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Dean Rubine

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Western Sydney University

University of San Diego

Lancaster University

Université de Genève

Heather Douglas

Michigan State University

Kansas State University

University of Regensburg

University of Cologne

Università degli studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia

Patrick Neveling

Bournemouth University

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Papers by Dean Rubine

Acknowledgment to Reviewers

Human-computer Interaction, 1993

Treat - an applicative code generator

Treat is a special purpose language for use in compiler writing. A Treat program translates a gra... more Treat is a special purpose language for use in compiler writing. A Treat program translates a graph into c-trees (the intermediate language of the pcc compiler) and uses the back end of the C compiler to generate code. Treat has been developed specifically for use in an Ada TM compiler. A Treat program consists of applicative transformation rules. Treat's distinctive aspects include triggering transformations during pattern matching, a context mechanism for dynamic binding and assignment in a language with lazy evaluation.

Performance Measurements of the Multimedia Testbed on Real-Time Mach

Multimedia has generated a widespread interest in real purpose operating systems. In addition to ... more Multimedia has generated a widespread interest in real purpose operating systems. In addition to real-time support, muli n ts of data to be moved between devices and processes. "r*e M edi,' bed-at set of applications that suress consistent low-latency response efflciq-t interprmess cwti ication for large blocks of data. The Multimedia Testbed was to ft Mach3lAOpem•h System where perfomance was measured. Experiments were coniucted to conpam v•bt•A hniques for IPC and disk reads. Experience with fixed priority sch ';us-Iev e evtIqr"f and a high-resolution timer are also reported.

Criteria for gesture recognition technologies

Ellis Horwood eBooks, Aug 1, 1992

Programmable Finger-Tracking Instrument Controllers

Computer Music Journal, 1990

Traditionally, the controls of a musical instrument have been mechanically connected to its sound... more

The videoharp: an optical scanning MIDI controller

Contemporary Music Review, 1991

The videoharp is an optical-scanning musical instrument controller which senses multiple-finger g... more The videoharp is an optical-scanning musical instrument controller which senses multiple-finger gestures. It works by detecting the images of a performer's fingertips. From the images, the position and velocity of each fingertip is deduced. This information is translated into MIDI, which is then used to drive synthesizers for sound production. The translation is programmable, enabling the instrument to be played using different articulation techniques. The videoharp may be played with harp-like or keyboard-like gestures, by bowing or drumming motions, or by motions with no analogue in existing instrument technique.

