IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 1993
The knowledge acquisition bottleneck impeding the development of expert systems is being alleviat... more The knowledge acquisition bottleneck impeding the development of expert systems is being alleviated by the development of computer-based knowledge acquisition tools. These work directly with experts to elicit knowledge, and structure it appropriately to operate as a decision support tool within an expert system. However, the elicitation of expert knowledge and its effective transfer to a useful knowledge-based system is complex and involves a diversity of activities. This paper illustrates the complete development of a decision support system using knowledge acquisition tools. The example is simple enough to be completely analyzed but exhibits enough real-world characteristics to give significant insights into the processes and problems of knowledge engineering. However, the knowledge engineer in the role of an intermediary between the expert and the knowledge-based systems may create as many problems as he or she solves (Gaines, 1987a). The computer itself is an excellent tool for helping the expert to structure the knowledge domain, and, in recent years research on knowledge acquisition has focused on the development of computer-based acquisition tools (Boose & Gaines, 1988; Gaines & Boose, 1988; Boose, 1989). Many such tools are designed to be used directly by the expert with the minimum of intervention by the knowledge engineer, and emphasize facilities for visualizing the domain concepts. The objective of systems such as PLANET (
The paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive science has wrought many changes in our methodol... more The paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive science has wrought many changes in our methodologies, experimental techniques, and models of human activity. Not the least of these changes has been the legitimation of such hidden variables as mental processes. The cognitive science paradigm has been a swift river carrying us to new horizons but there are now a number of major counter-currents. The positivism of behaviorism is being replaced by the reductionism of neural networks—how do mental processes arise out of physical cellular activity? The ontogenetic bias of both behaviorism and cognitive science is being challenged by ethnomethodological perspectives in which the very notion of an individual is an experimental artifact—how do mental processes arise out of the lifeworld? Meanwhile the promise of greater understanding of the knowledge level is being fulfilled, and operational models of human cognition and action are being generated—how do mental processes relate to the logic...
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 1969
This paper presents a review of recent studies of the human controller both in psychology and in ... more This paper presents a review of recent studies of the human controller both in psychology and in control engineering. Theoretical and technological problems in the study of skilled behaviour are first discussed, and the desirable constraints upon any "model" are outlined. The foundations of linear continuous modelling of the human controller and experimental data on the validity and utility of linear models are then reviewed. The evidence for nonlinear and discontinuous behaviour in the human controller is then outlined, and studies of non-linear models based on modern optimal and sampled-data control theory are then presented.
The problem of deriving the structure of a non-deterministic system from its behaviour is a diffi... more The problem of deriving the structure of a non-deterministic system from its behaviour is a difficult one even when that behaviour is itself well-defined. When the behaviour can be described only in fuzzy terms structural inference may appear virtually impossible. However, a rigorous formulation and solution of the problem for stochastic automata has recently been given [1] and, in this paper, the results are extended to fuzzy stochastic automata and grammars. The results obtained are of interest on a number of counts. (1) They are a further step towards an integrated 'theory of uncertainty'; (2) They give new insights into problems of inductive reasoning and processes of 'precisiation'; (3) They are algorithmic and have been embodied in a computer program that can be applied to the modelling of sequential fuzzy data; (4) They demonstrate that sequential fuzzy data may be modelled naturally in terms of 'possibility' vectors.
International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic, May 25, 1976
This paper is concerned with the foundations of fuzzy reasoning and its relationships with other ... more This paper is concerned with the foundations of fuzzy reasoning and its relationships with other logics of uncertainty. The definitions of fuzzy logics are first examined and the role of fuzzification discussed. It is shown that fuzzification of PC gives a known multivalued logic but with inappropriate semantics of implication and various alternative forms of implication are discussed. In the main section the discussion is broadened to other logics of uncertainty and it is argued that there are close links, both formal and semantic, between fuzzy logic and probability logics. A basic multivalued logic is developed in terms of a truth function over a lattice of propositions that encompasses a wide range of logics of uncertainty. Various degrees of truth functionality are then defined and used to derive specific logics including probability logic and Lukasiewicz infinitely valued logic. Quantification and modal operators over the basic logic are introduced. Finally, a semantics for the basic logic is introduced in terms of a population (of events, or people, or neurons) and the semantic significance of the constraints giving rise to different logics is discussed.
