Papers by Elena Castellar
In recent years, a growing number of studies are being conducted into the effectiveness of digita... more In recent years, a growing number of studies are being conducted into the effectiveness of digital game-based learning (DGBL). Despite this growing interest, there is a lack of sound empirical evidence on the effectiveness of DGBL due to different outcome measures for assessing effectiveness, varying methods of data collection and inconclusive or difficult to interpret results. This has resulted in a need for an overarching methodology for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL. The present study took a first step in this direction by mapping current methods used for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL. Results showed that currently, comparison of results across studies and thus looking at effectiveness of DGBL on a more general level is problematic due to diversity in and suboptimal study designs. Variety in study design relates to three issues, namely different activities that are implemented in the control groups, different measures for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL and the use of different statistical techniques for analyzing learning outcomes. Suboptimal study designs are the result of variables confounding study results. Possible confounds that were brought forward in this review are elements that are added to the game as part of the educational intervention (e.g., required reading, debriefing session), instructor influences and practice effects when using the same test pre-and post-intervention. Lastly, incomplete information on the study design impedes replication of studies and thus falsification of study results.
The mammalian medial frontal cortex (MFC) is involved in reward-based decision making. In particu... more The mammalian medial frontal cortex (MFC) is involved in reward-based decision making. In particular, in nonhuman primates this area constructs expectations about upcoming rewards, given an environmental state or a choice planned by the animal. At the same time, in both humans and nonhuman primates, the MFC computes the difference between such predictions and actual environmental outcomes (reward prediction errors). However, there is a paucity of evidence about the time course of MFC-related activity during reward prediction and prediction error in humans. Here we experimentally investigated this by recording the EEG during a reinforcement learning task. Our results support the hypothesis that human MFC codes for reward prediction during the cue period and for prediction error during the outcome period. Further, reward expectation (cue period) was positively correlated with prediction error (outcome period) in error trials but negatively in correct trials, consistent with updating of reward expectation by prediction error. This demonstrates in humans, like in nonhuman primates, a role of the MFC in the rapid updating of reward expectations through prediction errors.
Computers & Education, 2015
Besides entertainment, games have shown to have the potential to impact a broader variety of cogn... more Besides entertainment, games have shown to have the potential to impact a broader variety of cognitive abilities. Research has consistently shown that several aspects in cognition such as visual short-memory, multitasking and spatial skills can be enhanced by game play. In a previous study, it was found that playing Monkey Tales, a game aimed at training arithmetic skills, helped second grade pupils to increase their accuracy in mental calculation as compared to paper exercises. In this follow up study we explore whether traditional methods and game training differ in terms of the cognitive processes that both are able to impact. We incorporated standardized measures of working memory and visuo-motor skills. Additionally, the mathematics game was modified and its contents extracted to allow precise comparison between the gaming and paper exercises condition. Thus each single math exercise, type of question (e.g., multiple choice), quantity and order was perfectly matched in the game training and the traditional training conditions. Gains in arithmetical performance, and self-reported measures of enjoyment were also investigated. We found some evidence suggesting that arithmetic performance enhancement induced by game play and paper exercises differ not only in terms of enjoyment but also of working memory capacity improvements.
Psychophysiology, 2014
Inhibiting actions when they are no longer appropriate is essential for adaptive goal-directed be... more Inhibiting actions when they are no longer appropriate is essential for adaptive goal-directed behavior. In this study, we used high-density EEG and a standard flanker task to explore the spatiotemporal dynamics of cognitive control and inhibitory mechanisms aimed to prevent the commission of errors. By recording hand-related electromyographic activity, we could disentangle successful from unsuccessful inhibition attempts. Our results confirm that (a) the latency of the error-related negativity (ERN; or Ne) component is too late to be associated with these online inhibitory mechanisms, and (b) instead, a frontal slow negative component with an earlier time course was associated with the implementation of online inhibition. These findings are consistent with single-cell recordings in monkeys showing that the supplementary motor area provides cognitive control signals to the primary motor cortex to exert online inhibition and in turn rectify the course of erroneous actions.
NeuroImage, 2014
The mammalian medial frontal cortex (MFC) is involved in reward-based decision making. In particu... more The mammalian medial frontal cortex (MFC) is involved in reward-based decision making. In particular, in nonhuman primates this area constructs expectations about upcoming rewards, given an environmental state or a choice planned by the animal. At the same time, in both humans and nonhuman primates, the MFC computes the difference between such predictions and actual environmental outcomes (reward prediction errors). However, there is a paucity of evidence about the time course of MFC-related activity during reward prediction and prediction error in humans. Here we experimentally investigated this by recording the EEG during a reinforcement learning task. Our results support the hypothesis that human MFC codes for reward prediction during the cue period and for prediction error during the outcome period. Further, reward expectation (cue period) was positively correlated with prediction error (outcome period) in error trials but negatively in correct trials, consistent with updating of reward expectation by prediction error. This demonstrates in humans, like in nonhuman primates, a role of the MFC in the rapid updating of reward expectations through prediction errors.
Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2012
Although some recent research has indicated reduced performance monitoring in patients with schiz... more Although some recent research has indicated reduced performance monitoring in patients with schizophrenia, the literature on this topic shows some remarkable inconsistencies. While most studies suggest diminished error signals following error responses, some studies reported normal post-error slowing, while others reported reduced post-error slowing. Here we review these studies and highlight the most important discrepancies. Furthermore, we argue that overall error rates are a mostly neglected issue that can at least partly explain these discrepancies. It has been reported previously that post-error slowing depends on the error rates. Participants or patients that make more errors are likely to show decreased post-error slowing. Therefore, when a group of patients is compared to a group of controls, it is extremely important to match error rates. For this purpose, we developed a procedure where we matched individuals' error rates. In a task where subjects had to press a respon...
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 2014
The present study investigated the effect of opponent gender on the game experience of female pla... more The present study investigated the effect of opponent gender on the game experience of female players. Concretely, it looked into skill perception and player emotions of women in same gender and cross-gender game competition. We set up a 2 · 2 · 2 (male vs. female opponent · low vs. high competitive women · lost vs. won game) experimental design in which women were instructed to play against a proclaimed male and female competitor. Unknowingly, however, participants played against an AI, which was configured to produce a winning and a losing condition for each opponent by manipulating difficulty. Results indicated that opponent gender only had an effect on perceived stress, which was higher with male opponents. Moreover, players evaluated their own gaming skills as lower and the skills of presumed male opponents as higher when they thought they were playing against men. Importantly, our results also showed that the above described pattern for self-perceived skills and perceived opponent skills was modulated by trait competitiveness with a larger effect size for low competitive women. Overall, this study illustrates that gender dynamics affect the play experience of women in cross-gender gaming competition. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Monitoring of one's own and other's performance during social interactions is crucial to efficien... more Monitoring of one's own and other's performance during social interactions is crucial to efficiently adapt our behavior and to optimize task performance. In the present study we investigated to what extent social factors can modulate behavioral adjustments in performance. For this purpose, participants executed a flanker task and alternated either with a computer program or with a human partner in cooperative and competitive contexts. Modulations in reaction times (RTs) (post-error slowing) and error rates (post-error accuracy) after error observation were analyzed. The results revealed that these behavioral measures were differently affected by the social manipulations. Post-error slowing was modulated by the social context (cooperation vs. competition), while post-error accuracy was sensitive to the nature of the agent involved in the interaction (human vs. computer). The present findings provide evidence that behavioral adaptations in RTs and accuracy following error observation dissociate and are sensitive to different features of the social situation.
A considerable number of studies have recently used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigat... more A considerable number of studies have recently used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the mechanisms underlying error processing. Nevertheless, how these mechanisms are associated with behavioral adjustments following errors remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated how posterror slowing is linked to outcome expectations and error feedback. We used an adaptive four-choice reaction time task to manipulate outcome expectancy. Behaviorally, the results show posterror slowing when errors are unexpected and postcorrect slowing when correct responses are unexpected, indicating that outcome expectancy is crucial for posterror slowing. ERP analyses revealed that the error-related negativity and the feedback-related negativity were not correlated with the behavioral reaction time pattern, whereas the P3 was. The results support the hypothesis that posterror slowing is caused by attentional orienting to unexpected events.
Besides entertainment, games have shown to have the potential to impact a broader variety of cogn... more Besides entertainment, games have shown to have the potential to impact a broader variety of cognitive abilities. Research has consistently shown that several aspects in cognition such as visual short-memory, multitasking and spatial skills can be enhanced by game play. In a previous study, it was found that playing Monkey Tales, a game aimed at training arithmetic skills, helped second grade pupils to increase their accuracy in mental calculation as compared to paper exercises. In this follow up study we explore whether traditional methods and game training differ in terms of the cognitive processes that both are able to impact. We incorporated standardized measures of working memory and visuo-motor skills. Additionally, the mathematics game was modified and its contents extracted to allow precise comparison between the gaming and paper exercises condition. Thus each single math exercise, type of question (e.g., multiple choice), quantity and order was perfectly matched in the game training and the traditional training conditions. Gains in arithmetical performance, and self-reported measures of enjoyment were also investigated. We found some evidence suggesting that arithmetic performance enhancement induced by game play and paper exercises differ not only in terms of enjoyment but also of working memory capacity improvements.
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Papers by Elena Castellar