To report the distribution and association between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior c... more To report the distribution and association between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber parameters in the Saudi adult population. Methods Cross-sectional prospective study consisting of 82 Saudi adults. White-to-white corneal diameter, anterior chamber angle, anterior chamber depth, and axial length were collected from healthy subjects using the Pentacam AXL Wave in a tertiary eye care setting. Results Mean white-to-white corneal diameter, anterior chamber angle, anterior chamber depth, and axial length were 11.95 ± 0.39 mm, 37.94 ± 5.01°, 2.97 ± 0.31 mm and 23.93 ± 0.97 mm, respectively. A signi cant moderate correlation was found between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber angle (r = 0.31, p ≤ 0.01), anterior chamber depth (r = 0.49, p ≤ 0.01), and axial length (r = 0.50, p ≤ 0.01) and between anterior chamber angle and anterior chamber depth (r = 0.71, p ≤ 0.01). Furthermore, age was moderately correlated with anterior chamber angle (r = 0.44, p 0.01) and anterior chamber depth (r = 0.39, p 0.01) and weakly correlated with white-to-white corneal diameter (r = 0.17, p = 0.12). Males had a signi cantly (p < 0.01) higher white-to-white corneal diameter (12.12 ± 0.38 mm) than females (11.84 ± 0.36.mm). Conclusion Reference values for white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber parameters would help eye care professionals choose the right lenses for cataract and refractive surgeries as well as in diagnosing glaucoma and corneal disorders.
Indian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, Dec 14, 2023
To provide the reference exophthalmometric values in Indian children aged between 3-7 years. Mate... more To provide the reference exophthalmometric values in Indian children aged between 3-7 years. Materials and Methods: The study consisted of 528 children of both gender (age range from 3-7 years old), who were randomly selected from six schools in the two districts of south India. Normal children free of orbital diseases and other ocular abnormalities were included in the study. Exophthalmometry values were measured in right eye and left eye using a monocular Luedde exophthalmometer in the primary position. Results: The mean absolute exophthalmomeric values among 3-7 years old children in OD and OS were 11.38 ± 0.93 mm (CI: 11.26-11.42) and 11.32 ± 0.93 mm (CI: 11.24-11.40) respectively. The mean absolute exophthalmomeric values of the OD and OS of male children were 11.28 ± 0.93mm and 11.25 ± 0.94 mm respectively. Similarly, for female children mean absolute exophthalmomeric values of the OD and OS were 11.41 ± 0.93mm and 11.39 ± 0.91mm respectively. The range of exophthalmometry values in these group of children is ranging from 9-15.5 mm. There is no significant difference (P=0.35) in exophthalmometry values among male and female children. There is a significant positive correlation between absolute exophthalmomeric values and age (r = 0.62, P < 0.05). None of the children in this study have shown relative exophthalmometry of more than 2mm. Conclusion: In order to diagnose orbital diseases and craniofacial deformities in clinical contexts, ophthalmologists and other healthcare professionals might use the exophthalmomeric values of Indian children aged 3 to 7 presented in this study. This is an Open Access (OA) journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.
Journal of current glaucoma practice, Jul 10, 2023
The investigation was further extended to see whether there is any influence of age on ONH parame... more The investigation was further extended to see whether there is any influence of age on ONH parameters. Materials a n d Methods A total of 86 male participants (the university staff and students) who had visited the university eye clinic for refractive error correction or for general eye examination between January and May 2022 were included in this prospective study. The investigations followed the Declaration of Helsinki's guidelines. All the participants were Saudi nationals and were included in the study following the collection of written informed consent. Each participant has undergone a comprehensive eye examination that included Snellen visual acuity, slit lamp examination, ophthalmoscopy, intraocular pressure, refractive error, and visual fields. All participants who had a normal ocular examination, intraocular pressure of <21 mm Hg on Goldman applanation tonometry, Snellen visual acuity of 6/6, refractive error of <± 3 D, clear ocular media, normal visual fields, and normal optic disk appearance (intact neuroretinal rim, free from optic neuropathy, free from notches, hemorrhage, pallor of
To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neurop... more To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neuropathy (TON) patients from the tertiary eye care center in South India. Methods: It is a retrospective and observational study. Details of age, gender, number of days of presentation after injury, Snellen visual acuity at presentation and last follow-up, visual evoked potentials, visual field findings using the Humphrey visual field analyser, associated ocular complications, and mode and time of treatment were obtained from the medical records of all indirect TON patients. Results: Indirect TON patients are mainly young males (94%) and road traffic accident (RTA) (65%) is the main cause of TON, followed by falls (19%) and sport-related activities (11%). Visual acuity loss was severe in more than 50% of the subjects and only 16%% of the patients showed improvement in visual acuity greater than one line. Pattern visual evoked potentials and visual fields are recordable only in 15% of the subjects. Commonly associated ocular complications in indirect TON patients were orbital fracture (43%), lid tear (16%), sub-conjunctival haemorrhage (13.5%), and angle recession (13.5%). Three out of four patients who received methylprednisolone and oral steroids within a week showed an improvement in visual acuity of greater than three lines, while just one patient out of four who received the same medication after a week improved visual acuity of three lines. Conclusion: RTA (road traffic accidents) is the most common cause of indirect TON and mainly young males were the affected individuals. IVMP along with oral steroids within a week, would help TON patients for reasonable visual recovery. Presenting Visual acuity of > 6/600 and recordable pattern VEPs would be the prognostic factors for good visual outcomes in indirect TON patients.
