Казарницкий А.А., Строков А.А. К вопросу об аланах в Крыму в эпоху Великого переселения народов // Материалы по археологии и истории античного и средневекового Причерноморья, № 14, 2022, с. 155-181., 2022
В крымской археологии существует мнение, что в склепах могильников эпохи раннего средневековья по... more В крымской археологии существует мнение, что в склепах могильников эпохи раннего средневековья погребены представители аланского этноса, мигрировавшие в Крым с территории Кавказа. Такой вывод был основан на сходстве конструкций склепов и Т-образных аланских катакомб, однако он подвергается справедливой критике со стороны специалистов по сарматской археологии. В данном исследовании предпринята попытка проверить эту гипотезу методами физической антропологии. Кроме материалов из крымских могильников Сувлу-Кая, Инкерман, Черная речка и из раннеаланских памятников Северного Кавказа, изучен большой сравнительный материал различных археологических культур Восточной, Центральной и Южной Европы. Сделан вывод, что погребённые в крымских склепах вряд ли имели отношение к аланам или сарматам и, возможно, были потомками автохтонного «таврского» населения Крыма. Физический же облик погребённых в подбойных захоронениях имеет наибольшее сходство с таковым в позднесарматских и раннеаланских сообществах / DEAR ALL! RE-DOWNLOAD THIS CORRECTED FILE. Some specialists in Crimean archaeology tend to believe that Early Medieval Crimean vaults may contain bone remains of the Alans who once moved to the peninsula from the Caucasus. Such an assumption is based on the similarity of vault burial structures and T-shaped Alanian catacomb graves. However, arguments like this is fairly criticized by specialists in Sarmatian archaeology. We have tried to test this hypothesis with the use of methods taken from physical anthropology. In addition to materials from Crimean burial grounds of Suvlu-Kaya, Inkerman, Chernaya Rechka and from Early Alanian sites in the North Caucasus, we used a wide range of comparative materials from various archaeological cultures of Eastern, Central and Southern Europe. The conclusion is that people buried in the Crimean vaults were hardly related to the Alans or the Sarmatians and presumably originated from autochthonous ‘Taurian’ population. At the same time, the physical appearance of people buried in niche graves is very similar to that of people belonging to the Late Sarmatian and the Early Alanian groups.
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The region where samples were selected is located in the south of the Russian Plain in the Rostov region. It is an area cov- ered by the Sal-Manych steppes, the western slopes of the Mid- dle Yergueni Hills and the Left Bank of the Lower Don region. Other samples were selected in the Middle and the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Kuma-Manych Depression in the Repub- lic of Kalmykia where several large riverine systems are located such as the Don basin, the basin of the Sal river which is a trib- utary of the Don with smaller steppe rivers flowing into the Sal, in particular, the Dzhurak-Sal and the Manych rivers.
The main tasks of this study were to carefully select natu- ral samples from the sites located around major archaeological sites, i.e. kurgan burial grounds and seasonal camps; determine variations in the 87Sr/86Sr values of these samples; perform comparative analysis of the strontium isotopic ratios of vari- ous ecosystem elements; verify the intervals in the bioavailable samples discussed earlier and estimate spatial variations in bio- available strontium isotope ratios in the studied region.
The Rostov region is located in the junction zone between the East European pre-Cambrian craton and the epi-Hercynian Scythian Plate. The geological structure of the area in question is characterized by distribution of rocks of various ages from the Paleogene to the Neo-Pleistocene. The most common sediments in the Rostov region are Cenozoic, i.e. the Paleogene, the Neo- gene and the Quaternary systems such as sands, clays, marls with a phosphorite horizon and white limestone. The geologi-
cal aspects of the Kuma-Manych Depression are characterized by distribution of alluvial-marine Lower Khvalynian and Kha- zarian plains and terraced plains, accumulative Upper Quater- nary, alluvial-lacustrine accumulative Khvalynian and post- Khvalynian plains.
The number of samples selected in the Rostov region and the Republic of Kalmykia which were analyzed is 88, these sam- ples are various elements of the steppe ecosystem from 57 sites. The analysis demonstrates variations in the strontium isotope composition of various ecosystem elements depending on the sampling sites located in different geological and lithological conditions. However, on the whole, no contrast variations in the isotopic composition were observed, which is explained by the geological age and type of the underlying rock that occurs in the studied region. A good correlation of the variations in the strontium isotopic ratios was recorded in various ecosystem ele- ments at most sampling sites. However, the range of such ratios obtained for several sampling sites was rather wide, reflecting a mix of strontium sources in the bioavailable samples. In the analyzed region, in particular, in the Remontnoye district of the Rostov region, and, to some extent, in Kalmykia, a specific nat- ural and ecological situation characterized by wind and water erosion, groundwater flooding, dust storms, salinization, mor- phogenetic processes, for example, water-logging, sedimenta- tion and other natural effects, should be taken into account as they can lead to a mix of strontium sources.
It is likely that there are a number of factors that have an adverse effect on the isotopic composition of the selected eco- system elements because the Remontnoye district and the Re- public of Kalmykia are located in a risky agriculture zone where farming methods are based on application of large quantities of chemical fertilizers and chemical weed and pest killers. The de- struction of the topsoil by continuous deep plowing-up leads to wind erosion; loss of topsoil and the use of the balka slopes as arable land have a detrimental impact on the isotopic compo- sition of virtually dry balkas. This is the main factor contributing to such wide ranges of variations in the strontium isotopic values of the samples selected from the archaeological context and the modern topsoil.
Based on the data, six isotopic groups were singled out. The prepared isoscape of several microareas in the Rostov re- gion and the Republic of Kalmykia is based on the correlation of the isotopic data obtained by analyzing various elements of the ecosystems such as buried and modern soils, plants, bones of contemporary and archaeological fauna within a small ha- bitat and water surface and ground sources. Though the same sampling sites were used, in some cases, there were outliers, sometimes, extreme outliers. We believe that in such cases the samples cannot be used in estimation of the local range of iso- topic values of bioavailable strontium because they do not al- ways reflect the variations in the strontium isotopes contained in soil, plants, animals and water. It is necessary to carefully analyze probability of strong anthropogenic impact on the iso- topic composition of bioavailable samples, impact of natural conditions and also take into account the correlation of data obtained for various ecosystem elements. The strontium isotopic ratios of soil can differ substantially from bioavailable Sr which is absorbed by plants and enters the trophic chain because of impurities in the atmosphere such as precipitation and spindrift as well as outflow of water from streams and ground water.