Group-writing, in which a document is jointly produced by a team of writers, occurs widely in sci... more Group-writing, in which a document is jointly produced by a team of writers, occurs widely in science and in industry. There are now a number of products and research tools designed to support group-writing teams. Most, however, required use of non-mainstream word-processing systems, and usually assume that full information is continuously available through a network to mediate and avoid conflicts. This paper reports research on a group-writing tool that deviates as little as possible from conventional word processors and assumes only intermittent network connections for document exchange and conflict resolution.
INFOR: Information Systems and Operational Research, 1988
This paper describes trends in knowledge support environments-integrated interactive knowledge ac... more This paper describes trends in knowledge support environments-integrated interactive knowledge acquisition systems and expert system shells-that can provide a specialist community with tools supporting a wide range of knowledge processes. These systems extrapolate the trend from human knowledge engineering, through automated interviewing of the expert, to continuing on-line access to both knowledge acquisition and application processes. In knowledge support systems the distinctions between expert, knowledge engineer and client roles are deliberately blurred, and a diversity of knowledge processes and changing roles are supported within an entire interacting community. A prototype knowledge support system is described with examples of some ofthe knowledge acquisition and application tools provided. It is suggested that such systems provide a major knowledge-based technology with commercial implications and applications going beyond those currently envisioned for expert systems. RESUME Le present article introduit le concept d'environnements d'aide a la connaissance-des systemes integres comprenant des outils interactifs d'aquisition des connaissances et des generateurs de systemes experts, qui puissent fournir a des utilisateurs dans un domaine quelconque des outils adaptes a de multiples formes de traitement de la connaissance. De la notion classique d'ingenierie de la connaissance par des individus, on passe ainsi, via l'interviewing automatique des experts, a l'acces en continue a des outils d'acquisition des connaissances et de realisation d'applications. Nous decrivons le prototype d'un tel systeme avec des exemples d'acquisition des connaissances dans le cadre d'applications precises.
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 1988
This paper presents a conceptual framework for complex systems of computers and people. Distincti... more This paper presents a conceptual framework for complex systems of computers and people. Distinctions between technology and people, and between computers and non-programmed technology, are analyzed. This analysis is used to show how various forms of analogy and abstraction may be used to derive design principles for person-computer interaction. The analysis is extended to include relations between system structure and behavior, and used to develop a hierarchical model of the protocols in person-computer systems.
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1968
The training of human operators for skilled tasks may be regarded as the synthesis of a specific ... more The training of human operators for skilled tasks may be regarded as the synthesis of a specific controller from a general-purpose adaptive device, by influencing its adaption through selection and variation of the learning environment. Selection of environments to maximise the rate of learning is itself a control problem, and an automatic feedback training system is proposed which feeds back information about the operator's performance to control the parameters of his environment. The stability and performance of the trainer have been investigated both theoretically and experimentally, and its utility has been tested in a fairly realistic training situation using as trainees both human operators and computer-simulated learning machines.
Readings in Fuzzy Sets for Intelligent Systems, 1993
Probability theory and fuzzy logic have been presented as quite distinct theoretical foundations ... more Probability theory and fuzzy logic have been presented as quite distinct theoretical foundations for reasoning and decision making in situations of uncertainty. This paper establishes a common basis for both forms of logic of uncertainty in which a basic uncertainty logic is defined in terms of a valuation on a lattice of propositions. The (non-truth-functional) connectives for conjunction, disjunction, equivalence, implication, and negation are defined in terms which closely resemble those of probability theory. Addition of the axiom of the excluded middle tO the basic logic gives a standard probability logic. Alternatively, addition of a requirement for strong truth-functionality (truth-value of connective determined by truth-value of constituents) gives a fuzzy logic with connectives, including implication, as in Lukasiewicz' infinitely valued logic. A common semantics for all such variants is given in terms of binary responses from a population. The type of population, e.g., physical events, people, or neurons, determines whether the model is of physical probability, subjective belief, or human decision-making. The formal theory and the semantics together illustrate clearly the precise similarities and differences between fuzzy and probability logics.
IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 1993
The knowledge acquisition bottleneck impeding the development of expert systems is being alleviat... more The knowledge acquisition bottleneck impeding the development of expert systems is being alleviated by the development of computer-based knowledge acquisition tools. These work directly with experts to elicit knowledge, and structure it appropriately to operate as a decision support tool within an expert system. However, the elicitation of expert knowledge and its effective transfer to a useful knowledge-based system is complex and involves a diversity of activities. This paper illustrates the complete development of a decision support system using knowledge acquisition tools. The example is simple enough to be completely analyzed but exhibits enough real-world characteristics to give significant insights into the processes and problems of knowledge engineering. However, the knowledge engineer in the role of an intermediary between the expert and the knowledge-based systems may create as many problems as he or she solves (Gaines, 1987a). The computer itself is an excellent tool for helping the expert to structure the knowledge domain, and, in recent years research on knowledge acquisition has focused on the development of computer-based acquisition tools (Boose & Gaines, 1988; Gaines & Boose, 1988; Boose, 1989). Many such tools are designed to be used directly by the expert with the minimum of intervention by the knowledge engineer, and emphasize facilities for visualizing the domain concepts. The objective of systems such as PLANET (
The paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive science has wrought many changes in our methodol... more The paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive science has wrought many changes in our methodologies, experimental techniques, and models of human activity. Not the least of these changes has been the legitimation of such hidden variables as mental processes. The cognitive science paradigm has been a swift river carrying us to new horizons but there are now a number of major counter-currents. The positivism of behaviorism is being replaced by the reductionism of neural networks—how do mental processes arise out of physical cellular activity? The ontogenetic bias of both behaviorism and cognitive science is being challenged by ethnomethodological perspectives in which the very notion of an individual is an experimental artifact—how do mental processes arise out of the lifeworld? Meanwhile the promise of greater understanding of the knowledge level is being fulfilled, and operational models of human cognition and action are being generated—how do mental processes relate to the logic...
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 1969
This paper presents a review of recent studies of the human controller both in psychology and in ... more This paper presents a review of recent studies of the human controller both in psychology and in control engineering. Theoretical and technological problems in the study of skilled behaviour are first discussed, and the desirable constraints upon any "model" are outlined. The foundations of linear continuous modelling of the human controller and experimental data on the validity and utility of linear models are then reviewed. The evidence for nonlinear and discontinuous behaviour in the human controller is then outlined, and studies of non-linear models based on modern optimal and sampled-data control theory are then presented.
The problem of deriving the structure of a non-deterministic system from its behaviour is a diffi... more The problem of deriving the structure of a non-deterministic system from its behaviour is a difficult one even when that behaviour is itself well-defined. When the behaviour can be described only in fuzzy terms structural inference may appear virtually impossible. However, a rigorous formulation and solution of the problem for stochastic automata has recently been given [1] and, in this paper, the results are extended to fuzzy stochastic automata and grammars. The results obtained are of interest on a number of counts. (1) They are a further step towards an integrated 'theory of uncertainty'; (2) They give new insights into problems of inductive reasoning and processes of 'precisiation'; (3) They are algorithmic and have been embodied in a computer program that can be applied to the modelling of sequential fuzzy data; (4) They demonstrate that sequential fuzzy data may be modelled naturally in terms of 'possibility' vectors.
International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic, May 25, 1976
This paper is concerned with the foundations of fuzzy reasoning and its relationships with other ... more This paper is concerned with the foundations of fuzzy reasoning and its relationships with other logics of uncertainty. The definitions of fuzzy logics are first examined and the role of fuzzification discussed. It is shown that fuzzification of PC gives a known multivalued logic but with inappropriate semantics of implication and various alternative forms of implication are discussed. In the main section the discussion is broadened to other logics of uncertainty and it is argued that there are close links, both formal and semantic, between fuzzy logic and probability logics. A basic multivalued logic is developed in terms of a truth function over a lattice of propositions that encompasses a wide range of logics of uncertainty. Various degrees of truth functionality are then defined and used to derive specific logics including probability logic and Lukasiewicz infinitely valued logic. Quantification and modal operators over the basic logic are introduced. Finally, a semantics for the basic logic is introduced in terms of a population (of events, or people, or neurons) and the semantic significance of the constraints giving rise to different logics is discussed.
