There is a need to reassess fire policy following the increase in severe wildfires over the last ... more There is a need to reassess fire policy following the increase in severe wildfires over the last decade in many countries that has led to rising costs and damage to lives, property and natural resources. Fire policies often aim to suppress wildfires in attempts to reduce effects on ecosystems and societies despite evidence that these efforts increase fire risk in the future; increasingly, policy includes the use of controlled fires to reduce the intensity of future catastrophic events. In many regions, fire is perceived as an unnatural process. However, evidence from long-term ecological records show that fire is a natural part of most ecosystems and that many livelihoods and cultures are intrinsically connected to fire as a process. Long-term ecological data can identify the natural and cultural legacies on present landscapes, including knowledge on fire and vegetation changes in response to past climate and land use. KEY POINTS Policy Brief Knowledge about traditional fire use by local and Indigenous communities can provide information on culturally and environmentally sustainable fire management practices to improve biodiversity and local livelihoods.
We analysed changes in mean annual air temperature (MAAT), vegetation and biomass burning on a lo... more We analysed changes in mean annual air temperature (MAAT), vegetation and biomass burning on a long and continuous lake-peat sediment record from the Colônia basin, southeastern Brazil, examining the responses of a wet tropical rainforest over the last 180 ka. Stronger southern atmospheric circulation up to the latitude of Colônia was found for the penultimate glacial with lower temperatures than during the last glacial, while strengthening of the South American summer monsoon (SASM) circulation started during the last interglacial and progressively enhanced a longer wet summer season from 95 ka until the present. Past MAAT variations and fire history were possibly modulated by eccentricity, although with signatures which differ in average and in amplitude between the last 180 ka. Vegetation responses were driven by the interplay between the SASM and southern circulation linked to Antarctic ice volume, inferred by the presence of a cool mixed evergreen forest from 180 to 45 ka progr...
• An assessment of multiple lines of evidence supported by a conceptual model provides ranges for... more • An assessment of multiple lines of evidence supported by a conceptual model provides ranges for aerosol radiative forcing of climate change; • Aerosol effective radiative forcing is assessed to be between −1.60 and −0.65 W m −2 at the 16-84% confidence level; • Although key uncertainties remain, new ways of using observations provide stronger constraints for models.
Roughly 3% of the Earth's land surface burns annually, representing a critical exchange of energy... more Roughly 3% of the Earth's land surface burns annually, representing a critical exchange of energy and matter between the land and atmosphere via combustion. Fires range from slow smouldering peat fires, to low-intensity surface fires, to intense crown fires, depending on vegetation structure, fuel moisture, prevailing climate, and weather conditions. While the links between biogeochemistry, climate and fire are widely studied within Earth system science, these relationships are also mediated by fuels-namely plants and their litter-that are the product of evolutionary and ecological processes. Fire is a powerful selective force and, over their evolutionary history, plants have evolved traits that both tolerate and promote fire numerous times and across diverse clades. Here we outline a conceptual framework of how plant traits determine the flammability of ecosystems and interact with climate and weather to influence fire regimes. We explore how these evolutionary and ecological processes scale to impact biogeochemical and Earth system processes. Finally, we outline several research challenges that, when resolved, will improve our understanding of the role of plant evolution in mediating the fire feedbacks driving Earth system processes. Understanding current patterns of fire and vegetation, as well as patterns of fire over geological time, requires research that incorporates evolutionary biology, ecology, biogeography, and the biogeosciences.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Jan 24, 2017
The archaeological record shows that typically human cultural traits emerged at different times, ... more The archaeological record shows that typically human cultural traits emerged at different times, in different parts of the world, and among different hominin taxa. This pattern suggests that their emergence is the outcome of complex and nonlinear evolutionary trajectories, influenced by environmental, demographic, and social factors, that need to be understood and traced at regional scales. The application of predictive algorithms using archaeological and paleoenvironmental data allows one to estimate the ecological niches occupied by past human populations and identify niche changes through time, thus providing the possibility of investigating relationships between cultural innovations and possible niche shifts. By using such methods to examine two key southern Africa archaeological cultures, the Still Bay [76-71 thousand years before present (ka)] and the Howiesons Poort (HP; 66-59 ka), we identify a niche shift characterized by a significant expansion in the breadth of the HP eco...
