In the 21st century, an era of globalization, people are crossing borders at an unprecedented rat... more In the 21st century, an era of globalization, people are crossing borders at an unprecedented rate. Around 250 million people are currently residing outside their country of birth (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2015), and more than 55 million are sojourners or short-term travelers, such as expatriates and international students (Finaccord, 2014; ICEF Monitor, 2015). These global trends point to an urgent need to understand the dynamics of intercultural contact and the factors that facilitate or impede success and adaptation. Multicultural experiences can bring benefits to individuals, groups, and organizations, enhancing self-esteem,
Normative multiculturalism refers to individuals' perceptions about the extent to which interacti... more Normative multiculturalism refers to individuals' perceptions about the extent to which interactions between culturally diverse groups, multicultural policies and practices, and diversity-valuing ideologies are common or normative in one's society. In this paper, we explore these dimensions of normative multiculturalism as predictors of social connectedness (trust) and psychological well-being (flourishing) in two socio-political contexts: The United States and the United Kingdom. Two hundred and eighty-four residents (143 Hispanics and 141 non-Hispanic Whites) in the United States and 375 (125 British Indians and 250 British Whites) participated in the research. The results revealed that normative Multicultural Ideology predicted greater trust and normative Multicultural Contact predicted greater flourishing in both countries; however, minority-majority group status moderated the effects in different ways in the two contexts. The positive effects of normative multicultural ideology were confined to Hispanics in the United States, while in the United Kingdom it held for both groups with the effects being stronger for Whites. In addition, the positive effects of normative multicultural contact on flourishing was stronger for Indians than for Whites in the United Kingdom. The findings are discussed in relation to socio-political context and group characteristics along with limitations of the research.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1985
... as 'liberal and tolerant', because,... more ... as 'liberal and tolerant', because, unlike the situation in Indonesia or Thailand, Malaysia has not ... Despite the geographical proximity of other countries which have experienced bitter inter-ethnic tension and violence, communal relations have remained re-latively harmonious. ...
The research investigated the stereotypic perceptions of older adults in Singaporean society. One... more The research investigated the stereotypic perceptions of older adults in Singaporean society. One hundred and two university students completed the 300 item Adjective Check List (ACL) differentially assigning traits to young or old adults. Item level analysis of ACL data demonstrated a depiction of old adults as intellectually impaired, cantankerous, and conservative but also serene, nurturant and responsible. The affective meaning analysis indicated that the stereotypes of old adults were characterized as less potent and less active than the stereotypes of young adults but that there were no significant differences in the favorability indices. Singaporean data were compared with research on stereotypes in India and the United States and discussed in terms of crosscultural theories of modernization and aging.
As part of a cross-cultural project, 100 Malaysian university students completed Gough and Heilbr... more As part of a cross-cultural project, 100 Malaysian university students completed Gough and Heilbrun's (1965) Adjective Check List to assess existing stereotypes of males and females. After the construction of 100 item stereotypes for males and females the data were analyzed in terms of Murray's (1938) personality theory of psychological needs. Analysis revealed that the male “personality” reflected high needs
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2007
A naturalistic field experiment examined the responses of recruitment agencies to unsolicited res... more A naturalistic field experiment examined the responses of recruitment agencies to unsolicited resumes from native-born (Brian Miller) and immigrant (Hau-Jie Li) candidates in the technology sector in New Zealand. The findings revealed that immigrant candidates with equivalent educational and occupational experience were significantly less likely to be contacted for further information and significantly more likely to have contact terminated than native-born candidates. The findings are considered in relation to the gap between immigration policy and labor market practices.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2000
