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Charlene Tan

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Charlene Tan, PhD (Philosophy) began her career as a high school teacher in Singapore. She was an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University (Singapore) and subsequently a tenured professor of education at the University of Hong Kong. Her research focuses on classical Chinese philosophy and education policy in Asia. Her recent books include Comparing High-Performing Education systems: Understanding Singapore, Shanghai, and Hong Kong (Routledge); Confucian Philosophy for Contemporary Education (Routledge); and Mindful Leadership: Wisdom from Confucius (Bloomsbury).

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Katherine Cheung

Giulia Luvisotto

Southeast University (China)

University of California, Irvine

Washington State University

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Papers by Charlene Tan

A response to Jesudason on ethical problems with kindness in healthcare

In this paper, we respond to a recent article by Edwin Jesudason regarding the ethical problems a... more In this paper, we respond to a recent article by Edwin Jesudason regarding the ethical problems associated with kindness in healthcare. Jesudason contends that kindness contributes to unkind outcomes such as discrimination and systemic problems in healthcare. We disagree with his above assertion by forwarding three arguments. First, we question his association of kindness with favouritism through his conflation of favour with favouritism. We counter that doing someone a favour which is a kind act does not necessarily mean that preferential treatment is involved. Secondly, we object to his interpretation of discretionary kindness as possessing "circumscribed scope", i.e., doing favours to the ingroup and leaving out others. We maintain that the discretionary element of kindness does not denote inclusivity and instead refers to the judgement and prudence needed for a person to act kindly in specific circumstances. Our third argument concerns Jesudason's emphasis on kindness as an action. By focussing on discrete kind acts, he has inadvertently overlooked kindness as a moral value, attitude and inclination of a person. Overall, Jesudason has provided an inadequate explanation of kindness as a virtue. We suggest that a kind person does not promote or condone unkind outcomes such as prejudice, abuses and structural problems in healthcare. Instead, such a person goes beyond kind acts and ingroup loyalty to actively demonstrate compassion, generosity and assistance towards those in need in a spontaneous and consistent manner.

United with Nature: A Confucian Pedagogy for Ecological Education

Aimed at contributing to the diverse cultural pedagogies for ecological education, this article p... more Aimed at contributing to the diverse cultural pedagogies for ecological education, this article proposes a Confucian approach by referring to the classic Yijing (The Classic of Changes). Rejecting the human-centred presupposition of anthropocentricism, this paper elucidates an anthropocosmic worldview that unites humans with heaven and earth. Humans are exhorted to follow the Way (dao), which is manifested in the natural world and realised in humans through humaneness (ren). Confucian pedagogy involves three overlapping and interactive steps: observation of and reflection on heavenly patterns and earthly order in the natural world; identification of virtues exhibited by the natural world; and development of these virtues so as to become a virtuous person. Confucian ecological ethics integrates key elements from anthropocentrism and ecocentrism by emphasising both the educational function and intrinsic value of nature. Confucian ecological education also goes beyond learning about nature to learning from it through an array of outdoor activities.

Cultivating global competence through Character and Citizenship Education in Singapore

This paper examines the cultivation of global competence in Singapore schools through a compulsor... more This paper examines the cultivation of global competence in Singapore schools through a compulsory programme known as Character and Citizenship Education (CCE). The syllabuses of CCE, information from selected school websites on CCE and relevant official documents were examined by mapping them with the Organisation for Economic and Cooperation Development's conception of global competence. The results reveal a communitarian orientation that emphasises social attachments, shared interests and communal goals. Specifically, the concept of global competence is framed and positioned as achieving collective well-being and valuing human dignity and diversity. The example of Singapore suggests the significance of communitarian underpinnings for global competence, thereby adding to the existing literature on the diverse formulations of the notion of global competence across education systems.

Future-readiness and Islamic education: Perspectives from Singapore

This article explores the relation between future-readiness and Islamic education from the perspe... more This article explores the relation between future-readiness and Islamic education from the perspectives of Islamic learning centres in Singapore. The main research objective of this study is to examine how the concept of future-readiness and related terms are interpreted, framed and facilitated in Islamic textbooks. Based on a content analysis of the textbooks used at Islamic learning centres for primary students in Singapore, two research findings are reported. First, the Islamic textbooks interpret future-readiness as equipping Muslim learners with Islamic knowledge and values as well as application and learner-centredness in the modern world. Secondly, the Islamic textbooks promote Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as part of preparing their students for future-readiness. A major implication from this study is that Islamic curricula evolve in tandem with changing times to support the development of future-ready students. In addition, the advancement of future-readiness is situated within an Islamic worldview that emphasises religious beliefs and values. A significant limitation of this study is that its research method centred on an analysis of textbooks; hence, empirical research is recommended to corroborate the research findings and implications.