Such samples and even sampling sites were not used in the analysis and preparation of the isoscapes and need to be care- fully examined. The density of sampling in the areas with dif- ferent geological and lithological characteristics should be in- creased.
Nevertheless, the identified six groups of variations in the 87Sr/86Sr ratios make it possible to apply the prepared isoscapes for several microareas of the studied region in order to explore the issue of local/nonlocal origin of both specific individu- als and animals as well as use of local or imported resources in achieving economic tasks and addressing other issues by the steppe populations that lived in various historical periods.
Twenty-two specimens, predominantly, tubular bones of domesticated animals, located at various depths were selected for radiocarbon dating; collagen was not preserved in six spec- imens; based on the radiocarbon dating, one specimen of the animal bone retrieved from the Peschanaya I camp was dated to the 1950s and was excluded from the analysis.
The radiocarbon dating provided 16 radiocarbon dates (ta- ble 1). The Bayesian model consists of seven cultural and chron- ological phases that can be correlated with the radiocarbon dates calculated on the specimens from the funerary assemblag- es found in the Sal-Manych steppes.
Phase 1: the Eneolithic period. Based on the radiocarbon dates obtained on the horse bones from the lower layers of the Bolshaya Elista and Volochaika-4 camps and the bones of an un- gulate animal from Chikalda-6, the following calibrated inter- val was proposed: 4312—3326 calBC (95.4%); it is consistent with the radiocarbon calibrated dates on the Eneolithic burials in the studied region which fall within 4335—3644 calBC.
Phase 2: the Yamnaya period. The bones of the ungulates from the lower layers of the Temrta-I and Chikalda-7 camps were dated. The calibrated interval, which is 3334—2530 calBC (95.4%), is consistent with the Yamnaya burials in this region falling within 2880—2676 calBC. Ornamented ceramics from Temrta-I are similar to the Yamnaya ornamented vessels from the burials in the Lower Don region and the northwestern Cas- pian Sea region.
Phase 3: the Catacomb period. The radiocarbon age of the bones of the sheep and the ungulates from the lower and the middle layers of the Chikalda-6, Chikalda-7 and Volochaika-4 camps made it possible to propose the calibrated interval falling within 2417—1966 calBC (95.4 %). This timeframe is consistent with the dates obtained on multiple regional East Manych and West Manych Catacomb burials, i.e. 2350—2285 calBC. Sever- al fragments of the ceramics from Chikalda-6 and Volochaika-4
are decorated with a Catacomb pattern. It is likely that at the end of 3000 BC these camps were also visited by the Lola popu- lation groups.
A more than a thousand year gap has been recorded be- tween this phase and the subsequent phases. This could mean that we have not yet found such camps in the balka system of the Sal-Manych steppes visited by some population groups in the period from the early second millennium BC to the first mil- lennium BC. At the same time the discovered burials of that time are also extremely few in number which, probably, means that this region was abandoned by the population because of aridization of the climate during the transition from the third millennium BC to the second millennium BC. Traditional routes of the moves with the herds between the grasslands changed and the grasslands were not used.
Phase 4: the Scythian period (the Early Iron Age). The cali- brated interval of this phase, which is 782—244 calBC (95.4 %), was determined based on only one date obtained on a bovine bone from the upper layer of the Bolshaya Elista camp in the Sal river basin. The cultural attribution of the ceramics is not pos- sible because these ceramic vessels are plain; there are practi- cally no radiocarbon dates that would fall within the first half of the first millennium BC obtained on the Early Iron Age graves, whereas the features of the funerary assemblages do not allow the scholars to attribute them to the Scythian period based on the funerary rite and the funerary offerings with certainty.
Phase 5: the Sarmatian period (the Early Iron Age). The ra- diocarbon age of three ungulate bones from Tseketa (the Sal ba- sin) and Keresta (the Manych basin) was used to propose the following calibrated interval: 267 BC—307 calBC (95.4%). At that time numerous Sarmatian population groups with differ- ences in specific elements of the funerary rite and the funerary offerings, inhabited the Sal steppes, the Kuma-Manych Depres- sion, the Lower and the Middle Don regions. Based on the radio- carbon dates calculated on the grave of a Sarmatian woman at Peschany IV, the camps and the Sarmatian graves can be dated to the same period.
Phase 6: the Migration Period. The context of this historical age is not clear, as the sites left behind by the nomads of the Hun period and the post-Hun period are extremely rare: the over- all number of the graves is slightly more than 100, camps and items are found rarely in the Dnieper region and the Lower Don region. However, even though there is only one date available, which is the date on an ungulate bone from the upper layers at Temrta-1, the calibrated period was set based on this date as 306—634 calAD (95.4 %), which means that this interval can be referred to the Migration Period, though so far no Hun or post- Hun graves have been found in the kurgans of the Sal steppes.
Phase 7: the Khazar Khaganate period. Plain ceramics from Temrta-5 did not make it possible to determine who stayed at this camp and what cultural tradition these individuals can be ascribed to. Based on the radiocarbon dates obtained on the un- gulate bones from the lower layers, the cultural/chronological interval was set at 592—935 calBC (95.4 %), this interval is cor- related with the existence period of the Khazar Khaganate in the Sal steppes.
Several population groups from various cultural contexts were not included into the seven analyzed cultural/chronolog-
ical phases: the Early Catacomb population groups which, ac- cording to the published and new radiocarbon data, began to build kurgans and make burials in the Sal steppes as early as 2700—2600 calBC; medieval nomads of the 10th—13th centu- ries; and the population of the Golden Horde.
The recent data obtained confirm an earlier hypothesis stat- ing that the pastoral groups kept revisiting the short-term camps located in the balkas of the Sal-Manych steppes on multiple oc- casions, because few places in the open steppes were suitable for stay, even a short-term stay. For example, Bolshaya Elista was visited by people both in the Eneolithic and the Scythian peri- od; Volochaika-4 was temporarily occupied by the Eneolithic and Catacomb groups; the herders attributed to the Eneolithic and Catacomb cultures stayed at Chikalda-6 in various periods; the Yamnaya and Catacomb herders stayed at Chikalda-7; and the Yamnaya individuals and the individuals who lived in this region in the Migration Period stayed occasionally at Temrta-1.
Because of modern agricultural development in the studied regions and plowing-up of virgin lands in the Sal-Manych steppes of the Rostov region, the Yergueni Hills in the Repub- lic of Kalmykia and the southern part of the Voronezh region, almost all watershed lands are now plowed while forest vege- tation is reduced to cultivated forests or can be found only on erosive terrain. However, according to palynological data, in prehistory and the medieval period oaks, ash-trees, lime trees,
elm trees and hazels grew in valley forests; poplars (aspens), willow trees, alders and elm trees grew on erosive terrains and in low-lying flood-prone areas of the steppe belt in the south of the Russian Plain. Over the last 5000 years species distribu- tion of broad-leaved trees and the area covered by forests have changed due to climatic fluctuations and human economic ac- tivities.