The research adopted an intrapersonal perspective on identity and acculturation and explored the ... more The research adopted an intrapersonal perspective on identity and acculturation and explored the prediction of identity conflict in Chinese sojourners in Singapore. One hundred and six sojourners from the People's Republic of China completed a questionnaire which assessed tolerance of ambiguity, attributional complexity, host and co-national identification, quality and quantity of host and co-national contact, perceived discrimination, cultural distance, length of residence abroad and identity conflict. Step-wise regression analysis revealed that greater tolerance of ambiguity, attributional complexity, and co-national identification and less perceived discrimination and contact with host nationals predicted lower levels of identity conflict. These variables combined to account for 35% of the variance in the outcome measure. Results are discussed in terms of competing models of identity, acculturation and cross-cultural adaptation.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2010
This special issue has its roots in a sweltering seminar room at Jacobs University in Bremen, Ger... more This special issue has its roots in a sweltering seminar room at Jacobs University in Bremen, Germany. It was there, at the 2008 XIX International Congress of the International Association for Cross-cultural Psychology (IACCP), that Valery Chirkov and Dan Landis convened a lively round table discussion entitled ''Is there a crisis of acculturation psychology and what can we do about it?'' Since then, Chirkov has edited a controversial issue on Critical Acculturation Psychology in the International Journal of Intercultural Relations, which drew on and advanced many of the ideas that arose from the Bremen discussions. But it was one particular theme that emerged at that time that specifically attracted my attention-the notion that acculturation research was rarely applied and did little to assist or support acculturating individuals and communities. Or as succinctly stated by Chirkov (2009a, p. 89) in his subsequent publication ''. . .modern acculturation psychology has become almost useless for the immigrant communities and for the immigrant-assisting organizations. . .''. I was not convinced. I knew that our Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand was conducting applied research with acculturating communities, and I was aware that there were other exciting initiatives around the globe. At the time I suggested that research was being undertaken, but that it was unlikely to be found in IACCP's Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. The type of work Chirkov was searching for would lay primarily, though not exclusively, at the cross-roads of cross-cultural and community psychology and action-oriented research. As I was reflecting on this state of affairs at the Bremen round table, I heard Cigdem Kagitcibasi express a similar disappointment with regard to European acculturation research. She said that she had brought up the issue in another symposium of the Congress, and it had caused some controversy. As she spoke passionately about the importance of returning our research to immigrant communities in need, thoughts of a special issue began to stir. After consultation with Dan Landis, I invited Cigdem to join me to edit an IJIR issue on Acculturation Theory, Research and Application: Working with and for Communities.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2008
The paper pays tribute to the work of John Berry and the organizational frameworks that he has pr... more The paper pays tribute to the work of John Berry and the organizational frameworks that he has proposed for research on identity, acculturation and intercultural relations. It also suggests that over-reliance on these frameworks may constrain developments in the field. Accordingly, three new lines of research that illustrate ways in which we might ''think outside the Berry boxes'' are introduced. The first develops theory and research on ethno-cultural identity conflict as a complement to studies of integration, separation, assimilation and marginalization. The second proposes a new construct, the motivation for ethno-cultural continuity, and examines it in the context of long-term acculturation, providing a new perspective on the relationship between individual and grouplevel factors in the acculturation process. The third extends the classification of acculturating groups, incorporating tourists and examining intercultural relations between tourists and hosts.
This study investigates the relative importance of human values at four levels: (a) global, (b) n... more This study investigates the relative importance of human values at four levels: (a) global, (b) national, (c) family, and (d) individual, among university students from four countries – the United States (137 females, 78 males, one unspecified), the People’s Republic of China (66 females, 170 males, one unspecified), Taiwan (156 females, 101 males), and Singapore (148 females, 119 males). Students rated the importance of passing on the 68 items in the Child Socialization Value Survey to their children or to future generations. Principal Components Analysis was performed on the pooled sample of student responses and revealed a five‐factor solution described by: universalism, family, nationalism, prestige, and autonomy. This study demonstrates that the values endorsed by samples of Chinese across different geopolitical backgrounds are not consistent.
... model) cover the research dealing with intergroup attributions attempt to answer the question... more ... model) cover the research dealing with intergroup attributions attempt to answer the question of whether the underlying cognitive dimensions in attributional schemata are universal examine some of the major issues and problems confronting cross-cultural attribution research ...
