Abstract Dispersion-strengthened metal matrix composites are used extensively in the development ... more Abstract Dispersion-strengthened metal matrix composites are used extensively in the development of engineering components, due in part to their high strength-to-weight ratio, high-temperature stability, high creep resistance, high melting point, low density, and corrosion resistance. The addition of a reinforcing phase has led to significant improvements in the mechanical properties of these alloys. However, despite substantial improvements in the properties, the lack of reliable joining methods has restricted their full potential. The differences in physical and metallurgical properties between the intermetallic phase and the matrix prevent the successful application of fusion welding processes, conventionally used for joining monolithic alloys. Therefore, alternative techniques that prevent microstructural changes in the base metal are required. Extensive scientific research has been conducted on joining metal matrix composites reinforced with hard intermetallic compounds. In this study, transient liquid-phase (TLP) diffusion bonding was used to join two pieces of Al 6061 alloy containing 15 wt% of Al2O3 particles. Examination of the joint region was achieved using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The results indicate that the reactions between the reinforcements, the matrix, and the Ni interlayer lead to the formation of numerous intermetallic compounds in the joint region.
The desire to enhance connectivity and communication while simplifying data used to improve and o... more The desire to enhance connectivity and communication while simplifying data used to improve and optimize products and processes has driven many organizations within developed countries to invest heavily in implementing intelligent technologies for manufacturing. These technologies promise to enhance global manufacturing capabilities while sustaining demands by integrating equipment and frameworks in advanced economies for future production systems. On the other hand, many small and medium enterprises (SMEs) within developing countries have shown apprehension and mistrust toward the emerging technologies associated with Industry 4.0. This article provides a comprehensive review of SMEs' readiness within developing countries to implement the novel technologies falling within the Industry 4.0 realm. Such techniques include intelligent manufacturing systems, cyber‐physical systems, and other crucial technological tools for improved connectivity and communication within manufacturing and production systems. Analysis of the literature shows that many SMEs within developing countries are experiencing delays in introducing intelligent manufacturing and digitizing factories due to a lack of knowledge and communication issues. These firms lag in embracing the transformation to equipment and systems that can communicate with future‐oriented technologies and introduce intelligent devices and machines into production processes. This article explores challenges, identifies gaps and suggests the potential solutions to address the readiness of SMEs toward Industry 4.0 in developing countries, through a systematic summary and integrative analysis of the findings from the literature.
He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a me... more He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a member of the Caribbean Academy of Science and former Vice President of the Jamaica Institution of Engineers (JIE). He obtained his PhD from the University of Calgary in Materials Engineering, a B. Eng. with honors and an MPhil from the University of Technology in Mechanical Engineering and an MBA from Patten University in Management. His research has focused on surface and interface engineering and he has authored three books and numerous journal articles and conference proceedings. Contents Preface XIII Section 1 Types and Properties of Aluminium Alloys and Composites Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Structural Aluminum Alloys and Composites by Kavian Omar Cooke Chapter 2 Aluminum Mineral Processing and Metallurgy: Iron-Rich Bauxite and Bayer Red Muds by Yingyi Zhang, Yuanhong Qi and Jiaxin Li Chapter 3 Aluminium and Its Interlinking Properties by K. Velmanirajan and K. Anuradha Chapter 4 Composites and Alloys Based on the Al-Ce System by David Weiss Chapter 5 Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites
Abstract The performance of the modified friction stir clinched and friction stir spot welded joi... more Abstract The performance of the modified friction stir clinched and friction stir spot welded joints of AA5754-O and AA2024-T3 Al alloy was improved by investigating the impact of material flow influencing parameters such as material positioning and tool rotational speed on the microstructure, mechanical and fracture behaviors of the joints. The results reveal that the positioning of a harder material (AA2024-T3) as the upper plate induces higher peak temperatures in the friction stir clinched (500 °C) and friction stir spot welded (475 °C) joints. This positioning favors inter-material mingling, grain coarsening with inherent higher dislocation density and tangles, and improved tensile failure loads in the AA2024-T3/AA5754-O joint than the AA5754-O/AA2024-T3 joint. The formation of partial weld-center defect declines in the AA2024-T3/AA5754-O at low tool rotational speed due to the better local heat build-up and geometric-differential flow effect in comparison with the AA5754-O/AA2024-T3 counterparts. The positioning of harder Al alloy on the top of a soft Al alloy is thus recommended for the improvement of modified friction stir clinched joints.
