014
Achievement goal orientations provide a useful framework for understanding what motivates MBA int... more Achievement goal orientations provide a useful framework for understanding what motivates MBA intern learning and performance. A study of 508 MBA interns working in over 245 organizations showed learning mediated the relationship of intern learning goal orientations to performance, while intern performance goals only had direct effects on performance. As situational inducements, supervisor concern for learning and performance explained unique variance in performance beyond interns' own goal orientations. Support was found for a supplementary fit perspective between interns with prove-performance goals and supervisor concern for performance. Interns also performed better when they viewed their supervisors as advocating a balance of concerns for both learning and performance during the internship. Implications for interns, business schools, and employers are discussed.
Despite the overwhelming popularity of the graduate business degree, many business students enter... more Despite the overwhelming popularity of the graduate business degree, many business students enter graduate school without knowing what they want to accomplish. To assess graduate business students’...
George Langelett's How Do I Keep My Employees Motivated? The Practice of Empathy-Based Management... more George Langelett's How Do I Keep My Employees Motivated? The Practice of Empathy-Based Management is a well-intentioned book that a new manager or supervisor may find useful. The same may not be said for instructors seeking a classroom resource on workplace motivation. The core proposition of developing empathy as a metacompetency for effective employee motivation is sound. The author grounds this central idea on a basic understanding of how the limbic system, emotional experience, stress hormones, and cognition relate to one another. For instance, a negative emotional experience releases cortisol that impairs rational thinking. The author argues that empathy is foundational for relating to and motivating subordinates because, in order to problem solve and perform their best, subordinates must first feel understood by their supervisor. Beyond this helpful insight for the entry-level manager, the book lacks an overarching framework, is sparsely grounded in relevant research, and, from this reviewer's perspective, presents a somewhat misguided view of the practice of empathy. The lack of an overarching framework or model results in what feels like a repetitive set of managerial to dos and guidelines. The core proposition of empathy-based management is reiterated from a variety of angles that begin to blur into one another. There are core goals of empathybased management (Chapter 2), tips for empathizing with employees during crises (Chapter 3), tools for everyday empathy-based management (Chapter 4), and suggestions for practicing empathy-based management (Chapter 5). Each chapter has its own set of tips or to do lists. This reviewer would have made better sense of the material if the author had provided a visual model to organize the book's structure. For instance, a few boxes and arrows could have depicted relationships between a manager's empathy, a subordinate's limbic system and stress response, and a subordinate's cognitive and motivational resources for more effective problem solving. A simple model like this could have offered readers a more compelling and easier-to-follow framework. Although the main argument for empathy is grounded in basic cognitive neuroscience, much of the book lacks grounding in current research on workplace motivation. For instance, the author advocates an intrinsic perspective on motivation. Yet, references to this perspective rely on
The International Journal of Management Education, Nov 1, 2014
The distractions of higher rankings and better facilities are diluting business schools from thei... more The distractions of higher rankings and better facilities are diluting business schools from their intended focus on facilitating student learning. We propose organizational learning contracts (OLCs) can help B-schools regain their focus by creating shared expectations about the roles and responsibilities of relevant parties in regards to learning. We show students at an institution with a stronger OLC displayed more effective, self-regulated conceptions of the learning process (e.g., being self-motivated, seeking feedback), and less conventional beliefs regarding how to learn (e.g., attending class, doing homework). Given these benefits, we discuss how to implement an OLC, and its implications for management education.
Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Apr 21, 2022
While research on leadership has acknowledged the joint efforts of leaders and followers, advance... more While research on leadership has acknowledged the joint efforts of leaders and followers, advancements in conceptualizing the outcomes of such joint efforts have stagnated. Integrating leadership theory and research with multilevel theories on emergent states, we develop and propose a new framework of shared leader-follower outcomes (SLFOs). We reconceptualize SLFOs as four emergent states (presence, synergy, professionalism and chemistry) that are proximal outcomes in teams. Each SLFO is an early indicator of corresponding key traditional outcomes (absenteeism, productivity, quality and satisfaction) that focus on the leader, followers, or the team as a whole. We also discuss the dynamics of emergence of SLFOs from the dyadic leader-follower level to the team level through composition (i.e. convergent) and compilation (i.e., divergent) processes. Our framework extends leadership theories by accounting for emergent states as shared leader-follower outcomes that temporally unfold over multiple levels of analysis. We develop propositions to guide future empirical research on leader-follower proximal outcomes of presence, synergy, professionalism, and chemistry.
It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managersbut what about th... more It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managersbut what about the good ones? How can researchers and organizations differentiate individuals in terms of the interpersonal skills needed to perform well in the managerial role? Although these are fundamentally important questions to organizational psychologists, there exists no conceptual model, definition, or measure of interpersonal skills specific to the managerial role. We address these questions and research gaps by developing a conceptual model and validating a concomitant measure of managerial interpersonal skills (MIPS) through a research program that included four studies across three phases: First, through a review of the literature and structured interviews with practicing managers; next, three quantitative studies in which we develop, refine and validate our MIPS scale; and finally, in a fourth validation study with matched supervisoremployee data from a large healthcare organization. Results suggest that MIPS are best represented by a three-dimensional model comprised of supporting, motivating and managing conflict all indicating a higher-order latent MIPS factor. Results also indicate the MIPS Scale predicts job attitudes and performance among both employees and managers above and beyond personality traits and leader-member exchange, as well as constructs closely related to MIPS, such as social support and conflict management style.
Academy of Management Learning and Education, Dec 1, 2008
We present a new concept called an organizational learning contract. A learning contract creates ... more We present a new concept called an organizational learning contract. A learning contract creates specific, shared expectations among students, faculty and educational administrators concerning the learning outcomes, learning environments and educational assessment system of an institution. Learning contracts can serve as diagnostic tools to help educational institutions assess their effectiveness; they also can help prepare students for their university training by aligning their expectations with forthcoming experiences. We find little evidence that the main ideas underpinning learning contracts are being implemented by business education standard-setters, management educators or leading business programs. We discuss how learning contracts can be used in the diagnosis and redesign of management education.
It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managers- but what about ... more It is no secret that employees leave their organizations because of bad managers- but what about the good ones? How can researchers and organizations differentiate individuals with the necessary sk...
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Papers by Gerard Beenen