Aim: To determine the absolute and relative ocular protrusion values in normal south Indian popul... more Aim: To determine the absolute and relative ocular protrusion values in normal south Indian population, and its relation to age, gender and type of refractive error. Methods: A total of 387 subjects aged 7-70 years were included in this study. Both right and left absolute ocular protrusion values were measured by a single physician using Luedde exophthalmometer in primary gaze. Right eye ocular protrusion data were used for reporting the absolute ocular protrusion values, and difference between right and left eye absolute ocular protrusion values of the same individual was used to report the relative ocular protrusion values. Subject age was grouped as decades. Measurement values were evaluated by descriptive and inferential statistics. Results: The mean absolute ocular protrusion of right eye was 14.67 ± 1.70 mm and left eye was 14.32 ± 1.75 mm. The mean right absolute ocular protrusion values from 1st to 7th decade were 12.
To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi... more To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia. Methods: Peer-reviewed articles with data from Saudi Arabian children were extracted between the years 1990 and 2020. The Cochrane Library, PubMed, OVIS, Embase and Google Scholar were used to extract the relevant articles. The paper quality was assessed using a critical assessment tool designed for systematic reviews and from 22 retrieved citations, seven studies were included in this systematic review. Results: Out of 15 281 pooled children from seven papers, the estimated prevalence of amblyopia was 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.1%-2.6%). Significant heterogeneity (p < 0.001) was found among these studies. Conclusion: The pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia is approximately 2.3%. This systemic review also demonstrates that there are limited studies that evaluated the prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia and mostly they had a gender bias. Contribution: This article presents the prevalence of amblyopia among the children of Saudi Arabia and also the variances in the prevalence of amblyopia among the various regions of Saudi Arabia.
Journal of the Optical Society of America, Feb 4, 2014
Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field... more Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field stimuli with sawtooth temporal profiles. The effects of temporal frequency and contrast were studied. ERG recordings were obtained from 21 trichromatic, 1 protanopic, and 1 deuteranopic subjects. ERGs to L-cone increments and decrements resembled those to M-cone decrements and increments, respectively (i.e., of the opposite polarity). Temporal frequency and contrast had little effect on the implicit times. All response components varied linearly with contrast. When stimulated simultaneously, the responsivities of most components were larger for counterphase than for inphase modulation. The retinal processing leading to an ERG response is reversed for Land M-cone driven responses.
Purpose To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Opti... more Purpose To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neuropathy (TON) patients from the tertiary eye care center, South India. Methods It is aretrospective and observational study. Details of ge, gender, number of days of presentation after injury, Snellen visual acuity at presentation and last follow-up, visual evoked potentials, visual field findings using the Humphrey visual field analyser, associated ocular complications, and mode and time of treatment were obtained from the medical records of all indirect TON patients. Results Indirect TON patients are mainly young males (94%) and the road traffic accident (RTA)(65%) is the main cause of TON , followed by falls (19%) and sport-related activities (11%). Visual acuity loss was severe in more than 50% of the subjects and only 16%% of the patients have shown improvement in visual acuity greater than one line. Pattern visual evoked potentials and visual fields are recordable only in 15% ...
To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi... more To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia. Methods: Peer-reviewed articles with data from Saudi Arabian children were extracted between the years 1990 and 2020. The Cochrane Library, PubMed, OVIS, Embase and Google Scholar were used to extract the relevant articles. The paper quality was assessed using a critical assessment tool designed for systematic reviews and from 22 retrieved citations, seven studies were included in this systematic review. Results: Out of 15 281 pooled children from seven papers, the estimated prevalence of amblyopia was 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.1%-2.6%). Significant heterogeneity (p < 0.001) was found among these studies. Conclusion: The pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia is approximately 2.3%. This systemic review also demonstrates that there are limited studies that evaluated the prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia and mostly they had a gender bias. Contribution: This article presents the prevalence of amblyopia among the children of Saudi Arabia and also the variances in the prevalence of amblyopia among the various regions of Saudi Arabia.