The automatic recognition of gestures

Gesture-based interfaces, in which the user specifies commands by simple freehand drawings, offer... more Gesture-based interfaces, in which the user specifies commands by simple freehand drawings, offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulation interfaces. The ability to specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters with a single intuitive gesture makes gesture-based systems appealing to both novice and experienced users. Unfortunately, the difficulty in building gesture-based systems has prevented such systems from being adequately explored. This dissertation presents work that attempts to alleviate two of the major difficulties: the construction of gesture classifiers and the integration of gestures into directmanipulation interfaces. Three example gesture-based applications were built to demonstrate this work. Gesture-based systems require classifiers to distinguish between the possible gestures a user may enter. In the past, classifiers have often been hand-coded for each new application, making them difficult to build, change, and maintain. This dissertation applies elementary statistical pattern recognition techniques to produce gesture classifiers that are trained by example, greatly simplifying their creation and maintenance. Both single-path gestures (drawn with a mouse or stylus) and multiple-path gestures (consisting of the simultaneous paths of multiple fingers) may be classified. On a 1 MIPS workstation, a 30-class single-path recognizer takes 175 milliseconds to train (once the examples have been entered), and classification takes 9 milliseconds, typically achieving 97% accuracy. A method for classifying a gesture as soon as it is unambiguous is also presented. This dissertation also describes GRANDMA, a toolkit for building gesture-based applications based on Smalltalk's Model/View/Controller paradigm. Using GRANDMA, one associates sets of gesture classes with individual views or entire view classes. A gesture class can be specified at runtime by entering a few examples of the class, typically 15. The semantics of a gesture class can be specified at runtime via a simple programming interface. Besides allowing for easy experimentation with gesture-based interfaces, GRANDMA sports a novel input architecture, capable of supporting multiple input devices and multi-threaded dialogues. The notion of virtual tools and semantic feedback are shown to arise naturally from GRANDMA's approach. i First and foremost, I wish to express my enormous gratitude to my advisor, Roger Dannenberg. Roger was always there when I needed him, never failing to come up with a fresh idea. In retrospect, I should have availed myself more than I did. In his own work, Roger always addresses fundamental problems, and his solutions are always simple and elegant. I try to follow Roger's example in my own work, usually falling far short. Roger, thank you for your insight and your example. Sorry for taking so long. I was incredibly lucky that Brad Myers showed up at CMU while I was working on this research. His seminar on user interface software gave me the knowledge and breadth I needed to approach the problem of software architectures for gesture-based systems. Furthermore, his extensive comments on drafts of this document improved it immensely. Much of the merit in this work is due to him. Thank you, Brad. I am also grateful to Bill Buxton and Dario Giuse, both of whom provided valuable criticism and excellent suggestions during the course of this work. It was Paul McAvinney's influence that led me to my thesis topic; had I never met him, mine would have been a dissertation on compiler technology. Paul is an inexhaustible source of ideas, and this thesis is really the second idea of Paul's that I've spent multiple years pursuing. Exploring Paul's ideas could easily be the life's work of hundreds of researchers. Thanks, Paul, you madman you. My wife Ruth Sample deserves much of the credit for the existence of this dissertation. She supported me immeasurably, fed me and clothed me, made me laugh, motivated me to finish, and lovingly tolerated me the whole time. Honey, I love you. Thanks for everything. I could not have done it with the love and support of my parents, Shirley and Stanley, my brother Scott, my uncle Donald, and my grandma Bertha. For years they encouraged me to be a doctor, and they were not the least bit dismayed when they found out the kind of doctor I wanted to be. They hardly even balked when "just another year" turned out to be six. Thanks, folks, you're the best. I love you all very much.

Integrating Gesture Recognition and Direct Manipulation

USENIX Summer, 1991

A gesture-based interface is one in which the user specifies commands by simple drawings, typical... more A gesture-based interface is one in which the user specifies commands by simple drawings, typically made with a mouse or stylus. A single intuitive gesture can simultaneously specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters, making gestures more powerful than the "clicks" and "drags" of traditional direct-manipulation interfaces. However, a problem with most gesturebased systems is that an entire gesture must be entered and the interaction completed before the system responds. Such a system makes it awkward to use gestures for operations that require continuous feedback. GRANDMA, a tool for building gesture-based applications, overcomes this shortcoming through two methods of integrating gesturing and direct manipulation. First, GRANDMA allows views that respond to gesture and views that respond to clicks and drags (e.g. widgets) to coexist in the same interface. More interestingly, GRANDMA supports a new two-phase interaction technique, in which a gesture collection phase is immediately followed by a manipulation phase. In its simplest form, the phase transition is indicated by keeping the mouse still while continuing to hold the button down. Alternatively, the phase transition can occur once enough of the gesture has been seen to recognize it unambiguously. The latter method, called eager recognition, results in a smooth and natural interaction. In addition to describing how GRANDMA supports the integration of gesture and direct manipulation, this paper presents an algorithm for creating eager recognizers from example gestures. This paper advocates integrating gesture and direct manipulation in a single, two-phase interaction. The intent is to retain the intuitiveness of each interaction style, while combining their power. 1Modes, the "globalvariable"of userinterfaces, ate generally firowned upon.

Performance Measurement of the Multimedia Testbed on Mach 3.0: Experience Writing Real-Time Device Drivers, Servers, and Applications

- * tIm/

Toward Modular, Portable, Real-Time Software

International Computer Music Conference, 1995

W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time softwa... more W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time software. W is driven by practical concerns, including the desire to reuse existing code wherever possible, the limited real-time software support in popular operating systems, and system cost. W provides a simple, efficient, software interconnection system, giving objects a uniform external interface based on setting attributes to values via asynchronous messages. An example shows how W is used to implement real-time computer music programs combining graphics and MIDI.