Although interculturdl contact is at the heart of the acculturation experience, the effects of th... more Although interculturdl contact is at the heart of the acculturation experience, the effects of this contact on sojourners' social and psychological adaptation remain a subject of debate. This is due in part to varying emphases on the affective, behavioral and cognitive components of acculturation (Ward, 2001a). It is further compounded by competing theoretical approaches that frame intercultural encounters as a source of uncertainty and anxiety (Gudykunst, 1985), on one hand, and as an avenue of culture learning and social support, on the other (Berry, 1997; Bochner, 1982). Those who have highlighted the benefits of intercultural contact in sojourner research have examined both the quality and quantity of intercultural interactions as predictors of adaptation. Research has shown that having local friends is associated with decrements in psychological distress (Redmond & Bunyi, 1993). Frequent social comacc with hose nationals relates co general adjustment and sojourn satisfaccion (Pruitt, 1978; Torbiorn, 1982). le has also been associaced with communication competence, fewer academic problems, and fewer social difficulties in scudent sojourners (Pruitt, 1978; Ward & Kennedy, 1993a; Ward & Searle, 1991; Zimmerman, 1995). These positive findings, however, are by no means uniform; !here are also inscances where more frequent contact with host nationals is associaced with negative psychological outcomes for sojourners, including depression, mood discurbance and idencicy conflicc (Leong & Ward, 2000; Ward & Kennedy, 1992, 1993a). Mixed findings such as these should not be surprising in themselves. The concact hypothesis tells us that concact per se is insufficient co enhance intergroup perceptions and that specific features of the concact, including the stacus of its participants and the purpose and the outcomes of the
Social role theory posits that binary gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in les... more Social role theory posits that binary gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in less egalitarian countries, reflecting these countries’ more pronounced sex-based power divisions. Conversely, evolutionary and self-construal theorists suggest that gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in more egalitarian countries, reflecting the greater autonomy support and flexible self-construction processes present in these countries. Using data from 62 countries ( N = 28,640), we examine binary gender gaps in agentic and communal self-views as a function of country-level objective gender equality (the Global Gender Gap Index) and subjective distributions of social power (the Power Distance Index). Findings show that in more egalitarian countries, gender gaps in agency are smaller and gender gaps in communality are larger. These patterns are driven primarily by cross-country differences in men’s self-views and by the Power Distance Index (PDI) more robustly than the Gl...
Returning home after a study abroad experience can be challenging. In the current research, we ex... more Returning home after a study abroad experience can be challenging. In the current research, we examine the discrepancy between adaptation expectations and experience in a longitudinal sojourner study (N = 1319; M age = 17 years; 70% female). Returnees adaptation expectations were assessed prior to returning home, followed by post return measures of adaptation experiences and general well-being. Overall, returnees reported higher levels of re-entry adaptation than anticipated. According to the accuracy hypothesis, unmet expectations will be associated with lower well-being. In contrast, the directional hypothesis suggests that unmet expectations will negatively impact on wellbeing, but only if the expectation is undermet. Wellbeing on return was regressed on pre-travel adaptation expectations and adaptation experience on re-entry. Polynomial regression and Response Surface Analyses were conducted for two outcome variables (stress and satisfaction with life), two types of adaptation (psychological and sociocultural), and at different time points (approximately 2 weeks and 6 months after return). Results consistently show that larger discrepancies were associated with lower well-being for negative mismatches (when expectations were undermet). For positive mismatches, if adaptation was better than expected, well-being was higher. Congruence between
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2021
This research examines the association between cross-cultural travelers' well-being and the discr... more This research examines the association between cross-cultural travelers' well-being and the discrepancy between expected and experienced adaptation, in a longitudinal study of intercultural exchange students (N = 1762; M age = 17 years; 70 % female). Specifically, two competing hypotheses were tested. Whereas the accuracy hypothesis suggests that unmet expectations lead to poorer outcomes, the directional hypothesis proposes that the outcome of unmet expectations will depend on whether expectations are overmet or undermet. Both sojourners' adaptation expectations (pre-travel) and adaptation experiences (during the sojourn) were measured alongside general well-being. Controlling for baseline, well-being during the sojourn was regressed on the direction (undermet or overmet) and the magnitude (extent of discrepancy) of the adaptation expectation-experience discrepancies. These analyses were conducted across time (at entry or 5 months into the sojourn), different types of adaptation (psychological and sociocultural adaptation), and different measures of well-being (stress and satisfaction with life). Across analyses, results indicate that the direction of mismatch appears to matter little for small mismatches. However, for larger mismatches a positive effect emerged for sojourner well-being when the experience was better than expected, but a negative effect when the experience was worse than expected. Overall, the results support a directional hypothesis. My life here is kinda unexpected, a lot of surprises but I love it so much.-Indonesian sojourner in the USA It's pretty sad because I expected so many things from this year and now I see that they aren't happening.-Finnish sojourner in France I suppose I made one big mistake before I came here. I came with expectations.-American sojourner in Italy
Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is har... more Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is hard to earn, easy to lose, and proven via public action. Here, we present cross-cultural data on a brief measure of precarious manhood beliefs (the Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale [PMB]) that covaries meaningfully with other cross-culturally validated gender ideologies and with country-level indices of gender equality and human development. Using data from university samples in 62 countries across 13 world regions ( N = 33,417), we demonstrate: (1) the psychometric isomorphism of the PMB (i.e., its comparability in meaning and statistical properties across the individual and country levels); (2) the PMB’s distinctness from, and associations with, ambivalent sexism and ambivalence toward men; and (3) associations of the PMB with nation-level gender equality and human development. Findings are discussed in terms of their statistical and theoretical implications for understanding widely-held...