We recorded Land M-cone isolating ERGs from human subjects using a silent substitution technique ... more We recorded Land M-cone isolating ERGs from human subjects using a silent substitution technique at temporal rates of 12 and 30 Hz. These frequencies isolate the activity of cone-opponent and non-opponent post-receptoral mechanisms, respectively. ERGs were obtained using a sequence of stimuli with different spatial configurations comprising; (1) circular stimuli of different sizes which increased in 10°steps up to 70°diameter, or (2) annular stimuli with a 70°outer diameter but with different sized central ablations from 10°up to 60°. Land M-cone isolating ERGs were obtained from five colour normal subjects using a DTL fibre electrode. Fourier analysis of the ERGs was performed and we measured the amplitude of the first harmonic of the response. For 12 Hz ERGs the L:M cone response amplitude ratio (L:M ERG) was close to unity and remained stable irrespective of the spatial configuration of the stimulus. The maintenance of this balanced ratio points to the existence of cone selective input across the human retina for the L-M cone opponent mechanism. For 30 Hz the L:M ERG ratio was greater than unity but varied depending upon which region of the retina was being stimulated. This variation we consider to be a consequence of the global response properties of M-cone ERGs rather than representing a real variation in L:M cone ratios across the retina.
Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field... more Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field stimuli with sawtooth temporal profiles. The effects of temporal frequency and contrast were studied. ERG recordings were obtained from 21 trichromatic, 1 protanopic, and 1 deuteranopic subjects. ERGs to L-cone increments and decrements resembled those to M-cone decrements and increments, respectively (i.e., of the opposite polarity). Temporal frequency and contrast had little effect on the implicit times. All response components varied linearly with contrast. When stimulated simultaneously, the responsivities of most components were larger for counterphase than for inphase modulation. The retinal processing leading to an ERG response is reversed for Land M-cone driven responses.
To report the distribution and association between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior c... more To report the distribution and association between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber parameters in the Saudi adult population. Methods Cross-sectional prospective study consisting of 82 Saudi adults. White-to-white corneal diameter, anterior chamber angle, anterior chamber depth, and axial length were collected from healthy subjects using the Pentacam AXL Wave in a tertiary eye care setting. Results Mean white-to-white corneal diameter, anterior chamber angle, anterior chamber depth, and axial length were 11.95 ± 0.39 mm, 37.94 ± 5.01°, 2.97 ± 0.31 mm and 23.93 ± 0.97 mm, respectively. A signi cant moderate correlation was found between white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber angle (r = 0.31, p ≤ 0.01), anterior chamber depth (r = 0.49, p ≤ 0.01), and axial length (r = 0.50, p ≤ 0.01) and between anterior chamber angle and anterior chamber depth (r = 0.71, p ≤ 0.01). Furthermore, age was moderately correlated with anterior chamber angle (r = 0.44, p 0.01) and anterior chamber depth (r = 0.39, p 0.01) and weakly correlated with white-to-white corneal diameter (r = 0.17, p = 0.12). Males had a signi cantly (p < 0.01) higher white-to-white corneal diameter (12.12 ± 0.38 mm) than females (11.84 ± 0.36.mm). Conclusion Reference values for white-to-white corneal diameter and anterior chamber parameters would help eye care professionals choose the right lenses for cataract and refractive surgeries as well as in diagnosing glaucoma and corneal disorders.
Indian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, Dec 14, 2023
To provide the reference exophthalmometric values in Indian children aged between 3-7 years. Mate... more To provide the reference exophthalmometric values in Indian children aged between 3-7 years. Materials and Methods: The study consisted of 528 children of both gender (age range from 3-7 years old), who were randomly selected from six schools in the two districts of south India. Normal children free of orbital diseases and other ocular abnormalities were included in the study. Exophthalmometry values were measured in right eye and left eye using a monocular Luedde exophthalmometer in the primary position. Results: The mean absolute exophthalmomeric values among 3-7 years old children in OD and OS were 11.38 ± 0.93 mm (CI: 11.26-11.42) and 11.32 ± 0.93 mm (CI: 11.24-11.40) respectively. The mean absolute exophthalmomeric values of the OD and OS of male children were 11.28 ± 0.93mm and 11.25 ± 0.94 mm respectively. Similarly, for female children mean absolute exophthalmomeric values of the OD and OS were 11.41 ± 0.93mm and 11.39 ± 0.91mm respectively. The range of exophthalmometry values in these group of children is ranging from 9-15.5 mm. There is no significant difference (P=0.35) in exophthalmometry values among male and female children. There is a significant positive correlation between absolute exophthalmomeric values and age (r = 0.62, P < 0.05). None of the children in this study have shown relative exophthalmometry of more than 2mm. Conclusion: In order to diagnose orbital diseases and craniofacial deformities in clinical contexts, ophthalmologists and other healthcare professionals might use the exophthalmomeric values of Indian children aged 3 to 7 presented in this study. This is an Open Access (OA) journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.