An analysis of attainment grouping policy in Singapore

This article extends the scholarship on attainment grouping by focussing on the policy initiative... more This article extends the scholarship on attainment grouping by focussing on the policy initiatives of streaming and Subject-Based Banding (SBB) in Singapore. The study is framed by the concept of pragmatic perfectionism (Hardy et al., 2021) which refers to the continuous and ideals-oriented drive to improve a system through practical, incremental and paradoxical measures. It is argued that SBB is aligned with setting by giving students the flexibility and choice to study different subjects at varying levels. Mixed attainment grouping is also evident where students are grouped in mixed form classes for selected subjects. However, SBB may have inadvertently maintained between-school segregation for elite and non-elite schools by supporting the existing policy of school posting based on students' exam scores. This paper contributes to the diverse formulations, adaptations and justifications surrounding attainment grouping. The study also illustrates the usefulness of pragmatic perfectionism in foregrounding the potential and tensions in education policy-making.

Beyond emotional intelligence: A re-conceptualisation of resonant leadership

This paper critiques the concept of resonant leadership which focuses on utilising emotional inte... more This paper critiques the concept of resonant leadership which focuses on utilising emotional intelligence in managing an organisation. It is argued that the prevailing understandings of resonant leadership over-emphasise individual attributes and neglect the social processes of communication. This article proposes a reconceptualisation of resonant leadership by drawing on pertinent principles from the Chinese classic Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan). Instead of linking resonance to emotional intelligence, ancient Chinese thinkers interpret the former as pre-existing mutual responsiveness (xiangying) that contributes to synchrony, cooperation and harmony. A resonant leader promotes mutual responsiveness by modelling it and sustaining the conditions for people to (re)act and flourish according to the Way (dao). This study provides an original formulation of resonant leadership that shifts the attention from the creation and development of resonance by an emotionally attuned leader or manager, to the recognition and preservation of resonance by leaders, managers and other employees through interactive processes in an organisation. The proposed conception also illustrates a hybrid orientation of relationship-focused leadership styles that integrate key elements from the entity and relational perspectives at the workplace.

Christianity and moral education in Asia

This chapter examines the Christian underpinnings of and influences on moral education in Asia. A... more This chapter examines the Christian underpinnings of and influences on moral education in Asia. A foundational Christian concept is imago dei (image of God) which celebrates the unique individuality, abilities, potentials and value of each person. Imago dei engenders two major implications for moral education. First, imago dei entails that every child should be respected and equally deserving of love, care and nurture. Secondly, imago dei implies a form of moral education that places a premium on the cognitive, affective, dispositional and character development of each student. The second part of the chapter discusses a pedagogical concern of the indoctrination that is associated with the confessional approach adopted in ancient churches. The threat of indoctrination is overcome through Thiessen's (1993) 'teaching from commitment' approach that balances the cultivation of moral values and rational autonomy. Examples of moral educational practices enacted in Christian schools in Asia are provided throughout this essay.

The social contract and education: Confucian viewpoints

This article explicates a Confucian perspective of the social contract and its relation with educ... more This article explicates a Confucian perspective of the social contract and its relation with education through the philosophical thought of Xunzi. It is argued that Xunzi shares the early European social contract theorists' presuppositions that human beings are naturally motivated by selfish desires, and therefore require a collective agreement to avoid interpersonal strife and chaos. However, Xunzi's social compact does not originate from the people, and is instead conceived and promoted by exemplary sage kings, who need the consent from the masses to maintain legitimacy and power. Xunzi's aim of education is to reform and transform everyone's bad nature through li (normative behaviour). The two major educational implications are the primacy of moral inculcation and habituation for students, and rolemodelling by school leaders and teachers. Both implications are illustrated using the pedagogical approach of Appreciative Inquiry (AI), which calls for a whole-school approach to support and sustain the social contract.

A Confucian approach to a democratic classroom

This article delineates a Confucian approach to a democratic classroom by drawing upon the educat... more This article delineates a Confucian approach to a democratic classroom by drawing upon the educational thought of third-century philosopher Xunzi. It is argued that Xunzi's ideas are generally compatible with the three salient features of a democratic classroom: (i) it is a way of life guided by the principles of equality, freedom, justice and cooperation; (ii) it comprises a community of learners who are bounded by close ties and shared interests; and (iii) it provides a caring learning space that promotes openness and reflection. However, Xunzi does not conceive a democratic classroom as a means to equip students for participation in political democracy. His educational views are also not premised on the notion of liberal individualism. Rather, Xunzi adheres to a communitarian worldview where an individual's identity, conduct and commitments are necessarily situated within a community, and guided by yi (rightness). Furthermore, he rejects unfettered freedom for learners by balancing student choice with textual transmission and teacher guidance.