Multimedia Systems (1993) 1:77-86 Multimedia Systems 9 Springer-Verlag 1993 Tactus: toolkit-level support for synchronized interactive multimedia

Abstract. Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuo... more Abstract. Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time media. The Tactus system consists of two main parts. The first is a server that synchronizes the presentation of multiple media, including audio, video, graphics, and MIDI at a workstation. The second is a set of extensions to a graphical user interface toolkit to help compute and/or control temporal streams of information and deliver them to the Tactus Server. Temporal toolkit objects schedule computation events that generate media. Computation is scheduled in advance of real time to overcome system latency, and timestamps are used to allow accurate synchronization by the server in spite of computation and transmission delays. Tactus supports precomputing branches of media streams to minimize latency in interactive applications.

1 The Resource-Instance Model of Music Representation

Traditional software synthesis systems, such as Music V, utilize an instance model of computation... more Traditional software synthesis systems, such as Music V, utilize an instance model of computation in which each note instantiates a new copy of an instrument. An alternative is the resource model, exemplified by MIDI ‘‘mono mode’’, in which multiple updates can modify a sound continuously, and where multiple notes share a single instrument. We have developed a unified, general model for describing combinations of instances and resources. Our model is a hierarchy in which resource-instances at one level generate output which is combined to form updates to the next level. The model can express complex system configurations in a natural way. 1.

Toward Modular , Portable , Real-Time Software 1

W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time softwa... more W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time software. W is driven by practical concerns, including the desire to reuse existing code wherever possible, the limited real-time software support in popular operating systems, and system cost. W provides a simple, efficient, software interconnection system, giving objects a uniform external interface based on setting attributes to values via asynchronous messages. An example shows how W is used to implement real-time computer music programs combining graphics and MIDI.

The Analysis and Resynthesis of Tones via Spectral Interpolation

Criteria for gesture recognition technologies

Proceedings of the 1984 ACM Symposium on LISP and functional programming - LFP '84, 1984

Arctic is a langu-~ge for tile specification and imp!ementation of real-time control systems. Unl... more Arctic is a langu-~ge for tile specification and imp!ementation of real-time control systems. Unlike more conventional languages for real-time control, which emphasize concurrency, Arctic is a stateless language in which the relationships between system inputs, outputs and intermediate terms are expressed as operation.~ on time-varying functions. Arctic allows discrete events or conditions to invoke and modify responses asynchronously, but because programs have no state, synchronization problems are greatly simplified. Furthermore, Arctic programs are non-sequential, and the timing of system responses is notated explicitly. This eliminates the need for the programmer to be concerned with the execution sequence, which accounts for much of the difficulty in real-time programming.

Low-latency interaction through choice-points, buffering, and cuts in Tactus

Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Multimedia Computing and Systems MMCS-94, 1994

Abstract Multimedia streams usually require prefetching and buffering to ensure steady, glitch-fr... more

Specifying gestures by example

ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, 1991

Gesture-Based interfaces offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulat... more Gesture-Based interfaces offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulation interfaces. The ability to specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters with a single intuitive gesture appeals to both novice and experienced users. Unfortunately, gesture-based interfaces have not been extensively researched, partly because they are difficult to create. This paper describes GRANDMA, a toolkit for rapidly adding gestures to direct manipulation interfaces. The trainable single-stroke gesture recognizer used by GRANDMA is also described.

Tactus: toolkit-level support for synchronized interactive multimedia

Multimedia Systems, 1993

Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time me... more Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time media. The Tactus system consists of two main parts. The first is a server that synchronizes the presentation of multiple media, including audio, video, graphics, and MIDI at a workstation. The second is a set of extensions to a graphical user interface toolkit to help compute and/or control temporal streams of information and deliver them to the Tactus Server. Temporal toolkit objects schedule computation events that generate media. Computation is scheduled in advance of real time to overcome system latency, and timestamps are used to allow accurate synchronization by the server in spite of computation and transmission delays. Tactus supports precomputing branches of media streams to minimize latency in interactive applications.