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 2016
What: Fire researchers from 11 countries, with expertise ranging from millennial-scale fire-proxy... more What: Fire researchers from 11 countries, with expertise ranging from millennial-scale fire-proxy records to present-day biomass burning to multiple scales of fire modeling, examined how diverse fire datasets and fire modeling approaches could be used together to advance fire science.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2013
Although grassland and savanna occupy only a quarter of the world's vegetation, burning in th... more Although grassland and savanna occupy only a quarter of the world's vegetation, burning in these ecosystems accounts for roughly half the global carbon emissions from fire. However, the processes that govern changes in grassland burning are poorly understood, particularly on time scales beyond satellite records. We analyzed microcharcoal, sediments, and geochemistry in a high-resolution marine sediment core off Namibia to identify the processes that have controlled biomass burning in southern African grassland ecosystems under large, multimillennial-scale climate changes. Six fire cycles occurred during the past 170,000 y in southern Africa that correspond both in timing and magnitude to the precessional forcing of north–south shifts in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Contrary to the conventional expectation that fire increases with higher temperatures and increased drought, we found that wetter and cooler climates cause increased burning in the study region, owing to a shif...
The location, timing, spatial extent, and frequency of wildfires are changing rapidly in many par... more The location, timing, spatial extent, and frequency of wildfires are changing rapidly in many parts of the world, producing substantial impacts on ecosystems, people, and potentially climate. Paleofire records based on charcoal accumulation in sediments enable modern changes in biomass burning to be considered in their long-term context. Paleofire records also provide insights into the causes and impacts of past wildfires and emissions when analyzed in conjunction with other paleoenvironmental data and with fire models. Here we present new 1000 year and 22 000 year trends and gridded biomass burning reconstructions based on the Global Charcoal Database version 3, which includes 736 charcoal records (57 more than in version 2). The new gridded reconstructions reveal the spatial patterns underlying the temporal trends in the data, allowing insights into likely controls on biomass burning at regional to global scales. In the most recent few decades, biomass burning has sharply increase...
ABSTRACT Terrestrial and marine climatic tracers from marine core MD96-2098 collected in the sout... more ABSTRACT Terrestrial and marine climatic tracers from marine core MD96-2098 collected in the southwestern African margin and spanning from 194 to 24 (thousand years before present) documented three pronounced expansions of Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna during the last interglacial (Marine Isotopic Stage 5 – MIS 5). Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna expansions were linked to increased aridity during the three warmest substadials of MIS 5. Enhanced aridity potentially resulted from a combination of reduced Benguela Upwelling System (BUS), expanded subtropical high-pressure cells, and reduced austral-summer precipitation due to a northward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Decreased austral-winter precipitation was likely linked to a southern displacement of the westerlies. In contrast, during glacial isotopic stages MIS 6, 4 and 3, Fynbos expanded at the expense of Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna indicating a relative increase in precipitation probably concentrated during the austral winter months. Our record also suggested that warm-cold or cold-warm transitions between isotopic stages and substages were punctuated by short increases in humidity. Increased aridity during MIS 5e, 5c and 5a warm substages coincided with minima in both precessional index and global ice volume. On the other hand, austral-winter precipitation increases were associated with precession maxima at the time of well-developed northern-hemisphere ice caps.