To perform the study, 24 samples from 9 burials were se- lected. First, we performed xylotomic analysis to determine taxonomic affiliation of wood fragments. Then, once the spe- cies of wood were identified, samples were selected from the wood fragments for estimation of variations in the strontium isotopic ratios.
The analyzed sample dataset includes predominantly oak, elm; in rare cases, oleaster, aspen and maple; pine, lime, birch, willow and ash are represented by only one sample of each species. In most cases, roofs of burial pits were made of hardwood such as oak, maple, and elm, though softwood (aspen and pine) as well as branches of oleaster, or wild ol- ive (a species of Elaeagnus) have been recorded as well. The frame of the quiver covered with birch bark was made of soft limewood. Oakwood was used to make one of the wheel frag- ments while a rear wheel hub was made of ashwood which is relatively elastic and durable. The knife case was made of wood that comes from a broad-leaved tree, while the shafts of the arrows were made of willow. Therefore, to meet their needs, craftsmen who specialized in woodworking used vari- ous tree species.
The estimated variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of 16 samples are helpful in understanding whether wood was local or nonlocal. The data obtained were compared with the baseline variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of var- ious local ecosystem elements. On the whole, the variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the archaeological wood samples of all species from the kurgans at Peschany V and Pe- schany IV located in the Sal-Manych steppes are almost iden- tical, the range of variations is very small (87Sr/86Sr: 0.70919— 0.70935). These variations are a little bit wider than the variations in the strontium isotopic ratio of the wood sample of a modern wild olive growing on the gentle slope of the Pe- schanaya balka. The variations in the strontium isotopic val- ues of the soil cross-sections running from the upper (topsoil) horizon of the buried soil to the soil on the bottom of the buri- als in kurgans 19, 20 and 24 at Peschany IV fall within the fol- lowing 87Sr/86Sr range: 0.7091—0.7095.
Such differences in the isotopic composition of various ecosystem elements collected in the area of 500 m2 can be ex- plained by a mix of strontium sources, in particular, in the hu- mus horizon of modern soil, as isotopic values can be influ- enced by secondary products of weathering, precipitation, and isotopic composition of living biological organisms. Continu- ous application of chemical fertilizers in local agriculture can also impact the isotopic composition of plants and wood be- cause it may cause changes in the isotopic composition of the samples of the topsoil and the plants that grow on it. Hence, we use the estimated variations in the strontium isotopic ra- tios in the soil profiles in kurgans 19, 20 and 24 at Pescha- ny IV (87Sr/86Sr: 0.7091—0.7095) as a proxy. These data sug- gest that the trees from which the wood used in the funerary rites practiced by the Early Catacomb, West Manych and Sar- matian populations as well as the medieval nomads grew near the built kurgans.
The variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the wood (maple, oak) used to make some parts of the wagon from Ulan IV (87Sr/86Sr: 0.70929—0.70930) coincide with the isotopic sig- natures obtained for the enamel and the dentine in the teeth of the steppe dog fox (Vulpes corsac), the sheep astragalus and the soil from the bottom of the burials and the upper (topsoil) hori- zon of the buried soil in kurgan 3 located nearby.
The variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the ash samples from the Yergueni Hills are the same (0.7093) falling within the range of the strontium isotopic ratios of various eco- system samples selected on the watershed plateau around the
kurgans (modern topsoil, wormwood, and snails): 87Sr/86Sr: 0.70918—0.70944.
The range of variations in the strontium isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr) of the oak samples from two burials near the village of Sredny Ikorets in the Voronezh region is 0.70963—0.70995. These data are more radiogenic than the estimated variations in the strontium isotopic values of the water sample from the Ikorets river which is 0.7092, but are closer to the isotopic data for a snail from the Bityug river in the Pavlovsky district of the Voronezh region (0.7099).
From the point of view of the tree species distribution ar- eas, most analyzed items were made of wood that came from the tree species which naturally lived and reproduced in the ar- eas where the sites are located. Both presently and in the past the ecological niches where most species grew in ancient times and still grow today are located in the balkas and ravines (ole- aster) or in the low-lying flood prone areas of the rivers (oak, elm, ample, ash, aspen). One exception are fragments of pop- larwood (aspenwood) discovered at the Yergueni burial ground and fragments of pine retrieved from Peschany IV. Today both sites are located outside the distribution areas of these species.
With a high degree of probability, the lime quiver covered with birch bark was made of nonlocal wood. The area where Pe- schany IV is located is presently outside the birch and lime dis- tribution areas. Most likely, the quiver was made in the areas further to the north. While lime was present in the pollen spec- tra near Manych Lake during colder periods in the Subatlantic period and the Middle Ages, its presence among plant associa- tions has not been observed.
The comparison of palynological and modern landscape data with the variations in the strontium isotopic composition of the archaeological wood samples confirms the hypothesis that, in most cases, the wood used to build burial constructions in the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sal-Manych steppes, the Mid- dle Ikorets basin in the forest-steppe belt, was, most likely, a lo- cal resource.
Direct radiocarbon dating of the wood samples from the an- alyzed assemblages confirms that in 3000 calBC—early 1000 calAD maple, ash, oleaster, willow, elm and aspen grew in the south of the Russian Plain.
Thus, we can infer from the analysis of the wood samples se- lected from the Bronze Age, Early Iron Age and medieval funer- ary assemblages found in the dry steppe biomes of the Rostov region, the Republic of Kalmykia and the forest-steppe belt of the Voronezh region that the forest resources from these areas were actively exploited by the populations. Another important result of the study is the conclusion that the wood (maple, oak, ash) used to make the parts of the wagon found in a Catacomb grave at Ulan IV was local. It means that, most likely, the wagon was made in the Sal-Manych steppes.
The pollen spectra of the buried soil also confirm the results of the analysis performed to estimate variations in the stron- tium isotopic composition of the examined wood fragments. These data show that by the early 21st century the steppe land- scapes were completely changed by human economic activity.
The mound of kurgan 12 contained only one grave; it was made in a square pit with the walls lined with wood. A skel- eton of an adult woman of 30—35 (30—40) years old was ly- ing on the pit bottom along a diagonal line, with the head fac- ing southwest. A hiding place in the form of a pit was made in the grave bottom. Despite the fact that the grave was looted, it yielded abundant funerary offerings including utensils, acces- sories and tools.