Journal of current glaucoma practice, Jul 10, 2023
The investigation was further extended to see whether there is any influence of age on ONH parame... more The investigation was further extended to see whether there is any influence of age on ONH parameters. Materials a n d Methods A total of 86 male participants (the university staff and students) who had visited the university eye clinic for refractive error correction or for general eye examination between January and May 2022 were included in this prospective study. The investigations followed the Declaration of Helsinki's guidelines. All the participants were Saudi nationals and were included in the study following the collection of written informed consent. Each participant has undergone a comprehensive eye examination that included Snellen visual acuity, slit lamp examination, ophthalmoscopy, intraocular pressure, refractive error, and visual fields. All participants who had a normal ocular examination, intraocular pressure of <21 mm Hg on Goldman applanation tonometry, Snellen visual acuity of 6/6, refractive error of <± 3 D, clear ocular media, normal visual fields, and normal optic disk appearance (intact neuroretinal rim, free from optic neuropathy, free from notches, hemorrhage, pallor of
To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neurop... more To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neuropathy (TON) patients from the tertiary eye care center in South India. Methods: It is a retrospective and observational study. Details of age, gender, number of days of presentation after injury, Snellen visual acuity at presentation and last follow-up, visual evoked potentials, visual field findings using the Humphrey visual field analyser, associated ocular complications, and mode and time of treatment were obtained from the medical records of all indirect TON patients. Results: Indirect TON patients are mainly young males (94%) and road traffic accident (RTA) (65%) is the main cause of TON, followed by falls (19%) and sport-related activities (11%). Visual acuity loss was severe in more than 50% of the subjects and only 16%% of the patients showed improvement in visual acuity greater than one line. Pattern visual evoked potentials and visual fields are recordable only in 15% of the subjects. Commonly associated ocular complications in indirect TON patients were orbital fracture (43%), lid tear (16%), sub-conjunctival haemorrhage (13.5%), and angle recession (13.5%). Three out of four patients who received methylprednisolone and oral steroids within a week showed an improvement in visual acuity of greater than three lines, while just one patient out of four who received the same medication after a week improved visual acuity of three lines. Conclusion: RTA (road traffic accidents) is the most common cause of indirect TON and mainly young males were the affected individuals. IVMP along with oral steroids within a week, would help TON patients for reasonable visual recovery. Presenting Visual acuity of > 6/600 and recordable pattern VEPs would be the prognostic factors for good visual outcomes in indirect TON patients.
Aim: To determine the absolute and relative ocular protrusion values in normal south Indian popul... more Aim: To determine the absolute and relative ocular protrusion values in normal south Indian population, and its relation to age, gender and type of refractive error. Methods: A total of 387 subjects aged 7-70 years were included in this study. Both right and left absolute ocular protrusion values were measured by a single physician using Luedde exophthalmometer in primary gaze. Right eye ocular protrusion data were used for reporting the absolute ocular protrusion values, and difference between right and left eye absolute ocular protrusion values of the same individual was used to report the relative ocular protrusion values. Subject age was grouped as decades. Measurement values were evaluated by descriptive and inferential statistics. Results: The mean absolute ocular protrusion of right eye was 14.67 ± 1.70 mm and left eye was 14.32 ± 1.75 mm. The mean right absolute ocular protrusion values from 1st to 7th decade were 12.
To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi... more To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia. Methods: Peer-reviewed articles with data from Saudi Arabian children were extracted between the years 1990 and 2020. The Cochrane Library, PubMed, OVIS, Embase and Google Scholar were used to extract the relevant articles. The paper quality was assessed using a critical assessment tool designed for systematic reviews and from 22 retrieved citations, seven studies were included in this systematic review. Results: Out of 15 281 pooled children from seven papers, the estimated prevalence of amblyopia was 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.1%-2.6%). Significant heterogeneity (p < 0.001) was found among these studies. Conclusion: The pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia is approximately 2.3%. This systemic review also demonstrates that there are limited studies that evaluated the prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia and mostly they had a gender bias. Contribution: This article presents the prevalence of amblyopia among the children of Saudi Arabia and also the variances in the prevalence of amblyopia among the various regions of Saudi Arabia.