Confucian values

Premised on the conviction that everyone can become a sage, Confucians encourage everyone to prio... more Premised on the conviction that everyone can become a sage, Confucians encourage everyone to prioritise moral cultivation and character development. The Confucian idea of a hero is not a legendary or divine figure who is out of the reach of ordinary people. Neither is heroism understood in the Confucian literature as great acts of bravery or sacrifice. Rather, the Confucian notion of a hero is a human being who has succeeded in developing oneself morally and is devoted to serving the multitude throughout one’s life. A leader can become a hero, in the Confucian sense, when one role-models moral excellence and broadens the Way by transforming society.

Ancient Chinese ethics and education

Chinese thinkers and educators in antiquity displayed a strong interest in issues pertaining to m... more Chinese thinkers and educators in antiquity displayed a strong interest in issues pertaining to morality, teaching and learning. This chapter explores the significant features of ancient Chinese ethics and their continuous application to educational thought and practice. The focus of this essay is on the concept of virtue (de) in Confucianism and Daoism, which are the two prominent indigenous traditions in ancient China. It is argued that virtue, from an ancient Chinese paradigm, is essentially about moral excellence and influence. In the Confucian traditions, virtue is manifested in the exaltation of goodness and ethical charisma of exemplary persons. In the Daoist traditions, virtue is encapsulated in the emptying of one's heart-mind and non-coercive action. In terms of major educational implications, Chinese ethics in the ancient past stress the utmost importance of (inter)personal cultivation of virtues and rolemodelling. School leaders, teachers, students and other educational stakeholders should develop themselves and others morally so as to collectively achieve dao (Way) which is a shared vision of human excellence.

Ethics and mindful leadership in education

This chapter explores the connection between ethics and mindful leadership in education by situat... more This chapter explores the connection between ethics and mindful leadership in education by situating the discussion within the tradition of moral and ethical leadership. Drawing on virtue ethics, the concept of virtuous mindful leadership is proposed. This leadership construct refers to the present-moment attention to self, people and events that reflects the leader's moral character. This form of leadership transcends a leader's obligation to adhere to moral rules or ensure good outcomes to the leader's ethics, conduct and role-modelling. A virtuous mindful leader contributes to human flourishing by helping others to achieve eudemonic well-being. In educational administration, such a leader creates and sustains a school culture of authentic mindfulness and supports mindful collaboration with staff.

An Ethical Foundation of Global Competence and its Educational Implications

This paper proposes an ethical foundation of global competence and highlights its educational imp... more This paper proposes an ethical foundation of global competence and highlights its educational implications by critiquing the conception promoted by the Organisation for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is contended that OECD's formulation of global competence presupposes neo-liberal ideas and pays insufficient attention to ethical concerns, especially those originating from the Global South. Drawing upon Confucian thought, it is argued that Confucius predicates global competence upon an ethical way of being that revolves around who we are and how we are connected to others in the world. The normative basis of global competence are ren (humanity) and shu (empathy) that advance the collective good of all human beings. As for educational implications, Confucian perspectives foreground the dispositional and moral aspects of global competence, as well as the importance of social justice education. Such a construct guides and motivates globally competent individuals to balance critical thinking and empathic concern.

Service learning and social innovation initiatives in Singapore and Hong Kong

This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education ins... more This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education institutions (HEIs) in Singapore and Hong Kong. Based on a review of literature and documents, it is reported that the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong are varied, substantial and robust. It is also noted that the service learning and social innovation initiatives in both cities are faced with some common challenges. A key similarity between the service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong is a collective orientation that emphasises social cohesion and civic responsibility.

An ancient Chinese interpretation of distributed leadership

Referring to the Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan), this article delineates an ancient Chinese un... more Referring to the Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan), this article delineates an ancient Chinese understanding of distributed leadership. Accordingly, distributed leadership advocates the distribution of task that combines responsibility and authority; and the harmonious coexistence of the empowerment of others and positional authority. The distribution of responsibility and authority is undertaken by an exemplary leader who inspires others through one's moral character and influence. Furthermore, distributed leadership infuses responsibility with positional, social and moral authority; harmonises the personal and interpersonal qualities of leaders; and reinforces rational persuasion with role-modelling by the leaders. The notion of distributed leadership that is informed by the Huainanzi contributes to the existing literature by addressing a prominent challenge and a prevailing misconception concerning this leadership construct. In addition, the proposed account guides leaders to revamp organisational structure, implement staff deployment policies and lead on the basis of fairness and moral leadership.

