Gula the healing goddess is one of the best-known goddesses of Ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest ... more Gula the healing goddess is one of the best-known goddesses of Ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest mentions of Gula date back to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the 2nd millennium BC the worship of Gula became widespread in Mesopotamia. Later on Gula becomes an astral goddess; she is associated with Lyra, one of the brightest constellations in the northern sky. This article discusses the astral aspects of the goddess Gula as a constellation and her connection with the Goat and the Dog constellations, located respectively in the modern Lyra and Hercules. The complicated mythological relationships that existed between Gula and these constellations changed with time. Gula was regarded as the goddess of the Goat constellation while the Dog was Gula’s sacred animal. The article reviews the main characteristics of Gula and the two above-mentioned constellations, reconstructed from cuneiform sources pertaining to different types and periods, particularly astral epithets associate...
On September 15, 2021, professor Alexander V. Kessenikh died. He was known for his works on nucle... more On September 15, 2021, professor Alexander V. Kessenikh died. He was known for his works on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and history of science.
... The Mistress of the Heavens') are all of a sufficiently later time; the earliest... more ... The Mistress of the Heavens') are all of a sufficiently later time; the earliest forms of her name (dInnin, din-nin, dIn-ni-na and others) do not contain astral c~rnponents.~~ In the collection of temple hymns attributed to Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon the Ancient (XXIV-XXIII ...
This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac constellatio... more This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17) constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each, and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into 12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of ...
This paper deals with the history of heliacal rising and setting star observations in ancient Mes... more This paper deals with the history of heliacal rising and setting star observations in ancient Mesopotamian astrology and astronomy of the 2nd-1st millennia B.C. The basic sources, utilised terminology, and corresponding astronomical ideas are considered in detail.
This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac
constellati... more This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac
constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces
of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances
led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of
zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17)
constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each,
and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into
12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the
zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the
Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel. It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.
This article is devoted to cuneiform sources shedding light on history of Mesopotamian constellat... more This article is devoted to cuneiform sources shedding light on history of Mesopotamian constellations mul uz 3 ("The Goat") located in the area of modern Lyra, mul d Gula, a goddess connected with mul uz 3 , and mul ur.gi 7 ("The Dog") located in Hercules. In the eyes of ancient Mesopotamians, these constellations were bound by complex relationships that were changing in course of time. Gula was the goddess of the Goat constellation, and the Dog was a sacred animal of Gula. In the Neo-Assyrian period, Gula's anthropomorphic image was considered to be a figure of the constellation mul uz 3 , while figures of other constellations with animal names always corresponded to their names. It is shown in the article that originally (at the end of the third and the beginning of the second millennium b.c.) there were only two constellations (mul uz 3 and mul ur.gi 7) out of three mentioned above singled out in the Mesopotamian sky. The goddess Gula became associated with the constellation mul uz 3 only in the second half of the second millennium b.c.
The article deals with the history of ecliptic as an element of the mathematical astronomy in Anc... more The article deals with the history of ecliptic as an element of the mathematical astronomy in Ancient Mesopotamia. It contains data from the cuneiform sources of the 2nd-1st millennia BC and from the modern studies shedding light on the following three questions: 1) the idea of the celestial sphere in Mesopotamian astronomy; 2) the geometric representations associated with the ecliptic; 3) the positions of the ecliptic relative to the fixed stars and to the Sun. It is shown that although we do not have solid evidences, however, there are serious reasons to believe that in the Seleucid period in the mathematical astronomy and astrology the ecliptic was conceived geometrically as a circle divided into 12 equal parts. It is also shown that in this period the ecliptic was not yet identified with the projection of annual path of the Sun to the celestial sphere.
The author of the paper believes that the identification of Inanna with Venus as the morning or
... more The author of the paper believes that the identification of Inanna with Venus as the morning or
evening star chronologically preceded the time when the first constellations began to be recognized
in Ancient Mesopotamia. If this is correct, the date of identification can be used as a reference
point for the determination of the earliest probable limit for the epoch when in Mesopotamia the
process of constellation recognition have been started.