Paleoenvironmental records in Europe describing paleofires extending back to the Last Interglacia... more Paleoenvironmental records in Europe describing paleofires extending back to the Last Interglacial have so far been unavailable. Here, we present paleofire results from the combined petrographic and automated image analysis of microcharcoal particles preserved in marine core MD95-2042 retrieved off southwestern Iberia and covering the last climatic cycle. The variability of microcharcoal concentrations reveals that the variability of fire emissions is mainly imprinted by the 23 000 yr precessional cycle. A focus on the Last Glacial Period further shows that paleofires follow the variability of Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillation and Heinrich events and, therefore, parallel the variability of atmospheric temperatures over Greenland detected in ice cores. There is no evidence for fire increase related to human activity. The variability of fire emission by-products for the Last Glacial Period is interpreted in terms of changes in biomass availability. Low fire activity is associated with periods of drought which saw the development of semi-desert vegetation that characterised stadial periods. Fire activity increased during wetter interstadials, related to the development of open Mediterranean forests with more woody fuel availability. r
ABSTRACT Water exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has important effect... more ABSTRACT Water exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has important effects on world hydrography, and the exchange varies on both shorter and longer time scales in response to climate change, sea-level change and tectonic land movements. The modern exchange can be studied with instrumental and observational records, but the longer-term variability of climate and water exchange requires the analysis of sedimentary records. Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) has influenced global circulation and climate and created a number of sediment drifts along the continental slope of Iberia. MOW history has been particularly important since the reconnection of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic about 5.3 Ma ago. New information about water exchange comes through study of cores collected from Iberian margin drift deposits during IODP Exp. 339. These cores contain sediments from the last 6.2 Ma in an array of sites. Drift deposits are thick sediment accumulations formed where and when currents flow along the seabed. Drift sediments are primarily muddy but they often include coarser layers which include some silt and sand-sized material which are often termed silty or sandy contourites. Several coarser layers are being studied in detail using high-resolution grain size and CAT scanning techniques, along with the analysis of the sand fraction, supplemented with thin section, X-ray and XRF to characterize the beds and the events which created them. Initial results suggest that many beds are formed of a mixture of finer sediment, often similar in grain size to the sediment deposited before and/or after the silty or sandy contourite, and coarser sediment which often overlaps in grain size with the finer sediment. The coarser sediments may have been deposited during short episodes of higher-speed flow, and later bioturbation has mixed the two grain size populations. Grain-size grading patterns within, and sharp contacts associated with, the coarser contourite layers appear to retain some characteristics of the flow events which formed them. The grain size patterns and other bed characteristics suggest that these silty and sandy contourites provide important information about the both the short-term and long-term history of MOW events. Exp 339 Scientists: Acton, G., Bahr, A., Balestra, B., Flores, J-A., Furota, S., Grunert, P., Hodell, D., Jimenez-Espejo, F., Kim, J. K., Krissek, L., Kuroda, J., Li, B., Llave, E., Lofi, J., Lourens, L., Miller, M., Nanayama, F., Nishida, N., Pereira, H., Richter, C., Roque, C., Sanchez Goñi, M., Sierro, F.J., Singh, A., Sloss, C., Takashimizu, Y., Tzanova, A., Voelker, A., Williams, T., Xuan, C.
The relationships between climate, vegetation and fires are a major subject of investigation in t... more The relationships between climate, vegetation and fires are a major subject of investigation in the context of climate change. In southern Africa, fire is known to play a crucial role in the existence of grasslands and Mediterranean-type biomes. Microcharcoal-based reconstructions of past fire activity in that region have shown a tight correlation between grass-fueled fires and the precessional cycle, with maximum fire activity during maxima of the climatic precession index. These changes have been interpreted as the result of changes in fuel load in response to precipitation changes in eastern southern Africa. Here we use the general circulation model IPSL_CM5A (Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Climate Model version 5A) and the dynamic vegetation model LPJ-LMfire to investigate the response of climate, vegetation and fire activity to precession changes in southern Africa during marine isotopic stage 4 (74–59 kyr BP). We perform two climatic simulations, for a maximum and minimum of th...
ABSTRACT Increased levels of burning in the past 40 years are raising public and scientific conce... more ABSTRACT Increased levels of burning in the past 40 years are raising public and scientific concern about the relative importance of rising temperatures, climate variability, and human actions including management practices in initiating and supporting recent conflagrations. Enormous fires in Australia, North America, Europe, and Russia since 2000 have resulted in billions of dollars in property damage, loss of life, and threats to human and ecological health. Levels of fire activity are expected to increase in the coming decades in many regions as temperatures continue to rise and droughts intensify [Moritz et al., 2012]. Linked disturbances such as bark beetle infestations, nonnative plant invasions, and mass-wasting events have also exacerbated the effects of fire in many ecosystems.