Future-readiness and its educational implications: A Daoist interpretation

This paper explores the extent to which our past and present knowledge can help us to be futurere... more This paper explores the extent to which our past and present knowledge can help us to be futureready, and suggests a theoretical basis for future-readiness. Drawing on the thought of the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi, it is argued that future-readiness is primarily about having an open and flexible mindset where one responds appropriately to emerging realities and challenges. Two salient key Daoist principles that underpin the notion of future-readiness are 'walking two roads' (liang xing) and 'rightness of the present this' (yin shi). The former is about going beyond shi/fei distinctions-'this/right' versus 'not-this/wrong'to consider and harmonise alternatives to achieve the best possible outcome. The principle of 'rightness of the present this' refers to making the most appropriate response based on situational constraints. The major educational implications are: a rejection of limiting teaching and learning to skillscentred education; an emphasis on unlearning; and the promotion of self-transformative education.

Distributed leadership and Sunzi’s Art of Warfare

This article addresses a prominent critique of distributed leadership and offers an alternative l... more This article addresses a prominent critique of distributed leadership and offers an alternative leadership approach. Focussing on the criticism of the abuses of power in distributed leadership, this study turns to Sunzi's Art of Warfare (Sunzi Bingfa). Sunzi posits that leadership is distributed in accordance with shi (strategic advantage) and is manifested through the principle of contextual non-interference, as well as moral personhood and management. In addition, shi is facilitated by knowing others, oneself and the environments. Eschewing manipulation and exploitation, the leadership style propounded by Sunzi ensures that both work and power are given to individuals who are moral co-leaders. An exemplary leader, from Sunzi's perspective, practises shi by giving up one's power and empowering others in accordance with circumstantial developments. The paper further recommends that school leaders enact contextual non-interference by knowing the environments, and cultivate moral personhood and management by knowing oneself and others.

Rethinking service learning in the light of Wang Yangming’s philosophy

Aimed at rethinking the concept of service learning, this article draws upon the philosophical th... more Aimed at rethinking the concept of service learning, this article draws upon the philosophical thought of the neo-Confucian thinker Wang Yangming. The inquiry is directed at a perennial concern that the prevailing understandings of service learning may encourage patronisation and domination in the server coupled with the subordination and disempowerment of the served. Following Wang's thought, two arguments are made in this paper. First, service learning fosters love and solidarity between the server and the served through the concept of 'one body with all things' (wanwu yiti) and humaneness (ren). Second, service learning harmonises the 'service' and 'learning' components through the 'unity of knowledge and action' (zhixing heyi) that enables the servers to extend their innate knowing (liangzhi). Two major implications are highlighted from a reconceptualisation of service learning: the significance of a moral orientation of service learning; and a recommendation to enact service learning programmes that promote human unity and love.

A Foucauldian Analysis of Research Assessment in a Postcolonial Context: The Example of Hong Kong

This article analyses performance-based research evaluation for the higher education sector in a ... more This article analyses performance-based research evaluation for the higher education sector in a postcolonial context through a Foucauldian lens. Using Hong Kong as an example, this paper examines the formulation of and receptions towards the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE). It is argued that Hong Kong academics, especially those working in the humanities and social sciences, associate the key concepts of 'world-leading' and 'internationally excellent' research in the RAE framework with Western knowledge that undermines local and regional research. They respond to RAE in four main ways: pragmatic compliance; refusal to conform to the demands of RAE; adoption of a dualistic strategy by publishing internationally and locally; and re-imagining of research assessment coupled with the promotion of indigenous knowledge. Two significant implications are highlighted in this article. First, the preservation of a research evaluation mechanism inherited from a colonial government perpetuates and entrenches external control and dominance in the former colony. Secondly, there is a need to reconstruct the research appraisal apparatus as well as advance indigenous and hybrid knowledge in a postcolonial educational landscape.

Clarifying the concept of future-ready learning: A Confucian perspective

This article critically discusses the concept of future-ready learning by drawing on the educatio... more This article critically discusses the concept of future-ready learning by drawing on the educational thought of Confucius as recorded in the Analects. Two main arguments are made in this paper. First, Confucius views future-readiness as the preparedness to broaden dao (Way), which is a vision of human excellence. Secondly, Confucius does not limit future-ready learning to the acquisition of competencies, nor does he adopt a functionalist assumption of learning. Instead, he emphasises the learning goal of becoming a junzi (exemplary person) who broadens the Way through ren (humanity), yi (appropriateness), xiuji (self-cultivation) and li (normative behaviours). Future-ready learning, it is proposed in this essay, is about the cultivation of character and competence to prepare individuals to adapt to and create new realities. A Confucian perspective challenges the skills and competencies agenda that underpins the prevailing notions of future-ready learning, and brings to the fore the habituation of virtues.