Cross-cultural transitions are challenging and often have detrimental consequences for psychologi... more Cross-cultural transitions are challenging and often have detrimental consequences for psychological well-being. This is particularly true for international students at tertiary institutions who are not only transitioning between school and higher education, but also between vastly different educational systems. This study tests a predictive model of psychological adaptation with international students whereby host national connectedness mediates the effects of personal resources and contextual factors on adaptive outcomes. A sample (N = 1527) of international tertiary students in New Zealand completed a survey that measured self-reported English language proficiency, perceived cultural distance, perceived cultural inclusiveness in the classroom, host national connectedness (defined by frequency of contact, number of friends, social support, and general belongingness), and positive (life satisfaction) and negative (psychological symptoms) indicators of psychological adaptation. Path analysis indicated that host national connectedness fully mediated the effects of English language proficiency on psychological symptoms and partially mediated the effects of language proficiency, cultural distance and cultural inclusion in the classroom on life satisfaction and psychological symptoms. The findings highlight the importance of international students' relationships with host nationals, and the results are discussed in relation to strategies that could enhance student-host connectedness during crosscultural transitions.
Prejudiced attitudes and political nationalism vary widely around the world, but there has been l... more Prejudiced attitudes and political nationalism vary widely around the world, but there has been little research on what predicts this variation. Here we examine the ecological and cultural factors underlying the worldwide distribution of prejudice. We suggest that cultures grow more prejudiced when they tighten cultural norms in response to destabilizing ecological threats. A set of seven archival analyses, surveys, and experiments (∑N = 3,986,402) find that nations, American states, and pre-industrial societies with tighter cultural norms show the most prejudice based on skin color, religion, nationality, and sexuality, and that tightness predicts why prejudice is often highest in areas of the world with histories of ecological threat. People's support for cultural tightness also mediates the link between perceived ecological threat and intentions to vote for nationalist politicians. Results replicate when controlling for economic development, inequality, conservatism, residential mobility, and shared cultural heritage. These findings offer a cultural evolutionary perspective on prejudice, with implications for immigration, intercultural conflict, and radicalization.
The investigation was undertaken to examine in a broad-based exploratory fashion four of the most... more The investigation was undertaken to examine in a broad-based exploratory fashion four of the most salient factors in contemporary sex role research (differential evaluation of the sexes, the motive to avoid success, psychological androgyny, and attitudes toward women* s roles in society) in an effort to achieve synthesis in a comprehensive theory of sex role ideology. The theory advanced here rests on the supposition that pervading sex role stereotypes are uncritically accepted by males and females and readily incorporated into emergent self concepts. While the assimilation of this artificial dichotomy of masculinity and femininity is restrictive to both sexes, the problem is more acute for the female due to the underlying notion of inferiority and adversely affects attitudinal, motivational and personality dispositions. The theory is corroborated by evidence which demonstrates he prevalence of stereotypic views in men and women varied in age, marital status, religion, educational and occupational history and its high correlation with unitarily stereotypic masculine or feminine self concepts, respectively. Dichotomized, sex appropriate self concepts are also associated with inflexible, conservative attitudes towards women 1 s roles and behavioral potentials in society. Finally, the notion of feminine inferiority is illustrated by the devaluation of women in areas of professional expertise and motivational ambivalence and conflict concerning female achievement. In conclusion, sex role research is criticized on its neglect of critical synthesis of empirical data,and problems with theoretical validation are discussed in terms of phenomenology and methodological variation.