There is a need to reassess fire policy following the increase in severe wildfires over the last ... more There is a need to reassess fire policy following the increase in severe wildfires over the last decade in many countries that has led to rising costs and damage to lives, property and natural resources. Fire policies often aim to suppress wildfires in attempts to reduce effects on ecosystems and societies despite evidence that these efforts increase fire risk in the future; increasingly, policy includes the use of controlled fires to reduce the intensity of future catastrophic events. In many regions, fire is perceived as an unnatural process. However, evidence from long-term ecological records show that fire is a natural part of most ecosystems and that many livelihoods and cultures are intrinsically connected to fire as a process. Long-term ecological data can identify the natural and cultural legacies on present landscapes, including knowledge on fire and vegetation changes in response to past climate and land use. KEY POINTS Policy Brief Knowledge about traditional fire use by local and Indigenous communities can provide information on culturally and environmentally sustainable fire management practices to improve biodiversity and local livelihoods.
We analysed changes in mean annual air temperature (MAAT), vegetation and biomass burning on a lo... more We analysed changes in mean annual air temperature (MAAT), vegetation and biomass burning on a long and continuous lake-peat sediment record from the Colônia basin, southeastern Brazil, examining the responses of a wet tropical rainforest over the last 180 ka. Stronger southern atmospheric circulation up to the latitude of Colônia was found for the penultimate glacial with lower temperatures than during the last glacial, while strengthening of the South American summer monsoon (SASM) circulation started during the last interglacial and progressively enhanced a longer wet summer season from 95 ka until the present. Past MAAT variations and fire history were possibly modulated by eccentricity, although with signatures which differ in average and in amplitude between the last 180 ka. Vegetation responses were driven by the interplay between the SASM and southern circulation linked to Antarctic ice volume, inferred by the presence of a cool mixed evergreen forest from 180 to 45 ka progr...
• An assessment of multiple lines of evidence supported by a conceptual model provides ranges for... more • An assessment of multiple lines of evidence supported by a conceptual model provides ranges for aerosol radiative forcing of climate change; • Aerosol effective radiative forcing is assessed to be between −1.60 and −0.65 W m −2 at the 16-84% confidence level; • Although key uncertainties remain, new ways of using observations provide stronger constraints for models.
Roughly 3% of the Earth's land surface burns annually, representing a critical exchange of energy... more Roughly 3% of the Earth's land surface burns annually, representing a critical exchange of energy and matter between the land and atmosphere via combustion. Fires range from slow smouldering peat fires, to low-intensity surface fires, to intense crown fires, depending on vegetation structure, fuel moisture, prevailing climate, and weather conditions. While the links between biogeochemistry, climate and fire are widely studied within Earth system science, these relationships are also mediated by fuels-namely plants and their litter-that are the product of evolutionary and ecological processes. Fire is a powerful selective force and, over their evolutionary history, plants have evolved traits that both tolerate and promote fire numerous times and across diverse clades. Here we outline a conceptual framework of how plant traits determine the flammability of ecosystems and interact with climate and weather to influence fire regimes. We explore how these evolutionary and ecological processes scale to impact biogeochemical and Earth system processes. Finally, we outline several research challenges that, when resolved, will improve our understanding of the role of plant evolution in mediating the fire feedbacks driving Earth system processes. Understanding current patterns of fire and vegetation, as well as patterns of fire over geological time, requires research that incorporates evolutionary biology, ecology, biogeography, and the biogeosciences.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Jan 24, 2017
The archaeological record shows that typically human cultural traits emerged at different times, ... more The archaeological record shows that typically human cultural traits emerged at different times, in different parts of the world, and among different hominin taxa. This pattern suggests that their emergence is the outcome of complex and nonlinear evolutionary trajectories, influenced by environmental, demographic, and social factors, that need to be understood and traced at regional scales. The application of predictive algorithms using archaeological and paleoenvironmental data allows one to estimate the ecological niches occupied by past human populations and identify niche changes through time, thus providing the possibility of investigating relationships between cultural innovations and possible niche shifts. By using such methods to examine two key southern Africa archaeological cultures, the Still Bay [76-71 thousand years before present (ka)] and the Howiesons Poort (HP; 66-59 ka), we identify a niche shift characterized by a significant expansion in the breadth of the HP eco...