Abstract In this work, 2219 aluminum alloy and PP-C30S sheets are welded using Threaded-hole Fric... more Abstract In this work, 2219 aluminum alloy and PP-C30S sheets are welded using Threaded-hole Friction Stir Spot Welding (THFSSW) and Probeless Friction Stir Spot Welding (PFSSW). The results revealed that the reaction layers were produced between the aluminum and polymer, irrespective of the process type. However, a larger reaction layer was formed in the THFSSW joint (37µm) as compared to that of the PFSSW joint (24µm), and this consequently in conjunction with the induced mechanical interlocking resulted in the increment of the weld strength from 290 N to 436 N. This implies that various frictional heat and adhesion force was generated during processes.
Abstract This study's objective was to conduct a comparative analysis and characterization of... more Abstract This study's objective was to conduct a comparative analysis and characterization of the microstructural evolution within the weld nugget for joints of AA5083-H112 and AA6061-T6 produced by friction stir spot welding (FSSW) and modified friction stir clinching (MFSC) processes. The mechanical performance of the welded joints was assessed in shear using a single lap joint. The microstructural study identified significant variation in joint microstructure and material flow due to the differences in the tool geometry and methodology used for the welding processes. The results show that the use of modified friction clinching process improves the welded joint by eliminating keyholes/hook defects leading to the formation of high-strength joints. Mechanical characterization of the welded joints indicated that the shear strength increased significantly from 78.69 MPa for the conventional FSSW to 131 MPa for the MFSC process.
He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a me... more He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a member of the Caribbean Academy of Science and former Vice President of the Jamaica Institution of Engineers (JIE). He obtained his PhD from the University of Calgary in Materials Engineering, a B. Eng. with honors and an MPhil from the University of Technology in Mechanical Engineering and an MBA from Patten University in Management. His research has focused on surface and interface engineering and he has authored three books and numerous journal articles and conference proceedings. Contents Preface XIII Section 1 Types and Properties of Aluminium Alloys and Composites Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Structural Aluminum Alloys and Composites by Kavian Omar Cooke Chapter 2 Aluminum Mineral Processing and Metallurgy: Iron-Rich Bauxite and Bayer Red Muds by Yingyi Zhang, Yuanhong Qi and Jiaxin Li Chapter 3 Aluminium and Its Interlinking Properties by K. Velmanirajan and K. Anuradha Chapter 4 Composites and Alloys Based on the Al-Ce System by David Weiss Chapter 5 Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites
Titanium alloys are known for their excellent corrosion resistance; however, low surface hardness... more Titanium alloys are known for their excellent corrosion resistance; however, low surface hardness results in poor wear resistance, which limits its potential application. This study employs a novel two-step process to embed a hard Ni coating containing a mixture of nanosized particles (Al2O3 and TiO2) into the surface of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy using an electric arc produced during the inert tungsten gas welding process. The surface of the sample was evaluated using Vickers Microhardness, Scanning electron microscopy, Energy dispersive spectroscopy and pin-on-plate wear testing. Microstructural analysis showed that impregnating the titanium surface with Ni/(Al2O3 and TiO2) nanomaterials resulted in the formation of a hard martensitic structure to a depth of approximately 2 mm below the surface. The changes observed are driven by modification of the surface chemistry and the presence of nickel, causing grain size reduction, solid solution strengthening and dispersion strengthening of the...