The utensils included bronze cauldrons and clay vessels as well as an iron hook. A bronze cast cauldron with a semi-spheri- cal body was standing on the bottom of the hiding place. Anoth- er bronze cast cauldron with a spherical body, a foot resembling a wineglass and two zoomorphic and two plain looped handles was found near the left arm of the buried woman. Clay ceram- ics included gray clay polished vessels.
The grave contained several costume pieces and jewelry pieces. A bonze fibula with a pin (a Kostrzewski N type fibula from the Late La Tène period, variant a) was lying behind the skull; a bronze hinged arching fibula was found in the south- eastern corner. A chalcedony engraved gemstone (intaglio) on a cabochon displaying an image of Eros armed with a bow, a lance, a sword, and a shield was discovered near the legs of the deceased. A large number of gold plaques and threads, glass, chalk and jet beads were found on and around the skeleton, two gold wire temple rings were lying near the neck.
The tool assemblage included ordinary items such as an iron single-edged knife with a straight back and a fragmented bicon- ical spindle whorl.
Based on the construction design of the funerary construc- tion and the rite, this grave at Peschany IV is ascribed to the Sarmatian culture of the 1st—2nd centuries AD. In that period graves were made in large square pits, with a deceased person lying in a supine extended posture along a diagonal line, with the skull facing the south. Another typical feature of the Mid- dle Sarmatian sites is a set made up of two cauldrons—a small cauldron and a large cauldron—placed in the grave. Rich funer- ary offerings, including gold ornaments of clothing and two cast cauldrons, suggest that the deceased woman buried in kurgan 12 at Peschany IV belonged to the high-ranking Sarmatian elite.
The funerary assemblage is important as it helps put this grave in its chronological and historical context. The bronze cast cauldrons, the engraved gemstone as well as the fibulae, which are main chronological indicators of the assemblage, play a key role in determining the chronology of the grave. The scholars date the large cauldron to the period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD; the cauldron with the zoo- morphic handles is dated to the 1st—first half of the 2nd centu-
ries AD; the bronze fibula with an arching bow and a ‘bead’ on its body is of Kostrzewski N type from the Late La Tène period, variant a, this fibula is a unique find for the South of Russia. It is dated to the transition period from the former era to the current era: from 10 BC to 15 AD. Such fibulae are not known in the cor- pus of the Sarmatian fibulae. The main area of their distribution is central Europe (the so called Iron Age Germany), these fibu- lae are the main type dating to the last stage of the pre-Roman Iron Age in central Europe. In western Europe hinged fibulae of the Alesia type are dated to the second half of the 1st century BC. The chalcedony intaglio can be dated to the 1st century AD.
To verify the chronology of the grave, a sample of the skel- eton bone and a wood fragment were dated. According to the data obtained, the grave can be dated to the second half of the 1stcenturyBC—firsthalfofthe1stcenturyAD.Basedontheab- solute dates of the chronologically relevant groups of the funer- ary offerings, the Peschany IV grave can be referred to the 1st century AD; when combined with the radiocarbon dates, this interval can be narrowed down to the first half of the 1st centu- ry AD. With some caution, we can suggest that the dating of the Peschany IV grave in question can be placed even within a nar- rower range, which is the transition period from the former era to the current era—first quarter of the 1st century AD.
Therefore, the review of the funerary rite and the funerary offerings from grave 1, kurgan 12, at Peschany IV and the com- parative analysis enabled the authors to attribute this assemblage to the Middle Sarmatian culture with a high degree of certainty. This review was followed by an interdisciplinary study to verify the chronology of the studied grave which came to the conclu- sion that a high-ranking Sarmatian woman of 30—40 years old was buried on the western slope of the Yergueni Hills roughly be- tween the transition period from the former era to the current era and the middle of the 1st century AD; the stable isotopic analysis (strontium isotopic variations) showed that she was born in the Sal-Manych steppes and spent all her life there.
The ‘narrow’ chronological interval obtained by the compar- ative and typological analyses and AMS-dating, possibly, means that the population groups attributed to the Middle Sarmatian culture which reached a high level in their development lived in the Sal-Manych steppes on the periphery of the Sarmatian area (the main high-ranking cemeteries of that period are concen- trated in the Volga-Don interfluve and the Lower Don region) as early as the 1st century AD, which may mean that this culture appeared in the Volga-Don interfluve earlier, though the Middle Sarmatian culture is traditionally thought to have emerged un- der the influence of the Alan population groups that migrated from the east in the 1st century AD.
The analysis of the funerary offerings shows that the Middle Sarmatian population groups that lived in the Sal-Manych interfluve at that time maintained contacts with the population of the western areas, in particular, the Celt cultures of central Europe as attested by the finds of the Late La Tène and the Roman period fibulae at Peschany IV and other cemeteries. The Alesia type fibulae discovered in the Crimea and the Cauca- sus were probably, made in the northern Black Sea region and reached the Don and Caspian steppes via trade routes through Tanais. However, the Kostrzewski N-a type of fibulae, which is the main type of the Late La Tène period in central Europe, has been retrieved only from three Sarmatian graves scattered across a rather large area which extends from the Carpathian region to the Volga-Don interfluve; they are not known in the Crimea and the northern Black Sea region. If such fibulae had been made in a local eastern European shop, the number of the finds in eastern Europe would have been much greater. It is not yet clear how the fibulae of this type ended up in the grave in question at Peschany IV. One option is traditional trade through Ancient Greece city-states, in particular, Tanais; another option suggests direct contacts between the Sarmatian groups and the early Slavic groups attributed to the Zarubinetsk cultural tradi- tion who also used this type of fibulae.
Besides, the independent AMS-dating of the samples from this grave shows that such rare things could appear in the Sar- matian cultural environment, including its periphery, almost immediately after having been produced, making it all the way from the production shop to the consumers who lived far away in the east. Therefore, such items should not always be referred to a later chronological period.
The results achieved enabled the authors to reconstruct the ‘life story’ of this high-ranking Middle Sarmatian woman who moved from place to place along the southeastern edge of this region inhabited by the Middle Sarmatian population, i.e. the Sal-Manych steppes, and could visit trading stations that linked this region with the areas of the western cultures where she could get imported jewelry.
the territory east to the Tisa River. This population differs from the Inner Asian Avars by their burial customs whose best
analogies can be found among the contemporary nomads of the steppe region of Eastern Europe, called Sivashovka group.