In the 21st century, an era of globalization, people are crossing borders at an unprecedented rat... more In the 21st century, an era of globalization, people are crossing borders at an unprecedented rate. Around 250 million people are currently residing outside their country of birth (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2015), and more than 55 million are sojourners or short-term travelers, such as expatriates and international students (Finaccord, 2014; ICEF Monitor, 2015). These global trends point to an urgent need to understand the dynamics of intercultural contact and the factors that facilitate or impede success and adaptation. Multicultural experiences can bring benefits to individuals, groups, and organizations, enhancing self-esteem,
Normative multiculturalism refers to individuals' perceptions about the extent to which interacti... more Normative multiculturalism refers to individuals' perceptions about the extent to which interactions between culturally diverse groups, multicultural policies and practices, and diversity-valuing ideologies are common or normative in one's society. In this paper, we explore these dimensions of normative multiculturalism as predictors of social connectedness (trust) and psychological well-being (flourishing) in two socio-political contexts: The United States and the United Kingdom. Two hundred and eighty-four residents (143 Hispanics and 141 non-Hispanic Whites) in the United States and 375 (125 British Indians and 250 British Whites) participated in the research. The results revealed that normative Multicultural Ideology predicted greater trust and normative Multicultural Contact predicted greater flourishing in both countries; however, minority-majority group status moderated the effects in different ways in the two contexts. The positive effects of normative multicultural ideology were confined to Hispanics in the United States, while in the United Kingdom it held for both groups with the effects being stronger for Whites. In addition, the positive effects of normative multicultural contact on flourishing was stronger for Indians than for Whites in the United Kingdom. The findings are discussed in relation to socio-political context and group characteristics along with limitations of the research.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1985
... as 'liberal and tolerant', because,... more ... as 'liberal and tolerant', because, unlike the situation in Indonesia or Thailand, Malaysia has not ... Despite the geographical proximity of other countries which have experienced bitter inter-ethnic tension and violence, communal relations have remained re-latively harmonious. ...
The research investigated the stereotypic perceptions of older adults in Singaporean society. One... more The research investigated the stereotypic perceptions of older adults in Singaporean society. One hundred and two university students completed the 300 item Adjective Check List (ACL) differentially assigning traits to young or old adults. Item level analysis of ACL data demonstrated a depiction of old adults as intellectually impaired, cantankerous, and conservative but also serene, nurturant and responsible. The affective meaning analysis indicated that the stereotypes of old adults were characterized as less potent and less active than the stereotypes of young adults but that there were no significant differences in the favorability indices. Singaporean data were compared with research on stereotypes in India and the United States and discussed in terms of crosscultural theories of modernization and aging.
As part of a cross-cultural project, 100 Malaysian university students completed Gough and Heilbr... more As part of a cross-cultural project, 100 Malaysian university students completed Gough and Heilbrun's (1965) Adjective Check List to assess existing stereotypes of males and females. After the construction of 100 item stereotypes for males and females the data were analyzed in terms of Murray's (1938) personality theory of psychological needs. Analysis revealed that the male “personality” reflected high needs
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2007
A naturalistic field experiment examined the responses of recruitment agencies to unsolicited res... more A naturalistic field experiment examined the responses of recruitment agencies to unsolicited resumes from native-born (Brian Miller) and immigrant (Hau-Jie Li) candidates in the technology sector in New Zealand. The findings revealed that immigrant candidates with equivalent educational and occupational experience were significantly less likely to be contacted for further information and significantly more likely to have contact terminated than native-born candidates. The findings are considered in relation to the gap between immigration policy and labor market practices.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2000