A response to Jesudason on ethical problems with kindness in healthcare

In this paper, we respond to a recent article by Edwin Jesudason regarding the ethical problems a... more In this paper, we respond to a recent article by Edwin Jesudason regarding the ethical problems associated with kindness in healthcare. Jesudason contends that kindness contributes to unkind outcomes such as discrimination and systemic problems in healthcare. We disagree with his above assertion by forwarding three arguments. First, we question his association of kindness with favouritism through his conflation of favour with favouritism. We counter that doing someone a favour which is a kind act does not necessarily mean that preferential treatment is involved. Secondly, we object to his interpretation of discretionary kindness as possessing "circumscribed scope", i.e., doing favours to the ingroup and leaving out others. We maintain that the discretionary element of kindness does not denote inclusivity and instead refers to the judgement and prudence needed for a person to act kindly in specific circumstances. Our third argument concerns Jesudason's emphasis on kindness as an action. By focussing on discrete kind acts, he has inadvertently overlooked kindness as a moral value, attitude and inclination of a person. Overall, Jesudason has provided an inadequate explanation of kindness as a virtue. We suggest that a kind person does not promote or condone unkind outcomes such as prejudice, abuses and structural problems in healthcare. Instead, such a person goes beyond kind acts and ingroup loyalty to actively demonstrate compassion, generosity and assistance towards those in need in a spontaneous and consistent manner.

United with Nature: A Confucian Pedagogy for Ecological Education

Aimed at contributing to the diverse cultural pedagogies for ecological education, this article p... more Aimed at contributing to the diverse cultural pedagogies for ecological education, this article proposes a Confucian approach by referring to the classic Yijing (The Classic of Changes). Rejecting the human-centred presupposition of anthropocentricism, this paper elucidates an anthropocosmic worldview that unites humans with heaven and earth. Humans are exhorted to follow the Way (dao), which is manifested in the natural world and realised in humans through humaneness (ren). Confucian pedagogy involves three overlapping and interactive steps: observation of and reflection on heavenly patterns and earthly order in the natural world; identification of virtues exhibited by the natural world; and development of these virtues so as to become a virtuous person. Confucian ecological ethics integrates key elements from anthropocentrism and ecocentrism by emphasising both the educational function and intrinsic value of nature. Confucian ecological education also goes beyond learning about nature to learning from it through an array of outdoor activities.

Cultivating global competence through Character and Citizenship Education in Singapore

This paper examines the cultivation of global competence in Singapore schools through a compulsor... more This paper examines the cultivation of global competence in Singapore schools through a compulsory programme known as Character and Citizenship Education (CCE). The syllabuses of CCE, information from selected school websites on CCE and relevant official documents were examined by mapping them with the Organisation for Economic and Cooperation Development's conception of global competence. The results reveal a communitarian orientation that emphasises social attachments, shared interests and communal goals. Specifically, the concept of global competence is framed and positioned as achieving collective well-being and valuing human dignity and diversity. The example of Singapore suggests the significance of communitarian underpinnings for global competence, thereby adding to the existing literature on the diverse formulations of the notion of global competence across education systems.

Future-readiness and Islamic education: Perspectives from Singapore

This article explores the relation between future-readiness and Islamic education from the perspe... more This article explores the relation between future-readiness and Islamic education from the perspectives of Islamic learning centres in Singapore. The main research objective of this study is to examine how the concept of future-readiness and related terms are interpreted, framed and facilitated in Islamic textbooks. Based on a content analysis of the textbooks used at Islamic learning centres for primary students in Singapore, two research findings are reported. First, the Islamic textbooks interpret future-readiness as equipping Muslim learners with Islamic knowledge and values as well as application and learner-centredness in the modern world. Secondly, the Islamic textbooks promote Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as part of preparing their students for future-readiness. A major implication from this study is that Islamic curricula evolve in tandem with changing times to support the development of future-ready students. In addition, the advancement of future-readiness is situated within an Islamic worldview that emphasises religious beliefs and values. A significant limitation of this study is that its research method centred on an analysis of textbooks; hence, empirical research is recommended to corroborate the research findings and implications.