The main aim of this article is a special rite of the two regions: burials with whole horse skeletons. This element of the
burial rite was treated as a foreign influence — Avaric or Turkic. This study proves that this element was well embedded in
the structures of the funerary rite in both regions. Additionally, there are similarities, which show that both populations get
acquainted with this custom at the same time. We can state that the difference between the burials with horse hides and
the burials with whole skeletons is based on social, rather than ethnic grounds.
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The region where samples were selected is located in the south of the Russian Plain in the Rostov region. It is an area cov- ered by the Sal-Manych steppes, the western slopes of the Mid- dle Yergueni Hills and the Left Bank of the Lower Don region. Other samples were selected in the Middle and the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Kuma-Manych Depression in the Repub- lic of Kalmykia where several large riverine systems are located such as the Don basin, the basin of the Sal river which is a trib- utary of the Don with smaller steppe rivers flowing into the Sal, in particular, the Dzhurak-Sal and the Manych rivers.
The main tasks of this study were to carefully select natu- ral samples from the sites located around major archaeological sites, i.e. kurgan burial grounds and seasonal camps; determine variations in the 87Sr/86Sr values of these samples; perform comparative analysis of the strontium isotopic ratios of vari- ous ecosystem elements; verify the intervals in the bioavailable samples discussed earlier and estimate spatial variations in bio- available strontium isotope ratios in the studied region.
The Rostov region is located in the junction zone between the East European pre-Cambrian craton and the epi-Hercynian Scythian Plate. The geological structure of the area in question is characterized by distribution of rocks of various ages from the Paleogene to the Neo-Pleistocene. The most common sediments in the Rostov region are Cenozoic, i.e. the Paleogene, the Neo- gene and the Quaternary systems such as sands, clays, marls with a phosphorite horizon and white limestone. The geologi-
cal aspects of the Kuma-Manych Depression are characterized by distribution of alluvial-marine Lower Khvalynian and Kha- zarian plains and terraced plains, accumulative Upper Quater- nary, alluvial-lacustrine accumulative Khvalynian and post- Khvalynian plains.
The number of samples selected in the Rostov region and the Republic of Kalmykia which were analyzed is 88, these sam- ples are various elements of the steppe ecosystem from 57 sites. The analysis demonstrates variations in the strontium isotope composition of various ecosystem elements depending on the sampling sites located in different geological and lithological conditions. However, on the whole, no contrast variations in the isotopic composition were observed, which is explained by the geological age and type of the underlying rock that occurs in the studied region. A good correlation of the variations in the strontium isotopic ratios was recorded in various ecosystem ele- ments at most sampling sites. However, the range of such ratios obtained for several sampling sites was rather wide, reflecting a mix of strontium sources in the bioavailable samples. In the analyzed region, in particular, in the Remontnoye district of the Rostov region, and, to some extent, in Kalmykia, a specific nat- ural and ecological situation characterized by wind and water erosion, groundwater flooding, dust storms, salinization, mor- phogenetic processes, for example, water-logging, sedimenta- tion and other natural effects, should be taken into account as they can lead to a mix of strontium sources.
It is likely that there are a number of factors that have an adverse effect on the isotopic composition of the selected eco- system elements because the Remontnoye district and the Re- public of Kalmykia are located in a risky agriculture zone where farming methods are based on application of large quantities of chemical fertilizers and chemical weed and pest killers. The de- struction of the topsoil by continuous deep plowing-up leads to wind erosion; loss of topsoil and the use of the balka slopes as arable land have a detrimental impact on the isotopic compo- sition of virtually dry balkas. This is the main factor contributing to such wide ranges of variations in the strontium isotopic values of the samples selected from the archaeological context and the modern topsoil.
Based on the data, six isotopic groups were singled out. The prepared isoscape of several microareas in the Rostov re- gion and the Republic of Kalmykia is based on the correlation of the isotopic data obtained by analyzing various elements of the ecosystems such as buried and modern soils, plants, bones of contemporary and archaeological fauna within a small ha- bitat and water surface and ground sources. Though the same sampling sites were used, in some cases, there were outliers, sometimes, extreme outliers. We believe that in such cases the samples cannot be used in estimation of the local range of iso- topic values of bioavailable strontium because they do not al- ways reflect the variations in the strontium isotopes contained in soil, plants, animals and water. It is necessary to carefully analyze probability of strong anthropogenic impact on the iso- topic composition of bioavailable samples, impact of natural conditions and also take into account the correlation of data obtained for various ecosystem elements. The strontium isotopic ratios of soil can differ substantially from bioavailable Sr which is absorbed by plants and enters the trophic chain because of impurities in the atmosphere such as precipitation and spindrift as well as outflow of water from streams and ground water.
Such samples and even sampling sites were not used in the analysis and preparation of the isoscapes and need to be care- fully examined. The density of sampling in the areas with dif- ferent geological and lithological characteristics should be in- creased.
Nevertheless, the identified six groups of variations in the 87Sr/86Sr ratios make it possible to apply the prepared isoscapes for several microareas of the studied region in order to explore the issue of local/nonlocal origin of both specific individu- als and animals as well as use of local or imported resources in achieving economic tasks and addressing other issues by the steppe populations that lived in various historical periods.
Twenty-two specimens, predominantly, tubular bones of domesticated animals, located at various depths were selected for radiocarbon dating; collagen was not preserved in six spec- imens; based on the radiocarbon dating, one specimen of the animal bone retrieved from the Peschanaya I camp was dated to the 1950s and was excluded from the analysis.
The radiocarbon dating provided 16 radiocarbon dates (ta- ble 1). The Bayesian model consists of seven cultural and chron- ological phases that can be correlated with the radiocarbon dates calculated on the specimens from the funerary assemblag- es found in the Sal-Manych steppes.
Phase 1: the Eneolithic period. Based on the radiocarbon dates obtained on the horse bones from the lower layers of the Bolshaya Elista and Volochaika-4 camps and the bones of an un- gulate animal from Chikalda-6, the following calibrated inter- val was proposed: 4312—3326 calBC (95.4%); it is consistent with the radiocarbon calibrated dates on the Eneolithic burials in the studied region which fall within 4335—3644 calBC.
Phase 2: the Yamnaya period. The bones of the ungulates from the lower layers of the Temrta-I and Chikalda-7 camps were dated. The calibrated interval, which is 3334—2530 calBC (95.4%), is consistent with the Yamnaya burials in this region falling within 2880—2676 calBC. Ornamented ceramics from Temrta-I are similar to the Yamnaya ornamented vessels from the burials in the Lower Don region and the northwestern Cas- pian Sea region.