The research adopted an intrapersonal perspective on identity and acculturation and explored the ... more The research adopted an intrapersonal perspective on identity and acculturation and explored the prediction of identity conflict in Chinese sojourners in Singapore. One hundred and six sojourners from the People's Republic of China completed a questionnaire which assessed tolerance of ambiguity, attributional complexity, host and co-national identification, quality and quantity of host and co-national contact, perceived discrimination, cultural distance, length of residence abroad and identity conflict. Step-wise regression analysis revealed that greater tolerance of ambiguity, attributional complexity, and co-national identification and less perceived discrimination and contact with host nationals predicted lower levels of identity conflict. These variables combined to account for 35% of the variance in the outcome measure. Results are discussed in terms of competing models of identity, acculturation and cross-cultural adaptation.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2010
This special issue has its roots in a sweltering seminar room at Jacobs University in Bremen, Ger... more This special issue has its roots in a sweltering seminar room at Jacobs University in Bremen, Germany. It was there, at the 2008 XIX International Congress of the International Association for Cross-cultural Psychology (IACCP), that Valery Chirkov and Dan Landis convened a lively round table discussion entitled ''Is there a crisis of acculturation psychology and what can we do about it?'' Since then, Chirkov has edited a controversial issue on Critical Acculturation Psychology in the International Journal of Intercultural Relations, which drew on and advanced many of the ideas that arose from the Bremen discussions. But it was one particular theme that emerged at that time that specifically attracted my attention-the notion that acculturation research was rarely applied and did little to assist or support acculturating individuals and communities. Or as succinctly stated by Chirkov (2009a, p. 89) in his subsequent publication ''. . .modern acculturation psychology has become almost useless for the immigrant communities and for the immigrant-assisting organizations. . .''. I was not convinced. I knew that our Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand was conducting applied research with acculturating communities, and I was aware that there were other exciting initiatives around the globe. At the time I suggested that research was being undertaken, but that it was unlikely to be found in IACCP's Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. The type of work Chirkov was searching for would lay primarily, though not exclusively, at the cross-roads of cross-cultural and community psychology and action-oriented research. As I was reflecting on this state of affairs at the Bremen round table, I heard Cigdem Kagitcibasi express a similar disappointment with regard to European acculturation research. She said that she had brought up the issue in another symposium of the Congress, and it had caused some controversy. As she spoke passionately about the importance of returning our research to immigrant communities in need, thoughts of a special issue began to stir. After consultation with Dan Landis, I invited Cigdem to join me to edit an IJIR issue on Acculturation Theory, Research and Application: Working with and for Communities.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2008
The paper pays tribute to the work of John Berry and the organizational frameworks that he has pr... more The paper pays tribute to the work of John Berry and the organizational frameworks that he has proposed for research on identity, acculturation and intercultural relations. It also suggests that over-reliance on these frameworks may constrain developments in the field. Accordingly, three new lines of research that illustrate ways in which we might ''think outside the Berry boxes'' are introduced. The first develops theory and research on ethno-cultural identity conflict as a complement to studies of integration, separation, assimilation and marginalization. The second proposes a new construct, the motivation for ethno-cultural continuity, and examines it in the context of long-term acculturation, providing a new perspective on the relationship between individual and grouplevel factors in the acculturation process. The third extends the classification of acculturating groups, incorporating tourists and examining intercultural relations between tourists and hosts.
This study investigates the relative importance of human values at four levels: (a) global, (b) n... more This study investigates the relative importance of human values at four levels: (a) global, (b) national, (c) family, and (d) individual, among university students from four countries – the United States (137 females, 78 males, one unspecified), the People’s Republic of China (66 females, 170 males, one unspecified), Taiwan (156 females, 101 males), and Singapore (148 females, 119 males). Students rated the importance of passing on the 68 items in the Child Socialization Value Survey to their children or to future generations. Principal Components Analysis was performed on the pooled sample of student responses and revealed a five‐factor solution described by: universalism, family, nationalism, prestige, and autonomy. This study demonstrates that the values endorsed by samples of Chinese across different geopolitical backgrounds are not consistent.
... model) cover the research dealing with intergroup attributions attempt to answer the question... more ... model) cover the research dealing with intergroup attributions attempt to answer the question of whether the underlying cognitive dimensions in attributional schemata are universal examine some of the major issues and problems confronting cross-cultural attribution research ...