Journal of the Optical Society of America, Feb 4, 2014
Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field... more Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field stimuli with sawtooth temporal profiles. The effects of temporal frequency and contrast were studied. ERG recordings were obtained from 21 trichromatic, 1 protanopic, and 1 deuteranopic subjects. ERGs to L-cone increments and decrements resembled those to M-cone decrements and increments, respectively (i.e., of the opposite polarity). Temporal frequency and contrast had little effect on the implicit times. All response components varied linearly with contrast. When stimulated simultaneously, the responsivities of most components were larger for counterphase than for inphase modulation. The retinal processing leading to an ERG response is reversed for Land M-cone driven responses.
Purpose To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Opti... more Purpose To report the aetiology, visual outcome, and clinical features of indirect traumatic Optic Neuropathy (TON) patients from the tertiary eye care center, South India. Methods It is aretrospective and observational study. Details of ge, gender, number of days of presentation after injury, Snellen visual acuity at presentation and last follow-up, visual evoked potentials, visual field findings using the Humphrey visual field analyser, associated ocular complications, and mode and time of treatment were obtained from the medical records of all indirect TON patients. Results Indirect TON patients are mainly young males (94%) and the road traffic accident (RTA)(65%) is the main cause of TON , followed by falls (19%) and sport-related activities (11%). Visual acuity loss was severe in more than 50% of the subjects and only 16%% of the patients have shown improvement in visual acuity greater than one line. Pattern visual evoked potentials and visual fields are recordable only in 15% ...
To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi... more To use a literature review to estimate the pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia. Methods: Peer-reviewed articles with data from Saudi Arabian children were extracted between the years 1990 and 2020. The Cochrane Library, PubMed, OVIS, Embase and Google Scholar were used to extract the relevant articles. The paper quality was assessed using a critical assessment tool designed for systematic reviews and from 22 retrieved citations, seven studies were included in this systematic review. Results: Out of 15 281 pooled children from seven papers, the estimated prevalence of amblyopia was 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.1%-2.6%). Significant heterogeneity (p < 0.001) was found among these studies. Conclusion: The pooled prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia is approximately 2.3%. This systemic review also demonstrates that there are limited studies that evaluated the prevalence of amblyopia among children of Saudi Arabia and mostly they had a gender bias. Contribution: This article presents the prevalence of amblyopia among the children of Saudi Arabia and also the variances in the prevalence of amblyopia among the various regions of Saudi Arabia.
We recorded Land M-cone isolating ERGs from human subjects using a silent substitution technique ... more We recorded Land M-cone isolating ERGs from human subjects using a silent substitution technique at temporal rates of 12 and 30 Hz. These frequencies isolate the activity of cone-opponent and non-opponent post-receptoral mechanisms, respectively. ERGs were obtained using a sequence of stimuli with different spatial configurations comprising; (1) circular stimuli of different sizes which increased in 10°steps up to 70°diameter, or (2) annular stimuli with a 70°outer diameter but with different sized central ablations from 10°up to 60°. Land M-cone isolating ERGs were obtained from five colour normal subjects using a DTL fibre electrode. Fourier analysis of the ERGs was performed and we measured the amplitude of the first harmonic of the response. For 12 Hz ERGs the L:M cone response amplitude ratio (L:M ERG) was close to unity and remained stable irrespective of the spatial configuration of the stimulus. The maintenance of this balanced ratio points to the existence of cone selective input across the human retina for the L-M cone opponent mechanism. For 30 Hz the L:M ERG ratio was greater than unity but varied depending upon which region of the retina was being stimulated. This variation we consider to be a consequence of the global response properties of M-cone ERGs rather than representing a real variation in L:M cone ratios across the retina.
Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field... more Land M-cone driven on-and off-ERG responses and their interactions were examined using full field stimuli with sawtooth temporal profiles. The effects of temporal frequency and contrast were studied. ERG recordings were obtained from 21 trichromatic, 1 protanopic, and 1 deuteranopic subjects. ERGs to L-cone increments and decrements resembled those to M-cone decrements and increments, respectively (i.e., of the opposite polarity). Temporal frequency and contrast had little effect on the implicit times. All response components varied linearly with contrast. When stimulated simultaneously, the responsivities of most components were larger for counterphase than for inphase modulation. The retinal processing leading to an ERG response is reversed for Land M-cone driven responses.
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