An analysis of attainment grouping policy in Singapore

This article extends the scholarship on attainment grouping by focussing on the policy initiative... more This article extends the scholarship on attainment grouping by focussing on the policy initiatives of streaming and Subject-Based Banding (SBB) in Singapore. The study is framed by the concept of pragmatic perfectionism (Hardy et al., 2021) which refers to the continuous and ideals-oriented drive to improve a system through practical, incremental and paradoxical measures. It is argued that SBB is aligned with setting by giving students the flexibility and choice to study different subjects at varying levels. Mixed attainment grouping is also evident where students are grouped in mixed form classes for selected subjects. However, SBB may have inadvertently maintained between-school segregation for elite and non-elite schools by supporting the existing policy of school posting based on students' exam scores. This paper contributes to the diverse formulations, adaptations and justifications surrounding attainment grouping. The study also illustrates the usefulness of pragmatic perfectionism in foregrounding the potential and tensions in education policy-making.

Beyond emotional intelligence: A re-conceptualisation of resonant leadership

This paper critiques the concept of resonant leadership which focuses on utilising emotional inte... more This paper critiques the concept of resonant leadership which focuses on utilising emotional intelligence in managing an organisation. It is argued that the prevailing understandings of resonant leadership over-emphasise individual attributes and neglect the social processes of communication. This article proposes a reconceptualisation of resonant leadership by drawing on pertinent principles from the Chinese classic Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan). Instead of linking resonance to emotional intelligence, ancient Chinese thinkers interpret the former as pre-existing mutual responsiveness (xiangying) that contributes to synchrony, cooperation and harmony. A resonant leader promotes mutual responsiveness by modelling it and sustaining the conditions for people to (re)act and flourish according to the Way (dao). This study provides an original formulation of resonant leadership that shifts the attention from the creation and development of resonance by an emotionally attuned leader or manager, to the recognition and preservation of resonance by leaders, managers and other employees through interactive processes in an organisation. The proposed conception also illustrates a hybrid orientation of relationship-focused leadership styles that integrate key elements from the entity and relational perspectives at the workplace.

Christianity and moral education in Asia

This chapter examines the Christian underpinnings of and influences on moral education in Asia. A... more This chapter examines the Christian underpinnings of and influences on moral education in Asia. A foundational Christian concept is imago dei (image of God) which celebrates the unique individuality, abilities, potentials and value of each person. Imago dei engenders two major implications for moral education. First, imago dei entails that every child should be respected and equally deserving of love, care and nurture. Secondly, imago dei implies a form of moral education that places a premium on the cognitive, affective, dispositional and character development of each student. The second part of the chapter discusses a pedagogical concern of the indoctrination that is associated with the confessional approach adopted in ancient churches. The threat of indoctrination is overcome through Thiessen's (1993) 'teaching from commitment' approach that balances the cultivation of moral values and rational autonomy. Examples of moral educational practices enacted in Christian schools in Asia are provided throughout this essay.

The social contract and education: Confucian viewpoints

This article explicates a Confucian perspective of the social contract and its relation with educ... more This article explicates a Confucian perspective of the social contract and its relation with education through the philosophical thought of Xunzi. It is argued that Xunzi shares the early European social contract theorists' presuppositions that human beings are naturally motivated by selfish desires, and therefore require a collective agreement to avoid interpersonal strife and chaos. However, Xunzi's social compact does not originate from the people, and is instead conceived and promoted by exemplary sage kings, who need the consent from the masses to maintain legitimacy and power. Xunzi's aim of education is to reform and transform everyone's bad nature through li (normative behaviour). The two major educational implications are the primacy of moral inculcation and habituation for students, and rolemodelling by school leaders and teachers. Both implications are illustrated using the pedagogical approach of Appreciative Inquiry (AI), which calls for a whole-school approach to support and sustain the social contract.

A Confucian approach to a democratic classroom

This article delineates a Confucian approach to a democratic classroom by drawing upon the educat... more This article delineates a Confucian approach to a democratic classroom by drawing upon the educational thought of third-century philosopher Xunzi. It is argued that Xunzi's ideas are generally compatible with the three salient features of a democratic classroom: (i) it is a way of life guided by the principles of equality, freedom, justice and cooperation; (ii) it comprises a community of learners who are bounded by close ties and shared interests; and (iii) it provides a caring learning space that promotes openness and reflection. However, Xunzi does not conceive a democratic classroom as a means to equip students for participation in political democracy. His educational views are also not premised on the notion of liberal individualism. Rather, Xunzi adheres to a communitarian worldview where an individual's identity, conduct and commitments are necessarily situated within a community, and guided by yi (rightness). Furthermore, he rejects unfettered freedom for learners by balancing student choice with textual transmission and teacher guidance.