Although interculturdl contact is at the heart of the acculturation experience, the effects of th... more Although interculturdl contact is at the heart of the acculturation experience, the effects of this contact on sojourners' social and psychological adaptation remain a subject of debate. This is due in part to varying emphases on the affective, behavioral and cognitive components of acculturation (Ward, 2001a). It is further compounded by competing theoretical approaches that frame intercultural encounters as a source of uncertainty and anxiety (Gudykunst, 1985), on one hand, and as an avenue of culture learning and social support, on the other (Berry, 1997; Bochner, 1982). Those who have highlighted the benefits of intercultural contact in sojourner research have examined both the quality and quantity of intercultural interactions as predictors of adaptation. Research has shown that having local friends is associated with decrements in psychological distress (Redmond & Bunyi, 1993). Frequent social comacc with hose nationals relates co general adjustment and sojourn satisfaccion (Pruitt, 1978; Torbiorn, 1982). le has also been associaced with communication competence, fewer academic problems, and fewer social difficulties in scudent sojourners (Pruitt, 1978; Ward & Kennedy, 1993a; Ward & Searle, 1991; Zimmerman, 1995). These positive findings, however, are by no means uniform; !here are also inscances where more frequent contact with host nationals is associaced with negative psychological outcomes for sojourners, including depression, mood discurbance and idencicy conflicc (Leong & Ward, 2000; Ward & Kennedy, 1992, 1993a). Mixed findings such as these should not be surprising in themselves. The concact hypothesis tells us that concact per se is insufficient co enhance intergroup perceptions and that specific features of the concact, including the stacus of its participants and the purpose and the outcomes of the
Social role theory posits that binary gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in les... more Social role theory posits that binary gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in less egalitarian countries, reflecting these countries’ more pronounced sex-based power divisions. Conversely, evolutionary and self-construal theorists suggest that gender gaps in agency and communion should be larger in more egalitarian countries, reflecting the greater autonomy support and flexible self-construction processes present in these countries. Using data from 62 countries ( N = 28,640), we examine binary gender gaps in agentic and communal self-views as a function of country-level objective gender equality (the Global Gender Gap Index) and subjective distributions of social power (the Power Distance Index). Findings show that in more egalitarian countries, gender gaps in agency are smaller and gender gaps in communality are larger. These patterns are driven primarily by cross-country differences in men’s self-views and by the Power Distance Index (PDI) more robustly than the Gl...
Returning home after a study abroad experience can be challenging. In the current research, we ex... more Returning home after a study abroad experience can be challenging. In the current research, we examine the discrepancy between adaptation expectations and experience in a longitudinal sojourner study (N = 1319; M age = 17 years; 70% female). Returnees adaptation expectations were assessed prior to returning home, followed by post return measures of adaptation experiences and general well-being. Overall, returnees reported higher levels of re-entry adaptation than anticipated. According to the accuracy hypothesis, unmet expectations will be associated with lower well-being. In contrast, the directional hypothesis suggests that unmet expectations will negatively impact on wellbeing, but only if the expectation is undermet. Wellbeing on return was regressed on pre-travel adaptation expectations and adaptation experience on re-entry. Polynomial regression and Response Surface Analyses were conducted for two outcome variables (stress and satisfaction with life), two types of adaptation (psychological and sociocultural), and at different time points (approximately 2 weeks and 6 months after return). Results consistently show that larger discrepancies were associated with lower well-being for negative mismatches (when expectations were undermet). For positive mismatches, if adaptation was better than expected, well-being was higher. Congruence between
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2021
This research examines the association between cross-cultural travelers' well-being and the discr... more This research examines the association between cross-cultural travelers' well-being and the discrepancy between expected and experienced adaptation, in a longitudinal study of intercultural exchange students (N = 1762; M age = 17 years; 70 % female). Specifically, two competing hypotheses were tested. Whereas the accuracy hypothesis suggests that unmet expectations lead to poorer outcomes, the directional hypothesis proposes that the outcome of unmet expectations will depend on whether expectations are overmet or undermet. Both sojourners' adaptation expectations (pre-travel) and adaptation experiences (during the sojourn) were measured alongside general well-being. Controlling for baseline, well-being during the sojourn was regressed on the direction (undermet or overmet) and the magnitude (extent of discrepancy) of the adaptation expectation-experience discrepancies. These analyses were conducted across time (at entry or 5 months into the sojourn), different types of adaptation (psychological and sociocultural adaptation), and different measures of well-being (stress and satisfaction with life). Across analyses, results indicate that the direction of mismatch appears to matter little for small mismatches. However, for larger mismatches a positive effect emerged for sojourner well-being when the experience was better than expected, but a negative effect when the experience was worse than expected. Overall, the results support a directional hypothesis. My life here is kinda unexpected, a lot of surprises but I love it so much.-Indonesian sojourner in the USA It's pretty sad because I expected so many things from this year and now I see that they aren't happening.-Finnish sojourner in France I suppose I made one big mistake before I came here. I came with expectations.-American sojourner in Italy
Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is har... more Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is hard to earn, easy to lose, and proven via public action. Here, we present cross-cultural data on a brief measure of precarious manhood beliefs (the Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale [PMB]) that covaries meaningfully with other cross-culturally validated gender ideologies and with country-level indices of gender equality and human development. Using data from university samples in 62 countries across 13 world regions ( N = 33,417), we demonstrate: (1) the psychometric isomorphism of the PMB (i.e., its comparability in meaning and statistical properties across the individual and country levels); (2) the PMB’s distinctness from, and associations with, ambivalent sexism and ambivalence toward men; and (3) associations of the PMB with nation-level gender equality and human development. Findings are discussed in terms of their statistical and theoretical implications for understanding widely-held...