Arctic: A Functional Language for Real-Time Systems

Computer Music Journal, 1986

In the past, real-time control via digital computer has been achieved more through ad hoc techniq... more

Acknowledgment to Reviewers

Human-computer Interaction, 1993

Treat - an applicative code generator

Treat is a special purpose language for use in compiler writing. A Treat program translates a gra... more Treat is a special purpose language for use in compiler writing. A Treat program translates a graph into c-trees (the intermediate language of the pcc compiler) and uses the back end of the C compiler to generate code. Treat has been developed specifically for use in an Ada TM compiler. A Treat program consists of applicative transformation rules. Treat's distinctive aspects include triggering transformations during pattern matching, a context mechanism for dynamic binding and assignment in a language with lazy evaluation.

Performance Measurements of the Multimedia Testbed on Real-Time Mach

Multimedia has generated a widespread interest in real purpose operating systems. In addition to ... more Multimedia has generated a widespread interest in real purpose operating systems. In addition to real-time support, muli n ts of data to be moved between devices and processes. "r*e M edi,' bed-at set of applications that suress consistent low-latency response efflciq-t interprmess cwti ication for large blocks of data. The Multimedia Testbed was to ft Mach3lAOpem•h System where perfomance was measured. Experiments were coniucted to conpam v•bt•A hniques for IPC and disk reads. Experience with fixed priority sch ';us-Iev e evtIqr"f and a high-resolution timer are also reported.

Criteria for gesture recognition technologies

Ellis Horwood eBooks, Aug 1, 1992

Programmable Finger-Tracking Instrument Controllers

Computer Music Journal, 1990

Traditionally, the controls of a musical instrument have been mechanically connected to its sound... more

The videoharp: an optical scanning MIDI controller

Contemporary Music Review, 1991

The videoharp is an optical-scanning musical instrument controller which senses multiple-finger g... more The videoharp is an optical-scanning musical instrument controller which senses multiple-finger gestures. It works by detecting the images of a performer's fingertips. From the images, the position and velocity of each fingertip is deduced. This information is translated into MIDI, which is then used to drive synthesizers for sound production. The translation is programmable, enabling the instrument to be played using different articulation techniques. The videoharp may be played with harp-like or keyboard-like gestures, by bowing or drumming motions, or by motions with no analogue in existing instrument technique.

The automatic recognition of gestures

Gesture-based interfaces, in which the user specifies commands by simple freehand drawings, offer... more Gesture-based interfaces, in which the user specifies commands by simple freehand drawings, offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulation interfaces. The ability to specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters with a single intuitive gesture makes gesture-based systems appealing to both novice and experienced users. Unfortunately, the difficulty in building gesture-based systems has prevented such systems from being adequately explored. This dissertation presents work that attempts to alleviate two of the major difficulties: the construction of gesture classifiers and the integration of gestures into directmanipulation interfaces. Three example gesture-based applications were built to demonstrate this work. Gesture-based systems require classifiers to distinguish between the possible gestures a user may enter. In the past, classifiers have often been hand-coded for each new application, making them difficult to build, change, and maintain. This dissertation applies elementary statistical pattern recognition techniques to produce gesture classifiers that are trained by example, greatly simplifying their creation and maintenance. Both single-path gestures (drawn with a mouse or stylus) and multiple-path gestures (consisting of the simultaneous paths of multiple fingers) may be classified. On a 1 MIPS workstation, a 30-class single-path recognizer takes 175 milliseconds to train (once the examples have been entered), and classification takes 9 milliseconds, typically achieving 97% accuracy. A method for classifying a gesture as soon as it is unambiguous is also presented. This dissertation also describes GRANDMA, a toolkit for building gesture-based applications based on Smalltalk's Model/View/Controller paradigm. Using GRANDMA, one associates sets of gesture classes with individual views or entire view classes. A gesture class can be specified at runtime by entering a few examples of the class, typically 15. The semantics of a gesture class can be specified at runtime via a simple programming interface. Besides allowing for easy experimentation with gesture-based interfaces, GRANDMA sports a novel input architecture, capable of supporting multiple input devices and multi-threaded dialogues. The notion of virtual tools and semantic feedback are shown to arise naturally from GRANDMA's approach. i First and foremost, I wish to express my enormous gratitude to my advisor, Roger Dannenberg. Roger was always there when I needed him, never failing to come up with a fresh idea. In retrospect, I should have availed myself more than I did. In his own work, Roger always addresses fundamental problems, and his solutions are always simple and elegant. I try to follow Roger's example in my own work, usually falling far short. Roger, thank you for your insight and your example. Sorry for taking so long. I was incredibly lucky that Brad Myers showed up at CMU while I was working on this research. His seminar on user interface software gave me the knowledge and breadth I needed to approach the problem of software architectures for gesture-based systems. Furthermore, his extensive comments on drafts of this document improved it immensely. Much of the merit in this work is due to him. Thank you, Brad. I am also grateful to Bill Buxton and Dario Giuse, both of whom provided valuable criticism and excellent suggestions during the course of this work. It was Paul McAvinney's influence that led me to my thesis topic; had I never met him, mine would have been a dissertation on compiler technology. Paul is an inexhaustible source of ideas, and this thesis is really the second idea of Paul's that I've spent multiple years pursuing. Exploring Paul's ideas could easily be the life's work of hundreds of researchers. Thanks, Paul, you madman you. My wife Ruth Sample deserves much of the credit for the existence of this dissertation. She supported me immeasurably, fed me and clothed me, made me laugh, motivated me to finish, and lovingly tolerated me the whole time. Honey, I love you. Thanks for everything. I could not have done it with the love and support of my parents, Shirley and Stanley, my brother Scott, my uncle Donald, and my grandma Bertha. For years they encouraged me to be a doctor, and they were not the least bit dismayed when they found out the kind of doctor I wanted to be. They hardly even balked when "just another year" turned out to be six. Thanks, folks, you're the best. I love you all very much.