The earliest known images with the symbol of Inanna date from the period of archaic Uruk.
They can be divided into two groups: (1) the images on seals and ceramics where there are no
astral attributes; (2) the pictographic texts where the picture of a star and the signs of a sunrise or
a sunset are placed alongside the symbol of Inanna. The pictographic texts, however, admit also
a non-astral interpretation, if the picture of a star is a determinative of a deity. The astral nature
of Inanna for the Uruk period therefore cannot be considered as finally proved. The identification
of Inanna with Venus is reliably certified on seals of the Early Dynastic Period where there are at
once three astral symbols - the crescent, the solar disk and the star of Inanna.
Астральная символика в Месопотамии III тыс. до н.э. (Astral symbolism in Mesopotamia of the third millennium BC) // Вопросы истории естествознания и техники, 1998
Gula the healing goddess is one of the best-known goddesses of Ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest ... more Gula the healing goddess is one of the best-known goddesses of Ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest mentions of Gula date back to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the 2nd millennium BC the worship of Gula became widespread in Mesopotamia. Later on Gula becomes an astral goddess; she is associated with Lyra, one of the brightest constellations in the northern sky. This article discusses the astral aspects of the goddess Gula as a constellation and her connection with the Goat and the Dog constellations, located respectively in the modern Lyra and Hercules. The complicated mythological relationships that existed between Gula and these constellations changed with time. Gula was regarded as the goddess of the Goat constellation while the Dog was Gula’s sacred animal. The article reviews the main characteristics of Gula and the two above-mentioned constellations, reconstructed from cuneiform sources pertaining to different types and periods, particularly astral epithets associate...
On September 15, 2021, professor Alexander V. Kessenikh died. He was known for his works on nucle... more On September 15, 2021, professor Alexander V. Kessenikh died. He was known for his works on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and history of science.
... The Mistress of the Heavens') are all of a sufficiently later time; the earliest... more ... The Mistress of the Heavens') are all of a sufficiently later time; the earliest forms of her name (dInnin, din-nin, dIn-ni-na and others) do not contain astral c~rnponents.~~ In the collection of temple hymns attributed to Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon the Ancient (XXIV-XXIII ...
This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac constellatio... more This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17) constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each, and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into 12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of ...
This paper deals with the history of heliacal rising and setting star observations in ancient Mes... more This paper deals with the history of heliacal rising and setting star observations in ancient Mesopotamian astrology and astronomy of the 2nd-1st millennia B.C. The basic sources, utilised terminology, and corresponding astronomical ideas are considered in detail.
This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac
constellati... more This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac
constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces
of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances
led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of
zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17)
constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each,
and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into
12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the
zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the
Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel. It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.
This article is devoted to cuneiform sources shedding light on history of Mesopotamian constellat... more This article is devoted to cuneiform sources shedding light on history of Mesopotamian constellations mul uz 3 ("The Goat") located in the area of modern Lyra, mul d Gula, a goddess connected with mul uz 3 , and mul ur.gi 7 ("The Dog") located in Hercules. In the eyes of ancient Mesopotamians, these constellations were bound by complex relationships that were changing in course of time. Gula was the goddess of the Goat constellation, and the Dog was a sacred animal of Gula. In the Neo-Assyrian period, Gula's anthropomorphic image was considered to be a figure of the constellation mul uz 3 , while figures of other constellations with animal names always corresponded to their names. It is shown in the article that originally (at the end of the third and the beginning of the second millennium b.c.) there were only two constellations (mul uz 3 and mul ur.gi 7) out of three mentioned above singled out in the Mesopotamian sky. The goddess Gula became associated with the constellation mul uz 3 only in the second half of the second millennium b.c.