This initial Discussion Paper of the Technology Innovation and Productivity Committee (TIPC) summ... more This initial Discussion Paper of the Technology Innovation and Productivity Committee (TIPC) summarises the first six months of deliberations by this Committee of the Labour Market Reform Commission. The paper presents the top three priority recommendations from the TIPC's five Working Groups viz; Labour Market Information System; Public Sector Efficiency; National Systems of Innovation; Small & Medium Enterprises; and Human Factors in the Workplace. The purpose of the Discussion Paper is to serve as a vehicle for consultations, debate and fine-tuning of these initial recommendations of the TIPC.
Aluminum metal matrix composites (Al-MMCs) find extensive applications in engineering structures ... more Aluminum metal matrix composites (Al-MMCs) find extensive applications in engineering structures requiring good strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. A major limitation to the widespread use of these materials is the unavailability of a suitable joining process that maximizes their potential. Currently, fusion welding techniques are used to join Al-MMCs, however, the high temperature required for fusion welding processes can cause extensive damage to the strengthening particles thereby changing the microstructure and performance of the joints produced. Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding has been identified as a suitable alternative, however, the bonding parameters have yet to be optimized. In this study a Taguchi's fractional-factorial design L9 (34-2) of experiments was used to optimize the process parameters of TLP bonding. The results indicated that an optimal joint strength of 142 MPa can be achieved with the bonding temperature of 620ºC, bonding pressure of 0...
This study explores the diffusion bonding of titanium to magnesium. The microstructural evolution... more This study explores the diffusion bonding of titanium to magnesium. The microstructural evolution and intermetallic compounds formed within the bond region are studied. The microstructure and composition of the bonds were characterized using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The mechanical properties of the bonds were evaluated using a micro-hardness test to determine the hardness variation across the joint region, while shear strength measurements were used to assess the joint strength. The results indicated that solid-state diffusion bonding of Ti6Al-4V and Mg (Az31) lead to the formation of Ti3Al and Ti2Mg3Al18 reaction layers within the joint region. Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the bonds revealed that the bond strength increased with increase bonding time to 116 MPa at a bond time of 1 hr. The joint formation and strength were attributed to dispersion strengthening due to the nucleation of dispersed intermetal...
Magnesium - The Wonder Element for Engineering/Biomedical Applications, Feb 26, 2020
The growing concerns regarding fuel consumption within the aerospace and transportation industrie... more The growing concerns regarding fuel consumption within the aerospace and transportation industries make the development of fuel-efficient systems a significant engineering challenge. Currently, materials are selected because of their abilities to satisfy engineering demands for good thermal conductivity, strength-toweight ratio, and tensile strength. These properties make magnesium an excellent option for various industrial or biomedical applications, given that is the lightest structural metal available. The utilization of magnesium alloys, however, requires suitable welding and joining processes that minimizes microstructural changes while maintaining good joint/bond strength. Currently, magnesium are joined using; mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, brazing, fusion welding processes or diffusion bonding process. Fusion welding is the conventional process used for joining similar metals. However, the application of any welding technique to join dissimilar metals presents additional difficulties, the principal one being; the reaction of the two metals at the joint interface can create intermetallic com pounds that may have unfavorable properties and metallurgical disruptions which deteriorates the joint performance. This chapter investigates the welding and joining technologies that are currently used to join magnesium alloys with emphasis on the development of multi-material structures for applications in the biomedi cal industries. Multi-material structures often provide the most efficient design solution to engineering challenges.
Joining of aluminum and magnesium alloys holds significant potential for the automotive industry ... more Joining of aluminum and magnesium alloys holds significant potential for the automotive industry focused on light-weighting. This paper evaluates the impact of nanoparticle inclusion and interlayer thickness on the properties of welded joints produced by Resistance Spot Welding (RSW). The interlayer was a Ni-coating, containing Al2O3 nanoparticles. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) assessed the weld microstructure, the diameter of the weld nugget, and the variation of composition across the weld nugget. The results indicated that both the diameter of the weld nugget and the penetration depth increased with increasing interlayer thickness. The most significant microstructural changes were observed at the fusion interfaces with the nanoparticle causing grain size reduction and dispersion strengthening. In cases where thick interlayers were used the weld nugget was comprised of large sections of un-melted coating and severe cracking. ...