Confucian values

Premised on the conviction that everyone can become a sage, Confucians encourage everyone to prio... more Premised on the conviction that everyone can become a sage, Confucians encourage everyone to prioritise moral cultivation and character development. The Confucian idea of a hero is not a legendary or divine figure who is out of the reach of ordinary people. Neither is heroism understood in the Confucian literature as great acts of bravery or sacrifice. Rather, the Confucian notion of a hero is a human being who has succeeded in developing oneself morally and is devoted to serving the multitude throughout one’s life. A leader can become a hero, in the Confucian sense, when one role-models moral excellence and broadens the Way by transforming society.

Ancient Chinese ethics and education

Chinese thinkers and educators in antiquity displayed a strong interest in issues pertaining to m... more Chinese thinkers and educators in antiquity displayed a strong interest in issues pertaining to morality, teaching and learning. This chapter explores the significant features of ancient Chinese ethics and their continuous application to educational thought and practice. The focus of this essay is on the concept of virtue (de) in Confucianism and Daoism, which are the two prominent indigenous traditions in ancient China. It is argued that virtue, from an ancient Chinese paradigm, is essentially about moral excellence and influence. In the Confucian traditions, virtue is manifested in the exaltation of goodness and ethical charisma of exemplary persons. In the Daoist traditions, virtue is encapsulated in the emptying of one's heart-mind and non-coercive action. In terms of major educational implications, Chinese ethics in the ancient past stress the utmost importance of (inter)personal cultivation of virtues and rolemodelling. School leaders, teachers, students and other educational stakeholders should develop themselves and others morally so as to collectively achieve dao (Way) which is a shared vision of human excellence.

Ethics and mindful leadership in education

This chapter explores the connection between ethics and mindful leadership in education by situat... more This chapter explores the connection between ethics and mindful leadership in education by situating the discussion within the tradition of moral and ethical leadership. Drawing on virtue ethics, the concept of virtuous mindful leadership is proposed. This leadership construct refers to the present-moment attention to self, people and events that reflects the leader's moral character. This form of leadership transcends a leader's obligation to adhere to moral rules or ensure good outcomes to the leader's ethics, conduct and role-modelling. A virtuous mindful leader contributes to human flourishing by helping others to achieve eudemonic well-being. In educational administration, such a leader creates and sustains a school culture of authentic mindfulness and supports mindful collaboration with staff.

An Ethical Foundation of Global Competence and its Educational Implications

This paper proposes an ethical foundation of global competence and highlights its educational imp... more This paper proposes an ethical foundation of global competence and highlights its educational implications by critiquing the conception promoted by the Organisation for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is contended that OECD's formulation of global competence presupposes neo-liberal ideas and pays insufficient attention to ethical concerns, especially those originating from the Global South. Drawing upon Confucian thought, it is argued that Confucius predicates global competence upon an ethical way of being that revolves around who we are and how we are connected to others in the world. The normative basis of global competence are ren (humanity) and shu (empathy) that advance the collective good of all human beings. As for educational implications, Confucian perspectives foreground the dispositional and moral aspects of global competence, as well as the importance of social justice education. Such a construct guides and motivates globally competent individuals to balance critical thinking and empathic concern.

Service learning and social innovation initiatives in Singapore and Hong Kong

This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education ins... more This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education institutions (HEIs) in Singapore and Hong Kong. Based on a review of literature and documents, it is reported that the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong are varied, substantial and robust. It is also noted that the service learning and social innovation initiatives in both cities are faced with some common challenges. A key similarity between the service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong is a collective orientation that emphasises social cohesion and civic responsibility.

An ancient Chinese interpretation of distributed leadership

Referring to the Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan), this article delineates an ancient Chinese un... more Referring to the Huainanzi (The Master of Huainan), this article delineates an ancient Chinese understanding of distributed leadership. Accordingly, distributed leadership advocates the distribution of task that combines responsibility and authority; and the harmonious coexistence of the empowerment of others and positional authority. The distribution of responsibility and authority is undertaken by an exemplary leader who inspires others through one's moral character and influence. Furthermore, distributed leadership infuses responsibility with positional, social and moral authority; harmonises the personal and interpersonal qualities of leaders; and reinforces rational persuasion with role-modelling by the leaders. The notion of distributed leadership that is informed by the Huainanzi contributes to the existing literature by addressing a prominent challenge and a prevailing misconception concerning this leadership construct. In addition, the proposed account guides leaders to revamp organisational structure, implement staff deployment policies and lead on the basis of fairness and moral leadership.