Group-writing, in which a document is jointly produced by a team of writers, occurs widely in sci... more Group-writing, in which a document is jointly produced by a team of writers, occurs widely in science and in industry. There are now a number of products and research tools designed to support group-writing teams. Most, however, required use of non-mainstream word-processing systems, and usually assume that full information is continuously available through a network to mediate and avoid conflicts. This paper reports research on a group-writing tool that deviates as little as possible from conventional word processors and assumes only intermittent network connections for document exchange and conflict resolution.
INFOR: Information Systems and Operational Research, 1988
This paper describes trends in knowledge support environments-integrated interactive knowledge ac... more This paper describes trends in knowledge support environments-integrated interactive knowledge acquisition systems and expert system shells-that can provide a specialist community with tools supporting a wide range of knowledge processes. These systems extrapolate the trend from human knowledge engineering, through automated interviewing of the expert, to continuing on-line access to both knowledge acquisition and application processes. In knowledge support systems the distinctions between expert, knowledge engineer and client roles are deliberately blurred, and a diversity of knowledge processes and changing roles are supported within an entire interacting community. A prototype knowledge support system is described with examples of some ofthe knowledge acquisition and application tools provided. It is suggested that such systems provide a major knowledge-based technology with commercial implications and applications going beyond those currently envisioned for expert systems. RESUME Le present article introduit le concept d'environnements d'aide a la connaissance-des systemes integres comprenant des outils interactifs d'aquisition des connaissances et des generateurs de systemes experts, qui puissent fournir a des utilisateurs dans un domaine quelconque des outils adaptes a de multiples formes de traitement de la connaissance. De la notion classique d'ingenierie de la connaissance par des individus, on passe ainsi, via l'interviewing automatique des experts, a l'acces en continue a des outils d'acquisition des connaissances et de realisation d'applications. Nous decrivons le prototype d'un tel systeme avec des exemples d'acquisition des connaissances dans le cadre d'applications precises.
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 1988
This paper presents a conceptual framework for complex systems of computers and people. Distincti... more This paper presents a conceptual framework for complex systems of computers and people. Distinctions between technology and people, and between computers and non-programmed technology, are analyzed. This analysis is used to show how various forms of analogy and abstraction may be used to derive design principles for person-computer interaction. The analysis is extended to include relations between system structure and behavior, and used to develop a hierarchical model of the protocols in person-computer systems.
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1968
The training of human operators for skilled tasks may be regarded as the synthesis of a specific ... more The training of human operators for skilled tasks may be regarded as the synthesis of a specific controller from a general-purpose adaptive device, by influencing its adaption through selection and variation of the learning environment. Selection of environments to maximise the rate of learning is itself a control problem, and an automatic feedback training system is proposed which feeds back information about the operator's performance to control the parameters of his environment. The stability and performance of the trainer have been investigated both theoretically and experimentally, and its utility has been tested in a fairly realistic training situation using as trainees both human operators and computer-simulated learning machines.
Readings in Fuzzy Sets for Intelligent Systems, 1993
Probability theory and fuzzy logic have been presented as quite distinct theoretical foundations ... more Probability theory and fuzzy logic have been presented as quite distinct theoretical foundations for reasoning and decision making in situations of uncertainty. This paper establishes a common basis for both forms of logic of uncertainty in which a basic uncertainty logic is defined in terms of a valuation on a lattice of propositions. The (non-truth-functional) connectives for conjunction, disjunction, equivalence, implication, and negation are defined in terms which closely resemble those of probability theory. Addition of the axiom of the excluded middle tO the basic logic gives a standard probability logic. Alternatively, addition of a requirement for strong truth-functionality (truth-value of connective determined by truth-value of constituents) gives a fuzzy logic with connectives, including implication, as in Lukasiewicz' infinitely valued logic. A common semantics for all such variants is given in terms of binary responses from a population. The type of population, e.g., physical events, people, or neurons, determines whether the model is of physical probability, subjective belief, or human decision-making. The formal theory and the semantics together illustrate clearly the precise similarities and differences between fuzzy and probability logics.
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Papers by Brian R Gaines