Abstract Dispersion-strengthened metal matrix composites are used extensively in the development ... more Abstract Dispersion-strengthened metal matrix composites are used extensively in the development of engineering components, due in part to their high strength-to-weight ratio, high-temperature stability, high creep resistance, high melting point, low density, and corrosion resistance. The addition of a reinforcing phase has led to significant improvements in the mechanical properties of these alloys. However, despite substantial improvements in the properties, the lack of reliable joining methods has restricted their full potential. The differences in physical and metallurgical properties between the intermetallic phase and the matrix prevent the successful application of fusion welding processes, conventionally used for joining monolithic alloys. Therefore, alternative techniques that prevent microstructural changes in the base metal are required. Extensive scientific research has been conducted on joining metal matrix composites reinforced with hard intermetallic compounds. In this study, transient liquid-phase (TLP) diffusion bonding was used to join two pieces of Al 6061 alloy containing 15 wt% of Al2O3 particles. Examination of the joint region was achieved using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The results indicate that the reactions between the reinforcements, the matrix, and the Ni interlayer lead to the formation of numerous intermetallic compounds in the joint region.
The desire to enhance connectivity and communication while simplifying data used to improve and o... more The desire to enhance connectivity and communication while simplifying data used to improve and optimize products and processes has driven many organizations within developed countries to invest heavily in implementing intelligent technologies for manufacturing. These technologies promise to enhance global manufacturing capabilities while sustaining demands by integrating equipment and frameworks in advanced economies for future production systems. On the other hand, many small and medium enterprises (SMEs) within developing countries have shown apprehension and mistrust toward the emerging technologies associated with Industry 4.0. This article provides a comprehensive review of SMEs' readiness within developing countries to implement the novel technologies falling within the Industry 4.0 realm. Such techniques include intelligent manufacturing systems, cyber‐physical systems, and other crucial technological tools for improved connectivity and communication within manufacturing and production systems. Analysis of the literature shows that many SMEs within developing countries are experiencing delays in introducing intelligent manufacturing and digitizing factories due to a lack of knowledge and communication issues. These firms lag in embracing the transformation to equipment and systems that can communicate with future‐oriented technologies and introduce intelligent devices and machines into production processes. This article explores challenges, identifies gaps and suggests the potential solutions to address the readiness of SMEs toward Industry 4.0 in developing countries, through a systematic summary and integrative analysis of the findings from the literature.
He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a me... more He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a member of the Caribbean Academy of Science and former Vice President of the Jamaica Institution of Engineers (JIE). He obtained his PhD from the University of Calgary in Materials Engineering, a B. Eng. with honors and an MPhil from the University of Technology in Mechanical Engineering and an MBA from Patten University in Management. His research has focused on surface and interface engineering and he has authored three books and numerous journal articles and conference proceedings. Contents Preface XIII Section 1 Types and Properties of Aluminium Alloys and Composites Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Structural Aluminum Alloys and Composites by Kavian Omar Cooke Chapter 2 Aluminum Mineral Processing and Metallurgy: Iron-Rich Bauxite and Bayer Red Muds by Yingyi Zhang, Yuanhong Qi and Jiaxin Li Chapter 3 Aluminium and Its Interlinking Properties by K. Velmanirajan and K. Anuradha Chapter 4 Composites and Alloys Based on the Al-Ce System by David Weiss Chapter 5 Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites
Abstract The performance of the modified friction stir clinched and friction stir spot welded joi... more Abstract The performance of the modified friction stir clinched and friction stir spot welded joints of AA5754-O and AA2024-T3 Al alloy was improved by investigating the impact of material flow influencing parameters such as material positioning and tool rotational speed on the microstructure, mechanical and fracture behaviors of the joints. The results reveal that the positioning of a harder material (AA2024-T3) as the upper plate induces higher peak temperatures in the friction stir clinched (500 °C) and friction stir spot welded (475 °C) joints. This positioning favors inter-material mingling, grain coarsening with inherent higher dislocation density and tangles, and improved tensile failure loads in the AA2024-T3/AA5754-O joint than the AA5754-O/AA2024-T3 joint. The formation of partial weld-center defect declines in the AA2024-T3/AA5754-O at low tool rotational speed due to the better local heat build-up and geometric-differential flow effect in comparison with the AA5754-O/AA2024-T3 counterparts. The positioning of harder Al alloy on the top of a soft Al alloy is thus recommended for the improvement of modified friction stir clinched joints.