The article deals with the history of ecliptic as an element of the mathematical astronomy in Anc... more The article deals with the history of ecliptic as an element of the mathematical astronomy in Ancient Mesopotamia. It contains data from the cuneiform sources of the 2nd-1st millennia BC and from the modern studies shedding light on the following three questions: 1) the idea of the celestial sphere in Mesopotamian astronomy; 2) the geometric representations associated with the ecliptic; 3) the positions of the ecliptic relative to the fixed stars and to the Sun. It is shown that although we do not have solid evidences, however, there are serious reasons to believe that in the Seleucid period in the mathematical astronomy and astrology the ecliptic was conceived geometrically as a circle divided into 12 equal parts. It is also shown that in this period the ecliptic was not yet identified with the projection of annual path of the Sun to the celestial sphere.
The author of the paper believes that the identification of Inanna with Venus as the morning or
... more The author of the paper believes that the identification of Inanna with Venus as the morning or
evening star chronologically preceded the time when the first constellations began to be recognized
in Ancient Mesopotamia. If this is correct, the date of identification can be used as a reference
point for the determination of the earliest probable limit for the epoch when in Mesopotamia the
process of constellation recognition have been started.
The earliest known images with the symbol of Inanna date from the period of archaic Uruk.
They can be divided into two groups: (1) the images on seals and ceramics where there are no
astral attributes; (2) the pictographic texts where the picture of a star and the signs of a sunrise or
a sunset are placed alongside the symbol of Inanna. The pictographic texts, however, admit also
a non-astral interpretation, if the picture of a star is a determinative of a deity. The astral nature
of Inanna for the Uruk period therefore cannot be considered as finally proved. The identification
of Inanna with Venus is reliably certified on seals of the Early Dynastic Period where there are at
once three astral symbols - the crescent, the solar disk and the star of Inanna.
Астральная символика в Месопотамии III тыс. до н.э. (Astral symbolism in Mesopotamia of the third millennium BC) // Вопросы истории естествознания и техники, 1998
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constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces
of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances
led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of
zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17)
constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each,
and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into
12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the
zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the
Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel. It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.
evening star chronologically preceded the time when the first constellations began to be recognized
in Ancient Mesopotamia. If this is correct, the date of identification can be used as a reference
point for the determination of the earliest probable limit for the epoch when in Mesopotamia the
process of constellation recognition have been started.
The earliest known images with the symbol of Inanna date from the period of archaic Uruk.
They can be divided into two groups: (1) the images on seals and ceramics where there are no
astral attributes; (2) the pictographic texts where the picture of a star and the signs of a sunrise or
a sunset are placed alongside the symbol of Inanna. The pictographic texts, however, admit also
a non-astral interpretation, if the picture of a star is a determinative of a deity. The astral nature
of Inanna for the Uruk period therefore cannot be considered as finally proved. The identification
of Inanna with Venus is reliably certified on seals of the Early Dynastic Period where there are at
once three astral symbols - the crescent, the solar disk and the star of Inanna.
constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces
of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances
led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of
zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17)
constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each,
and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into
12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the
zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the
Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel. It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.
evening star chronologically preceded the time when the first constellations began to be recognized
in Ancient Mesopotamia. If this is correct, the date of identification can be used as a reference
point for the determination of the earliest probable limit for the epoch when in Mesopotamia the
process of constellation recognition have been started.
The earliest known images with the symbol of Inanna date from the period of archaic Uruk.
They can be divided into two groups: (1) the images on seals and ceramics where there are no
astral attributes; (2) the pictographic texts where the picture of a star and the signs of a sunrise or
a sunset are placed alongside the symbol of Inanna. The pictographic texts, however, admit also
a non-astral interpretation, if the picture of a star is a determinative of a deity. The astral nature
of Inanna for the Uruk period therefore cannot be considered as finally proved. The identification
of Inanna with Venus is reliably certified on seals of the Early Dynastic Period where there are at
once three astral symbols - the crescent, the solar disk and the star of Inanna.