Integrating Gesture Recognition and Direct Manipulation

USENIX Summer, 1991

A gesture-based interface is one in which the user specifies commands by simple drawings, typical... more A gesture-based interface is one in which the user specifies commands by simple drawings, typically made with a mouse or stylus. A single intuitive gesture can simultaneously specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters, making gestures more powerful than the "clicks" and "drags" of traditional direct-manipulation interfaces. However, a problem with most gesturebased systems is that an entire gesture must be entered and the interaction completed before the system responds. Such a system makes it awkward to use gestures for operations that require continuous feedback. GRANDMA, a tool for building gesture-based applications, overcomes this shortcoming through two methods of integrating gesturing and direct manipulation. First, GRANDMA allows views that respond to gesture and views that respond to clicks and drags (e.g. widgets) to coexist in the same interface. More interestingly, GRANDMA supports a new two-phase interaction technique, in which a gesture collection phase is immediately followed by a manipulation phase. In its simplest form, the phase transition is indicated by keeping the mouse still while continuing to hold the button down. Alternatively, the phase transition can occur once enough of the gesture has been seen to recognize it unambiguously. The latter method, called eager recognition, results in a smooth and natural interaction. In addition to describing how GRANDMA supports the integration of gesture and direct manipulation, this paper presents an algorithm for creating eager recognizers from example gestures. This paper advocates integrating gesture and direct manipulation in a single, two-phase interaction. The intent is to retain the intuitiveness of each interaction style, while combining their power. 1Modes, the "globalvariable"of userinterfaces, ate generally firowned upon.

Performance Measurement of the Multimedia Testbed on Mach 3.0: Experience Writing Real-Time Device Drivers, Servers, and Applications

- * tIm/

Toward Modular, Portable, Real-Time Software

International Computer Music Conference, 1995

W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time softwa... more W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time software. W is driven by practical concerns, including the desire to reuse existing code wherever possible, the limited real-time software support in popular operating systems, and system cost. W provides a simple, efficient, software interconnection system, giving objects a uniform external interface based on setting attributes to values via asynchronous messages. An example shows how W is used to implement real-time computer music programs combining graphics and MIDI.