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 2016
What: Fire researchers from 11 countries, with expertise ranging from millennial-scale fire-proxy... more What: Fire researchers from 11 countries, with expertise ranging from millennial-scale fire-proxy records to present-day biomass burning to multiple scales of fire modeling, examined how diverse fire datasets and fire modeling approaches could be used together to advance fire science.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2013
Although grassland and savanna occupy only a quarter of the world's vegetation, burning in th... more Although grassland and savanna occupy only a quarter of the world's vegetation, burning in these ecosystems accounts for roughly half the global carbon emissions from fire. However, the processes that govern changes in grassland burning are poorly understood, particularly on time scales beyond satellite records. We analyzed microcharcoal, sediments, and geochemistry in a high-resolution marine sediment core off Namibia to identify the processes that have controlled biomass burning in southern African grassland ecosystems under large, multimillennial-scale climate changes. Six fire cycles occurred during the past 170,000 y in southern Africa that correspond both in timing and magnitude to the precessional forcing of north–south shifts in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Contrary to the conventional expectation that fire increases with higher temperatures and increased drought, we found that wetter and cooler climates cause increased burning in the study region, owing to a shif...
The location, timing, spatial extent, and frequency of wildfires are changing rapidly in many par... more The location, timing, spatial extent, and frequency of wildfires are changing rapidly in many parts of the world, producing substantial impacts on ecosystems, people, and potentially climate. Paleofire records based on charcoal accumulation in sediments enable modern changes in biomass burning to be considered in their long-term context. Paleofire records also provide insights into the causes and impacts of past wildfires and emissions when analyzed in conjunction with other paleoenvironmental data and with fire models. Here we present new 1000 year and 22 000 year trends and gridded biomass burning reconstructions based on the Global Charcoal Database version 3, which includes 736 charcoal records (57 more than in version 2). The new gridded reconstructions reveal the spatial patterns underlying the temporal trends in the data, allowing insights into likely controls on biomass burning at regional to global scales. In the most recent few decades, biomass burning has sharply increase...
ABSTRACT Terrestrial and marine climatic tracers from marine core MD96-2098 collected in the sout... more ABSTRACT Terrestrial and marine climatic tracers from marine core MD96-2098 collected in the southwestern African margin and spanning from 194 to 24 (thousand years before present) documented three pronounced expansions of Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna during the last interglacial (Marine Isotopic Stage 5 – MIS 5). Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna expansions were linked to increased aridity during the three warmest substadials of MIS 5. Enhanced aridity potentially resulted from a combination of reduced Benguela Upwelling System (BUS), expanded subtropical high-pressure cells, and reduced austral-summer precipitation due to a northward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Decreased austral-winter precipitation was likely linked to a southern displacement of the westerlies. In contrast, during glacial isotopic stages MIS 6, 4 and 3, Fynbos expanded at the expense of Nama-Karoo and fine-leaved savanna indicating a relative increase in precipitation probably concentrated during the austral winter months. Our record also suggested that warm-cold or cold-warm transitions between isotopic stages and substages were punctuated by short increases in humidity. Increased aridity during MIS 5e, 5c and 5a warm substages coincided with minima in both precessional index and global ice volume. On the other hand, austral-winter precipitation increases were associated with precession maxima at the time of well-developed northern-hemisphere ice caps.