Abstract In this work, 2219 aluminum alloy and PP-C30S sheets are welded using Threaded-hole Fric... more Abstract In this work, 2219 aluminum alloy and PP-C30S sheets are welded using Threaded-hole Friction Stir Spot Welding (THFSSW) and Probeless Friction Stir Spot Welding (PFSSW). The results revealed that the reaction layers were produced between the aluminum and polymer, irrespective of the process type. However, a larger reaction layer was formed in the THFSSW joint (37µm) as compared to that of the PFSSW joint (24µm), and this consequently in conjunction with the induced mechanical interlocking resulted in the increment of the weld strength from 290 N to 436 N. This implies that various frictional heat and adhesion force was generated during processes.
Abstract This study's objective was to conduct a comparative analysis and characterization of... more Abstract This study's objective was to conduct a comparative analysis and characterization of the microstructural evolution within the weld nugget for joints of AA5083-H112 and AA6061-T6 produced by friction stir spot welding (FSSW) and modified friction stir clinching (MFSC) processes. The mechanical performance of the welded joints was assessed in shear using a single lap joint. The microstructural study identified significant variation in joint microstructure and material flow due to the differences in the tool geometry and methodology used for the welding processes. The results show that the use of modified friction clinching process improves the welded joint by eliminating keyholes/hook defects leading to the formation of high-strength joints. Mechanical characterization of the welded joints indicated that the shear strength increased significantly from 78.69 MPa for the conventional FSSW to 131 MPa for the MFSC process.
He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a me... more He is a Chartered Engineer, a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), a member of the Caribbean Academy of Science and former Vice President of the Jamaica Institution of Engineers (JIE). He obtained his PhD from the University of Calgary in Materials Engineering, a B. Eng. with honors and an MPhil from the University of Technology in Mechanical Engineering and an MBA from Patten University in Management. His research has focused on surface and interface engineering and he has authored three books and numerous journal articles and conference proceedings. Contents Preface XIII Section 1 Types and Properties of Aluminium Alloys and Composites Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Structural Aluminum Alloys and Composites by Kavian Omar Cooke Chapter 2 Aluminum Mineral Processing and Metallurgy: Iron-Rich Bauxite and Bayer Red Muds by Yingyi Zhang, Yuanhong Qi and Jiaxin Li Chapter 3 Aluminium and Its Interlinking Properties by K. Velmanirajan and K. Anuradha Chapter 4 Composites and Alloys Based on the Al-Ce System by David Weiss Chapter 5 Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites
Titanium alloys are known for their excellent corrosion resistance; however, low surface hardness... more Titanium alloys are known for their excellent corrosion resistance; however, low surface hardness results in poor wear resistance, which limits its potential application. This study employs a novel two-step process to embed a hard Ni coating containing a mixture of nanosized particles (Al2O3 and TiO2) into the surface of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy using an electric arc produced during the inert tungsten gas welding process. The surface of the sample was evaluated using Vickers Microhardness, Scanning electron microscopy, Energy dispersive spectroscopy and pin-on-plate wear testing. Microstructural analysis showed that impregnating the titanium surface with Ni/(Al2O3 and TiO2) nanomaterials resulted in the formation of a hard martensitic structure to a depth of approximately 2 mm below the surface. The changes observed are driven by modification of the surface chemistry and the presence of nickel, causing grain size reduction, solid solution strengthening and dispersion strengthening of the...