Future-readiness and its educational implications: A Daoist interpretation

This paper explores the extent to which our past and present knowledge can help us to be futurere... more This paper explores the extent to which our past and present knowledge can help us to be futureready, and suggests a theoretical basis for future-readiness. Drawing on the thought of the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi, it is argued that future-readiness is primarily about having an open and flexible mindset where one responds appropriately to emerging realities and challenges. Two salient key Daoist principles that underpin the notion of future-readiness are 'walking two roads' (liang xing) and 'rightness of the present this' (yin shi). The former is about going beyond shi/fei distinctions-'this/right' versus 'not-this/wrong'to consider and harmonise alternatives to achieve the best possible outcome. The principle of 'rightness of the present this' refers to making the most appropriate response based on situational constraints. The major educational implications are: a rejection of limiting teaching and learning to skillscentred education; an emphasis on unlearning; and the promotion of self-transformative education.

Distributed leadership and Sunzi’s Art of Warfare

This article addresses a prominent critique of distributed leadership and offers an alternative l... more This article addresses a prominent critique of distributed leadership and offers an alternative leadership approach. Focussing on the criticism of the abuses of power in distributed leadership, this study turns to Sunzi's Art of Warfare (Sunzi Bingfa). Sunzi posits that leadership is distributed in accordance with shi (strategic advantage) and is manifested through the principle of contextual non-interference, as well as moral personhood and management. In addition, shi is facilitated by knowing others, oneself and the environments. Eschewing manipulation and exploitation, the leadership style propounded by Sunzi ensures that both work and power are given to individuals who are moral co-leaders. An exemplary leader, from Sunzi's perspective, practises shi by giving up one's power and empowering others in accordance with circumstantial developments. The paper further recommends that school leaders enact contextual non-interference by knowing the environments, and cultivate moral personhood and management by knowing oneself and others.

Rethinking service learning in the light of Wang Yangming’s philosophy

Aimed at rethinking the concept of service learning, this article draws upon the philosophical th... more Aimed at rethinking the concept of service learning, this article draws upon the philosophical thought of the neo-Confucian thinker Wang Yangming. The inquiry is directed at a perennial concern that the prevailing understandings of service learning may encourage patronisation and domination in the server coupled with the subordination and disempowerment of the served. Following Wang's thought, two arguments are made in this paper. First, service learning fosters love and solidarity between the server and the served through the concept of 'one body with all things' (wanwu yiti) and humaneness (ren). Second, service learning harmonises the 'service' and 'learning' components through the 'unity of knowledge and action' (zhixing heyi) that enables the servers to extend their innate knowing (liangzhi). Two major implications are highlighted from a reconceptualisation of service learning: the significance of a moral orientation of service learning; and a recommendation to enact service learning programmes that promote human unity and love.

A Foucauldian Analysis of Research Assessment in a Postcolonial Context: The Example of Hong Kong

This article analyses performance-based research evaluation for the higher education sector in a ... more This article analyses performance-based research evaluation for the higher education sector in a postcolonial context through a Foucauldian lens. Using Hong Kong as an example, this paper examines the formulation of and receptions towards the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE). It is argued that Hong Kong academics, especially those working in the humanities and social sciences, associate the key concepts of 'world-leading' and 'internationally excellent' research in the RAE framework with Western knowledge that undermines local and regional research. They respond to RAE in four main ways: pragmatic compliance; refusal to conform to the demands of RAE; adoption of a dualistic strategy by publishing internationally and locally; and re-imagining of research assessment coupled with the promotion of indigenous knowledge. Two significant implications are highlighted in this article. First, the preservation of a research evaluation mechanism inherited from a colonial government perpetuates and entrenches external control and dominance in the former colony. Secondly, there is a need to reconstruct the research appraisal apparatus as well as advance indigenous and hybrid knowledge in a postcolonial educational landscape.

Clarifying the concept of future-ready learning: A Confucian perspective

This article critically discusses the concept of future-ready learning by drawing on the educatio... more This article critically discusses the concept of future-ready learning by drawing on the educational thought of Confucius as recorded in the Analects. Two main arguments are made in this paper. First, Confucius views future-readiness as the preparedness to broaden dao (Way), which is a vision of human excellence. Secondly, Confucius does not limit future-ready learning to the acquisition of competencies, nor does he adopt a functionalist assumption of learning. Instead, he emphasises the learning goal of becoming a junzi (exemplary person) who broadens the Way through ren (humanity), yi (appropriateness), xiuji (self-cultivation) and li (normative behaviours). Future-ready learning, it is proposed in this essay, is about the cultivation of character and competence to prepare individuals to adapt to and create new realities. A Confucian perspective challenges the skills and competencies agenda that underpins the prevailing notions of future-ready learning, and brings to the fore the habituation of virtues.

Book review of 'Learning from Shanghai' by Jin Jin

Book review by Prof Ruth Hayhoe of Charlene Tan's 'Educational policy borrowing in China'