Cross-cultural transitions are challenging and often have detrimental consequences for psychologi... more Cross-cultural transitions are challenging and often have detrimental consequences for psychological well-being. This is particularly true for international students at tertiary institutions who are not only transitioning between school and higher education, but also between vastly different educational systems. This study tests a predictive model of psychological adaptation with international students whereby host national connectedness mediates the effects of personal resources and contextual factors on adaptive outcomes. A sample (N = 1527) of international tertiary students in New Zealand completed a survey that measured self-reported English language proficiency, perceived cultural distance, perceived cultural inclusiveness in the classroom, host national connectedness (defined by frequency of contact, number of friends, social support, and general belongingness), and positive (life satisfaction) and negative (psychological symptoms) indicators of psychological adaptation. Path analysis indicated that host national connectedness fully mediated the effects of English language proficiency on psychological symptoms and partially mediated the effects of language proficiency, cultural distance and cultural inclusion in the classroom on life satisfaction and psychological symptoms. The findings highlight the importance of international students' relationships with host nationals, and the results are discussed in relation to strategies that could enhance student-host connectedness during crosscultural transitions.
Prejudiced attitudes and political nationalism vary widely around the world, but there has been l... more Prejudiced attitudes and political nationalism vary widely around the world, but there has been little research on what predicts this variation. Here we examine the ecological and cultural factors underlying the worldwide distribution of prejudice. We suggest that cultures grow more prejudiced when they tighten cultural norms in response to destabilizing ecological threats. A set of seven archival analyses, surveys, and experiments (∑N = 3,986,402) find that nations, American states, and pre-industrial societies with tighter cultural norms show the most prejudice based on skin color, religion, nationality, and sexuality, and that tightness predicts why prejudice is often highest in areas of the world with histories of ecological threat. People's support for cultural tightness also mediates the link between perceived ecological threat and intentions to vote for nationalist politicians. Results replicate when controlling for economic development, inequality, conservatism, residential mobility, and shared cultural heritage. These findings offer a cultural evolutionary perspective on prejudice, with implications for immigration, intercultural conflict, and radicalization.
The investigation was undertaken to examine in a broad-based exploratory fashion four of the most... more The investigation was undertaken to examine in a broad-based exploratory fashion four of the most salient factors in contemporary sex role research (differential evaluation of the sexes, the motive to avoid success, psychological androgyny, and attitudes toward women* s roles in society) in an effort to achieve synthesis in a comprehensive theory of sex role ideology. The theory advanced here rests on the supposition that pervading sex role stereotypes are uncritically accepted by males and females and readily incorporated into emergent self concepts. While the assimilation of this artificial dichotomy of masculinity and femininity is restrictive to both sexes, the problem is more acute for the female due to the underlying notion of inferiority and adversely affects attitudinal, motivational and personality dispositions. The theory is corroborated by evidence which demonstrates he prevalence of stereotypic views in men and women varied in age, marital status, religion, educational and occupational history and its high correlation with unitarily stereotypic masculine or feminine self concepts, respectively. Dichotomized, sex appropriate self concepts are also associated with inflexible, conservative attitudes towards women 1 s roles and behavioral potentials in society. Finally, the notion of feminine inferiority is illustrated by the devaluation of women in areas of professional expertise and motivational ambivalence and conflict concerning female achievement. In conclusion, sex role research is criticized on its neglect of critical synthesis of empirical data,and problems with theoretical validation are discussed in terms of phenomenology and methodological variation.
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Papers by Colleen Ward