Phase 3: the Catacomb period. The radiocarbon age of the bones of the sheep and the ungulates from the lower and the middle layers of the Chikalda-6, Chikalda-7 and Volochaika-4 camps made it possible to propose the calibrated interval falling within 2417—1966 calBC (95.4 %). This timeframe is consistent with the dates obtained on multiple regional East Manych and West Manych Catacomb burials, i.e. 2350—2285 calBC. Sever- al fragments of the ceramics from Chikalda-6 and Volochaika-4
are decorated with a Catacomb pattern. It is likely that at the end of 3000 BC these camps were also visited by the Lola popu- lation groups.
A more than a thousand year gap has been recorded be- tween this phase and the subsequent phases. This could mean that we have not yet found such camps in the balka system of the Sal-Manych steppes visited by some population groups in the period from the early second millennium BC to the first mil- lennium BC. At the same time the discovered burials of that time are also extremely few in number which, probably, means that this region was abandoned by the population because of aridization of the climate during the transition from the third millennium BC to the second millennium BC. Traditional routes of the moves with the herds between the grasslands changed and the grasslands were not used.
Phase 4: the Scythian period (the Early Iron Age). The cali- brated interval of this phase, which is 782—244 calBC (95.4 %), was determined based on only one date obtained on a bovine bone from the upper layer of the Bolshaya Elista camp in the Sal river basin. The cultural attribution of the ceramics is not pos- sible because these ceramic vessels are plain; there are practi- cally no radiocarbon dates that would fall within the first half of the first millennium BC obtained on the Early Iron Age graves, whereas the features of the funerary assemblages do not allow the scholars to attribute them to the Scythian period based on the funerary rite and the funerary offerings with certainty.
Phase 5: the Sarmatian period (the Early Iron Age). The ra- diocarbon age of three ungulate bones from Tseketa (the Sal ba- sin) and Keresta (the Manych basin) was used to propose the following calibrated interval: 267 BC—307 calBC (95.4%). At that time numerous Sarmatian population groups with differ- ences in specific elements of the funerary rite and the funerary offerings, inhabited the Sal steppes, the Kuma-Manych Depres- sion, the Lower and the Middle Don regions. Based on the radio- carbon dates calculated on the grave of a Sarmatian woman at Peschany IV, the camps and the Sarmatian graves can be dated to the same period.
Phase 6: the Migration Period. The context of this historical age is not clear, as the sites left behind by the nomads of the Hun period and the post-Hun period are extremely rare: the over- all number of the graves is slightly more than 100, camps and items are found rarely in the Dnieper region and the Lower Don region. However, even though there is only one date available, which is the date on an ungulate bone from the upper layers at Temrta-1, the calibrated period was set based on this date as 306—634 calAD (95.4 %), which means that this interval can be referred to the Migration Period, though so far no Hun or post- Hun graves have been found in the kurgans of the Sal steppes.
Phase 7: the Khazar Khaganate period. Plain ceramics from Temrta-5 did not make it possible to determine who stayed at this camp and what cultural tradition these individuals can be ascribed to. Based on the radiocarbon dates obtained on the un- gulate bones from the lower layers, the cultural/chronological interval was set at 592—935 calBC (95.4 %), this interval is cor- related with the existence period of the Khazar Khaganate in the Sal steppes.
Several population groups from various cultural contexts were not included into the seven analyzed cultural/chronolog-
ical phases: the Early Catacomb population groups which, ac- cording to the published and new radiocarbon data, began to build kurgans and make burials in the Sal steppes as early as 2700—2600 calBC; medieval nomads of the 10th—13th centu- ries; and the population of the Golden Horde.
The recent data obtained confirm an earlier hypothesis stat- ing that the pastoral groups kept revisiting the short-term camps located in the balkas of the Sal-Manych steppes on multiple oc- casions, because few places in the open steppes were suitable for stay, even a short-term stay. For example, Bolshaya Elista was visited by people both in the Eneolithic and the Scythian peri- od; Volochaika-4 was temporarily occupied by the Eneolithic and Catacomb groups; the herders attributed to the Eneolithic and Catacomb cultures stayed at Chikalda-6 in various periods; the Yamnaya and Catacomb herders stayed at Chikalda-7; and the Yamnaya individuals and the individuals who lived in this region in the Migration Period stayed occasionally at Temrta-1.
Because of modern agricultural development in the studied regions and plowing-up of virgin lands in the Sal-Manych steppes of the Rostov region, the Yergueni Hills in the Repub- lic of Kalmykia and the southern part of the Voronezh region, almost all watershed lands are now plowed while forest vege- tation is reduced to cultivated forests or can be found only on erosive terrain. However, according to palynological data, in prehistory and the medieval period oaks, ash-trees, lime trees,
elm trees and hazels grew in valley forests; poplars (aspens), willow trees, alders and elm trees grew on erosive terrains and in low-lying flood-prone areas of the steppe belt in the south of the Russian Plain. Over the last 5000 years species distribu- tion of broad-leaved trees and the area covered by forests have changed due to climatic fluctuations and human economic ac- tivities.
To perform the study, 24 samples from 9 burials were se- lected. First, we performed xylotomic analysis to determine taxonomic affiliation of wood fragments. Then, once the spe- cies of wood were identified, samples were selected from the wood fragments for estimation of variations in the strontium isotopic ratios.
The analyzed sample dataset includes predominantly oak, elm; in rare cases, oleaster, aspen and maple; pine, lime, birch, willow and ash are represented by only one sample of each species. In most cases, roofs of burial pits were made of hardwood such as oak, maple, and elm, though softwood (aspen and pine) as well as branches of oleaster, or wild ol- ive (a species of Elaeagnus) have been recorded as well. The frame of the quiver covered with birch bark was made of soft limewood. Oakwood was used to make one of the wheel frag- ments while a rear wheel hub was made of ashwood which is relatively elastic and durable. The knife case was made of wood that comes from a broad-leaved tree, while the shafts of the arrows were made of willow. Therefore, to meet their needs, craftsmen who specialized in woodworking used vari- ous tree species.
The estimated variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of 16 samples are helpful in understanding whether wood was local or nonlocal. The data obtained were compared with the baseline variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of var- ious local ecosystem elements. On the whole, the variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the archaeological wood samples of all species from the kurgans at Peschany V and Pe- schany IV located in the Sal-Manych steppes are almost iden- tical, the range of variations is very small (87Sr/86Sr: 0.70919— 0.70935). These variations are a little bit wider than the variations in the strontium isotopic ratio of the wood sample of a modern wild olive growing on the gentle slope of the Pe- schanaya balka. The variations in the strontium isotopic val- ues of the soil cross-sections running from the upper (topsoil) horizon of the buried soil to the soil on the bottom of the buri- als in kurgans 19, 20 and 24 at Peschany IV fall within the fol- lowing 87Sr/86Sr range: 0.7091—0.7095.