This initial Discussion Paper of the Technology Innovation and Productivity Committee (TIPC) summ... more This initial Discussion Paper of the Technology Innovation and Productivity Committee (TIPC) summarises the first six months of deliberations by this Committee of the Labour Market Reform Commission. The paper presents the top three priority recommendations from the TIPC's five Working Groups viz; Labour Market Information System; Public Sector Efficiency; National Systems of Innovation; Small & Medium Enterprises; and Human Factors in the Workplace. The purpose of the Discussion Paper is to serve as a vehicle for consultations, debate and fine-tuning of these initial recommendations of the TIPC.
Aluminum metal matrix composites (Al-MMCs) find extensive applications in engineering structures ... more Aluminum metal matrix composites (Al-MMCs) find extensive applications in engineering structures requiring good strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. A major limitation to the widespread use of these materials is the unavailability of a suitable joining process that maximizes their potential. Currently, fusion welding techniques are used to join Al-MMCs, however, the high temperature required for fusion welding processes can cause extensive damage to the strengthening particles thereby changing the microstructure and performance of the joints produced. Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding has been identified as a suitable alternative, however, the bonding parameters have yet to be optimized. In this study a Taguchi's fractional-factorial design L9 (34-2) of experiments was used to optimize the process parameters of TLP bonding. The results indicated that an optimal joint strength of 142 MPa can be achieved with the bonding temperature of 620ºC, bonding pressure of 0...
This study explores the diffusion bonding of titanium to magnesium. The microstructural evolution... more This study explores the diffusion bonding of titanium to magnesium. The microstructural evolution and intermetallic compounds formed within the bond region are studied. The microstructure and composition of the bonds were characterized using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The mechanical properties of the bonds were evaluated using a micro-hardness test to determine the hardness variation across the joint region, while shear strength measurements were used to assess the joint strength. The results indicated that solid-state diffusion bonding of Ti6Al-4V and Mg (Az31) lead to the formation of Ti3Al and Ti2Mg3Al18 reaction layers within the joint region. Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the bonds revealed that the bond strength increased with increase bonding time to 116 MPa at a bond time of 1 hr. The joint formation and strength were attributed to dispersion strengthening due to the nucleation of dispersed intermetal...
Magnesium - The Wonder Element for Engineering/Biomedical Applications, Feb 26, 2020
The growing concerns regarding fuel consumption within the aerospace and transportation industrie... more The growing concerns regarding fuel consumption within the aerospace and transportation industries make the development of fuel-efficient systems a significant engineering challenge. Currently, materials are selected because of their abilities to satisfy engineering demands for good thermal conductivity, strength-toweight ratio, and tensile strength. These properties make magnesium an excellent option for various industrial or biomedical applications, given that is the lightest structural metal available. The utilization of magnesium alloys, however, requires suitable welding and joining processes that minimizes microstructural changes while maintaining good joint/bond strength. Currently, magnesium are joined using; mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, brazing, fusion welding processes or diffusion bonding process. Fusion welding is the conventional process used for joining similar metals. However, the application of any welding technique to join dissimilar metals presents additional difficulties, the principal one being; the reaction of the two metals at the joint interface can create intermetallic com pounds that may have unfavorable properties and metallurgical disruptions which deteriorates the joint performance. This chapter investigates the welding and joining technologies that are currently used to join magnesium alloys with emphasis on the development of multi-material structures for applications in the biomedi cal industries. Multi-material structures often provide the most efficient design solution to engineering challenges.
Joining of aluminum and magnesium alloys holds significant potential for the automotive industry ... more Joining of aluminum and magnesium alloys holds significant potential for the automotive industry focused on light-weighting. This paper evaluates the impact of nanoparticle inclusion and interlayer thickness on the properties of welded joints produced by Resistance Spot Welding (RSW). The interlayer was a Ni-coating, containing Al2O3 nanoparticles. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) assessed the weld microstructure, the diameter of the weld nugget, and the variation of composition across the weld nugget. The results indicated that both the diameter of the weld nugget and the penetration depth increased with increasing interlayer thickness. The most significant microstructural changes were observed at the fusion interfaces with the nanoparticle causing grain size reduction and dispersion strengthening. In cases where thick interlayers were used the weld nugget was comprised of large sections of un-melted coating and severe cracking. ...
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