Paleoenvironmental records in Europe describing paleofires extending back to the Last Interglacia... more Paleoenvironmental records in Europe describing paleofires extending back to the Last Interglacial have so far been unavailable. Here, we present paleofire results from the combined petrographic and automated image analysis of microcharcoal particles preserved in marine core MD95-2042 retrieved off southwestern Iberia and covering the last climatic cycle. The variability of microcharcoal concentrations reveals that the variability of fire emissions is mainly imprinted by the 23 000 yr precessional cycle. A focus on the Last Glacial Period further shows that paleofires follow the variability of Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillation and Heinrich events and, therefore, parallel the variability of atmospheric temperatures over Greenland detected in ice cores. There is no evidence for fire increase related to human activity. The variability of fire emission by-products for the Last Glacial Period is interpreted in terms of changes in biomass availability. Low fire activity is associated with periods of drought which saw the development of semi-desert vegetation that characterised stadial periods. Fire activity increased during wetter interstadials, related to the development of open Mediterranean forests with more woody fuel availability. r
ABSTRACT Water exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has important effect... more ABSTRACT Water exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has important effects on world hydrography, and the exchange varies on both shorter and longer time scales in response to climate change, sea-level change and tectonic land movements. The modern exchange can be studied with instrumental and observational records, but the longer-term variability of climate and water exchange requires the analysis of sedimentary records. Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) has influenced global circulation and climate and created a number of sediment drifts along the continental slope of Iberia. MOW history has been particularly important since the reconnection of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic about 5.3 Ma ago. New information about water exchange comes through study of cores collected from Iberian margin drift deposits during IODP Exp. 339. These cores contain sediments from the last 6.2 Ma in an array of sites. Drift deposits are thick sediment accumulations formed where and when currents flow along the seabed. Drift sediments are primarily muddy but they often include coarser layers which include some silt and sand-sized material which are often termed silty or sandy contourites. Several coarser layers are being studied in detail using high-resolution grain size and CAT scanning techniques, along with the analysis of the sand fraction, supplemented with thin section, X-ray and XRF to characterize the beds and the events which created them. Initial results suggest that many beds are formed of a mixture of finer sediment, often similar in grain size to the sediment deposited before and/or after the silty or sandy contourite, and coarser sediment which often overlaps in grain size with the finer sediment. The coarser sediments may have been deposited during short episodes of higher-speed flow, and later bioturbation has mixed the two grain size populations. Grain-size grading patterns within, and sharp contacts associated with, the coarser contourite layers appear to retain some characteristics of the flow events which formed them. The grain size patterns and other bed characteristics suggest that these silty and sandy contourites provide important information about the both the short-term and long-term history of MOW events. Exp 339 Scientists: Acton, G., Bahr, A., Balestra, B., Flores, J-A., Furota, S., Grunert, P., Hodell, D., Jimenez-Espejo, F., Kim, J. K., Krissek, L., Kuroda, J., Li, B., Llave, E., Lofi, J., Lourens, L., Miller, M., Nanayama, F., Nishida, N., Pereira, H., Richter, C., Roque, C., Sanchez Goñi, M., Sierro, F.J., Singh, A., Sloss, C., Takashimizu, Y., Tzanova, A., Voelker, A., Williams, T., Xuan, C.
The relationships between climate, vegetation and fires are a major subject of investigation in t... more The relationships between climate, vegetation and fires are a major subject of investigation in the context of climate change. In southern Africa, fire is known to play a crucial role in the existence of grasslands and Mediterranean-type biomes. Microcharcoal-based reconstructions of past fire activity in that region have shown a tight correlation between grass-fueled fires and the precessional cycle, with maximum fire activity during maxima of the climatic precession index. These changes have been interpreted as the result of changes in fuel load in response to precipitation changes in eastern southern Africa. Here we use the general circulation model IPSL_CM5A (Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Climate Model version 5A) and the dynamic vegetation model LPJ-LMfire to investigate the response of climate, vegetation and fire activity to precession changes in southern Africa during marine isotopic stage 4 (74–59 kyr BP). We perform two climatic simulations, for a maximum and minimum of th...
ABSTRACT Increased levels of burning in the past 40 years are raising public and scientific conce... more ABSTRACT Increased levels of burning in the past 40 years are raising public and scientific concern about the relative importance of rising temperatures, climate variability, and human actions including management practices in initiating and supporting recent conflagrations. Enormous fires in Australia, North America, Europe, and Russia since 2000 have resulted in billions of dollars in property damage, loss of life, and threats to human and ecological health. Levels of fire activity are expected to increase in the coming decades in many regions as temperatures continue to rise and droughts intensify [Moritz et al., 2012]. Linked disturbances such as bark beetle infestations, nonnative plant invasions, and mass-wasting events have also exacerbated the effects of fire in many ecosystems.
Uploads
Papers by A. Daniau