Such differences in the isotopic composition of various ecosystem elements collected in the area of 500 m2 can be ex- plained by a mix of strontium sources, in particular, in the hu- mus horizon of modern soil, as isotopic values can be influ- enced by secondary products of weathering, precipitation, and isotopic composition of living biological organisms. Continu- ous application of chemical fertilizers in local agriculture can also impact the isotopic composition of plants and wood be- cause it may cause changes in the isotopic composition of the samples of the topsoil and the plants that grow on it. Hence, we use the estimated variations in the strontium isotopic ra- tios in the soil profiles in kurgans 19, 20 and 24 at Pescha- ny IV (87Sr/86Sr: 0.7091—0.7095) as a proxy. These data sug- gest that the trees from which the wood used in the funerary rites practiced by the Early Catacomb, West Manych and Sar- matian populations as well as the medieval nomads grew near the built kurgans.
The variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the wood (maple, oak) used to make some parts of the wagon from Ulan IV (87Sr/86Sr: 0.70929—0.70930) coincide with the isotopic sig- natures obtained for the enamel and the dentine in the teeth of the steppe dog fox (Vulpes corsac), the sheep astragalus and the soil from the bottom of the burials and the upper (topsoil) hori- zon of the buried soil in kurgan 3 located nearby.
The variations in the strontium isotopic ratios of the ash samples from the Yergueni Hills are the same (0.7093) falling within the range of the strontium isotopic ratios of various eco- system samples selected on the watershed plateau around the
kurgans (modern topsoil, wormwood, and snails): 87Sr/86Sr: 0.70918—0.70944.
The range of variations in the strontium isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr) of the oak samples from two burials near the village of Sredny Ikorets in the Voronezh region is 0.70963—0.70995. These data are more radiogenic than the estimated variations in the strontium isotopic values of the water sample from the Ikorets river which is 0.7092, but are closer to the isotopic data for a snail from the Bityug river in the Pavlovsky district of the Voronezh region (0.7099).
From the point of view of the tree species distribution ar- eas, most analyzed items were made of wood that came from the tree species which naturally lived and reproduced in the ar- eas where the sites are located. Both presently and in the past the ecological niches where most species grew in ancient times and still grow today are located in the balkas and ravines (ole- aster) or in the low-lying flood prone areas of the rivers (oak, elm, ample, ash, aspen). One exception are fragments of pop- larwood (aspenwood) discovered at the Yergueni burial ground and fragments of pine retrieved from Peschany IV. Today both sites are located outside the distribution areas of these species.
With a high degree of probability, the lime quiver covered with birch bark was made of nonlocal wood. The area where Pe- schany IV is located is presently outside the birch and lime dis- tribution areas. Most likely, the quiver was made in the areas further to the north. While lime was present in the pollen spec- tra near Manych Lake during colder periods in the Subatlantic period and the Middle Ages, its presence among plant associa- tions has not been observed.
The comparison of palynological and modern landscape data with the variations in the strontium isotopic composition of the archaeological wood samples confirms the hypothesis that, in most cases, the wood used to build burial constructions in the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sal-Manych steppes, the Mid- dle Ikorets basin in the forest-steppe belt, was, most likely, a lo- cal resource.
Direct radiocarbon dating of the wood samples from the an- alyzed assemblages confirms that in 3000 calBC—early 1000 calAD maple, ash, oleaster, willow, elm and aspen grew in the south of the Russian Plain.
Thus, we can infer from the analysis of the wood samples se- lected from the Bronze Age, Early Iron Age and medieval funer- ary assemblages found in the dry steppe biomes of the Rostov region, the Republic of Kalmykia and the forest-steppe belt of the Voronezh region that the forest resources from these areas were actively exploited by the populations. Another important result of the study is the conclusion that the wood (maple, oak, ash) used to make the parts of the wagon found in a Catacomb grave at Ulan IV was local. It means that, most likely, the wagon was made in the Sal-Manych steppes.
The pollen spectra of the buried soil also confirm the results of the analysis performed to estimate variations in the stron- tium isotopic composition of the examined wood fragments. These data show that by the early 21st century the steppe land- scapes were completely changed by human economic activity.
The mound of kurgan 12 contained only one grave; it was made in a square pit with the walls lined with wood. A skel- eton of an adult woman of 30—35 (30—40) years old was ly- ing on the pit bottom along a diagonal line, with the head fac- ing southwest. A hiding place in the form of a pit was made in the grave bottom. Despite the fact that the grave was looted, it yielded abundant funerary offerings including utensils, acces- sories and tools.
The utensils included bronze cauldrons and clay vessels as well as an iron hook. A bronze cast cauldron with a semi-spheri- cal body was standing on the bottom of the hiding place. Anoth- er bronze cast cauldron with a spherical body, a foot resembling a wineglass and two zoomorphic and two plain looped handles was found near the left arm of the buried woman. Clay ceram- ics included gray clay polished vessels.
The grave contained several costume pieces and jewelry pieces. A bonze fibula with a pin (a Kostrzewski N type fibula from the Late La Tène period, variant a) was lying behind the skull; a bronze hinged arching fibula was found in the south- eastern corner. A chalcedony engraved gemstone (intaglio) on a cabochon displaying an image of Eros armed with a bow, a lance, a sword, and a shield was discovered near the legs of the deceased. A large number of gold plaques and threads, glass, chalk and jet beads were found on and around the skeleton, two gold wire temple rings were lying near the neck.
The tool assemblage included ordinary items such as an iron single-edged knife with a straight back and a fragmented bicon- ical spindle whorl.
Based on the construction design of the funerary construc- tion and the rite, this grave at Peschany IV is ascribed to the Sarmatian culture of the 1st—2nd centuries AD. In that period graves were made in large square pits, with a deceased person lying in a supine extended posture along a diagonal line, with the skull facing the south. Another typical feature of the Mid- dle Sarmatian sites is a set made up of two cauldrons—a small cauldron and a large cauldron—placed in the grave. Rich funer- ary offerings, including gold ornaments of clothing and two cast cauldrons, suggest that the deceased woman buried in kurgan 12 at Peschany IV belonged to the high-ranking Sarmatian elite.