Multimedia Systems (1993) 1:77-86 Multimedia Systems 9 Springer-Verlag 1993 Tactus: toolkit-level support for synchronized interactive multimedia

Abstract. Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuo... more Abstract. Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time media. The Tactus system consists of two main parts. The first is a server that synchronizes the presentation of multiple media, including audio, video, graphics, and MIDI at a workstation. The second is a set of extensions to a graphical user interface toolkit to help compute and/or control temporal streams of information and deliver them to the Tactus Server. Temporal toolkit objects schedule computation events that generate media. Computation is scheduled in advance of real time to overcome system latency, and timestamps are used to allow accurate synchronization by the server in spite of computation and transmission delays. Tactus supports precomputing branches of media streams to minimize latency in interactive applications.

1 The Resource-Instance Model of Music Representation

Traditional software synthesis systems, such as Music V, utilize an instance model of computation... more Traditional software synthesis systems, such as Music V, utilize an instance model of computation in which each note instantiates a new copy of an instrument. An alternative is the resource model, exemplified by MIDI ‘‘mono mode’’, in which multiple updates can modify a sound continuously, and where multiple notes share a single instrument. We have developed a unified, general model for describing combinations of instances and resources. Our model is a hierarchy in which resource-instances at one level generate output which is combined to form updates to the next level. The model can express complex system configurations in a natural way. 1.

Toward Modular , Portable , Real-Time Software 1

W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time softwa... more W is a systematic approach toward the construction of event-driven, interactive, real-time software. W is driven by practical concerns, including the desire to reuse existing code wherever possible, the limited real-time software support in popular operating systems, and system cost. W provides a simple, efficient, software interconnection system, giving objects a uniform external interface based on setting attributes to values via asynchronous messages. An example shows how W is used to implement real-time computer music programs combining graphics and MIDI.

The Analysis and Resynthesis of Tones via Spectral Interpolation

Criteria for gesture recognition technologies

Proceedings of the 1984 ACM Symposium on LISP and functional programming - LFP '84, 1984

Arctic is a langu-~ge for tile specification and imp!ementation of real-time control systems. Unl... more Arctic is a langu-~ge for tile specification and imp!ementation of real-time control systems. Unlike more conventional languages for real-time control, which emphasize concurrency, Arctic is a stateless language in which the relationships between system inputs, outputs and intermediate terms are expressed as operation.~ on time-varying functions. Arctic allows discrete events or conditions to invoke and modify responses asynchronously, but because programs have no state, synchronization problems are greatly simplified. Furthermore, Arctic programs are non-sequential, and the timing of system responses is notated explicitly. This eliminates the need for the programmer to be concerned with the execution sequence, which accounts for much of the difficulty in real-time programming.

Low-latency interaction through choice-points, buffering, and cuts in Tactus

Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Multimedia Computing and Systems MMCS-94, 1994

Abstract Multimedia streams usually require prefetching and buffering to ensure steady, glitch-fr... more

Specifying gestures by example

ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, 1991

Gesture-Based interfaces offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulat... more Gesture-Based interfaces offer an alternative to traditional keyboard, menu, and direct manipulation interfaces. The ability to specify objects, an operation, and additional parameters with a single intuitive gesture appeals to both novice and experienced users. Unfortunately, gesture-based interfaces have not been extensively researched, partly because they are difficult to create. This paper describes GRANDMA, a toolkit for rapidly adding gestures to direct manipulation interfaces. The trainable single-stroke gesture recognizer used by GRANDMA is also described.

Tactus: toolkit-level support for synchronized interactive multimedia

Multimedia Systems, 1993

Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time me... more Tactus addresses problems of synchronizing and controlling various interactive continuous-time media. The Tactus system consists of two main parts. The first is a server that synchronizes the presentation of multiple media, including audio, video, graphics, and MIDI at a workstation. The second is a set of extensions to a graphical user interface toolkit to help compute and/or control temporal streams of information and deliver them to the Tactus Server. Temporal toolkit objects schedule computation events that generate media. Computation is scheduled in advance of real time to overcome system latency, and timestamps are used to allow accurate synchronization by the server in spite of computation and transmission delays. Tactus supports precomputing branches of media streams to minimize latency in interactive applications.

Arctic: A Functional Language for Real-Time Systems

Computer Music Journal, 1986

In the past, real-time control via digital computer has been achieved more through ad hoc techniq... more