The funerary assemblage is important as it helps put this grave in its chronological and historical context. The bronze cast cauldrons, the engraved gemstone as well as the fibulae, which are main chronological indicators of the assemblage, play a key role in determining the chronology of the grave. The scholars date the large cauldron to the period between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD; the cauldron with the zoo- morphic handles is dated to the 1st—first half of the 2nd centu-
ries AD; the bronze fibula with an arching bow and a ‘bead’ on its body is of Kostrzewski N type from the Late La Tène period, variant a, this fibula is a unique find for the South of Russia. It is dated to the transition period from the former era to the current era: from 10 BC to 15 AD. Such fibulae are not known in the cor- pus of the Sarmatian fibulae. The main area of their distribution is central Europe (the so called Iron Age Germany), these fibu- lae are the main type dating to the last stage of the pre-Roman Iron Age in central Europe. In western Europe hinged fibulae of the Alesia type are dated to the second half of the 1st century BC. The chalcedony intaglio can be dated to the 1st century AD.
To verify the chronology of the grave, a sample of the skel- eton bone and a wood fragment were dated. According to the data obtained, the grave can be dated to the second half of the 1stcenturyBC—firsthalfofthe1stcenturyAD.Basedontheab- solute dates of the chronologically relevant groups of the funer- ary offerings, the Peschany IV grave can be referred to the 1st century AD; when combined with the radiocarbon dates, this interval can be narrowed down to the first half of the 1st centu- ry AD. With some caution, we can suggest that the dating of the Peschany IV grave in question can be placed even within a nar- rower range, which is the transition period from the former era to the current era—first quarter of the 1st century AD.
Therefore, the review of the funerary rite and the funerary offerings from grave 1, kurgan 12, at Peschany IV and the com- parative analysis enabled the authors to attribute this assemblage to the Middle Sarmatian culture with a high degree of certainty. This review was followed by an interdisciplinary study to verify the chronology of the studied grave which came to the conclu- sion that a high-ranking Sarmatian woman of 30—40 years old was buried on the western slope of the Yergueni Hills roughly be- tween the transition period from the former era to the current era and the middle of the 1st century AD; the stable isotopic analysis (strontium isotopic variations) showed that she was born in the Sal-Manych steppes and spent all her life there.
The ‘narrow’ chronological interval obtained by the compar- ative and typological analyses and AMS-dating, possibly, means that the population groups attributed to the Middle Sarmatian culture which reached a high level in their development lived in the Sal-Manych steppes on the periphery of the Sarmatian area (the main high-ranking cemeteries of that period are concen- trated in the Volga-Don interfluve and the Lower Don region) as early as the 1st century AD, which may mean that this culture appeared in the Volga-Don interfluve earlier, though the Middle Sarmatian culture is traditionally thought to have emerged un- der the influence of the Alan population groups that migrated from the east in the 1st century AD.
The analysis of the funerary offerings shows that the Middle Sarmatian population groups that lived in the Sal-Manych interfluve at that time maintained contacts with the population of the western areas, in particular, the Celt cultures of central Europe as attested by the finds of the Late La Tène and the Roman period fibulae at Peschany IV and other cemeteries. The Alesia type fibulae discovered in the Crimea and the Cauca- sus were probably, made in the northern Black Sea region and reached the Don and Caspian steppes via trade routes through Tanais. However, the Kostrzewski N-a type of fibulae, which is the main type of the Late La Tène period in central Europe, has been retrieved only from three Sarmatian graves scattered across a rather large area which extends from the Carpathian region to the Volga-Don interfluve; they are not known in the Crimea and the northern Black Sea region. If such fibulae had been made in a local eastern European shop, the number of the finds in eastern Europe would have been much greater. It is not yet clear how the fibulae of this type ended up in the grave in question at Peschany IV. One option is traditional trade through Ancient Greece city-states, in particular, Tanais; another option suggests direct contacts between the Sarmatian groups and the early Slavic groups attributed to the Zarubinetsk cultural tradi- tion who also used this type of fibulae.
Besides, the independent AMS-dating of the samples from this grave shows that such rare things could appear in the Sar- matian cultural environment, including its periphery, almost immediately after having been produced, making it all the way from the production shop to the consumers who lived far away in the east. Therefore, such items should not always be referred to a later chronological period.
The results achieved enabled the authors to reconstruct the ‘life story’ of this high-ranking Middle Sarmatian woman who moved from place to place along the southeastern edge of this region inhabited by the Middle Sarmatian population, i.e. the Sal-Manych steppes, and could visit trading stations that linked this region with the areas of the western cultures where she could get imported jewelry.
the territory east to the Tisa River. This population differs from the Inner Asian Avars by their burial customs whose best
analogies can be found among the contemporary nomads of the steppe region of Eastern Europe, called Sivashovka group.
The main aim of this article is a special rite of the two regions: burials with whole horse skeletons. This element of the
burial rite was treated as a foreign influence — Avaric or Turkic. This study proves that this element was well embedded in
the structures of the funerary rite in both regions. Additionally, there are similarities, which show that both populations get
acquainted with this custom at the same time. We can state that the difference between the burials with horse hides and
the burials with whole skeletons is based on social, rather than ethnic grounds.
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The work is devoted to the trace-wear study of the Early Iron Age cauldron from the Peschany IV burial ground. On the surface of the cauldron, traces of manufacturing, post-casting processing and repair were revealed, which made it possible to propose a reconstruction of its production. The cauldron was made by lost model casting. Numerous traces of repairs indicate that the cauldron was of great value and has been
in use for a long time.
based on coin finds and historical sources which have their own historical chronology. However, this arrangement does
not always work, as some graves do not contain items that can be dated to a narrow time span while a great number
of graves often have no funerary offerings at all. The State Historical Museum in Moscow houses archaeological
materials from the Phanagoria necropolis excavated in 1936. Phanagoria is is the largest city of the Classical period
and the early medieval period (540 BC–10th century). The collection from the necropolis excavations has preserved
organic carbon-containing finds from grave 21 (the wood served to make a coffin – juniper, and sea algae). These materials were selected for AMS-dating. The following results were obtained: wood: 342–420 calAD, sea algae – 132–241 calAD. Of particular interest is the impression of the coin of the Roman Emperor Valens (364–378)
found in this grave. The AMS-date of the coffin wood fully confirms the traditional archaeological dating of the finds
whereas the coin offers an opportunity to narrow down the timeline of the grave to several decades (375–420). The
older age of sea algae is caused by a marine reservoir effect which must be taken into account during the verification
of the radiocarbon age of the consumers the food intake of which probably included algae.