Papers by Ayşe DEĞERLİ VELET
Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2025
This article examines the urban transformation of Istefe (Thebes), the capital of the Byzantine p... more This article examines the urban transformation of Istefe (Thebes), the capital of the Byzantine provinces of Hellas and Peloponnese, from the Byzantine period to the early Ottoman period. Based on Henri Lefebvre’s theory of spatial production, the study aims to analyze how political, economic and social forces shape the urban landscape within the framework of the “power-space” relationship. Istefe is analyzed through Lefebvre’s spatial triad - spatial practice, representations of space and representational spaces - to problematize both how the inhabitants perceive and experience space and how it is evaluated by the rulers. The article discusses the city’s key features, including its strategic acropolis, its role as a market for agricultural production and the silk industry, and its social and economic structures shaped by the influence of different rulers, such as the Franks, Catalans and Ottomans. Despite changing political dynamics and the decline of the silk industry in the 15th century, Istefe managed to maintain its importance as an economic and cultural center. This study argues that understanding the continuity of Istefe’s spatial production as a result of the complex relationship between power and space offers a deeper perspective on the city’s capacity for resilience and urban development.
ORTAÇAĞ ARAŞTIRMALARI DERGİSİ, 2024
This study analyses the historical trajectories of the guilds of the Low Countries and the Akhis ... more This study analyses the historical trajectories of the guilds of the Low Countries and the Akhis of Anatolia in the Late Middle Ages and their impact on military-political developments in both regions. Guilds in the Low Countries emerged as institutions that regulated trade and protected the interests of their members and significantly impacted on urban administration and regional politics. The rise of these guilds paralleled the development of cities such as Bruges, Ghent and Ypres as trade centers, expanding in line with their wealth and demography. In their quest for selfgovernment and autonomy, the guilds opposed the rule of nobles and monarchs and clashed with centralized states. In particular, the defeat of French forces by the Flemish city militia at the Battle of the Golden Spurs demonstrated the military and political effectiveness of the guilds. The Akhis in Anatolia, on the other hand, represented a form of professional organization established by the state and acting with the motive of protecting the existing order and the Anatolian Seljuk sultanate, especially during the Mongol invasions. The Akhis adapted to the situation by supporting the new Turkmen administrations that emerged with the weakening of the Anatolian Seljuk authority and became one of the founding groups of the Ottoman Principality. In both regions, professional organizations played a critical role in mobilizing the local population for military campaigns and defending political autonomy against larger feudal or imperial powers. However, it appears that the guilds in the Low Countries followed a natural evolutionary process in parallel with economic and social developments, whereas the Akhis in Anatolia were shaped more under the influence of the state. While the urban militias in the Low Countries reflect the advanced urbanization and economic specialization of the region, the professional organizations in Anatolia have a wider diversity, including Turkmen principalities and guilds, reflecting the tribal and semi-urban structure of the region. This study sheds light on the socio-political structure of both regions through a comparative approach.
DEÜ Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2024
Once native to the crowded streets of Ottoman cities, coffeehouses played an important role in sh... more Once native to the crowded streets of Ottoman cities, coffeehouses played an important role in shaping the sociocultural dynamics of early modern Europe. In these eclectic spaces, the seeds of intellectual discourse, artistic expression and social interaction were sown, creating an environment where ideas flourished, and cultures merged. The proliferation of coffeehouses across Europe not only facilitated the exchange of ideas, but also served as a microcosm of broader social changes, reflecting the evolving norms and values of the time. This article traces the intriguing journey of coffee culture from the heart of the Ottoman Empire to the vibrant cities of Europe, tracing its impact on the continent’s social fabric and cultural mores. It will show how the humble coffeehouse became a crucible for change, influencing everything from political debates to literary works and leaving an indelible mark on European identity.
Prof. Dr. Yusuf Küçükdağ Onuruna Tarih Yazıları, 2023
Craft guilds were important in both European and Islamic geographies throughout the Middle Ages. ... more Craft guilds were important in both European and Islamic geographies throughout the Middle Ages. Despite their cultural differences, these organizations were founded in similar ways by people seeking cooperation and solidarity. However, these organizations have evolved in response to their own social heritage and conditions, resulting in unique historical developments. As a result, a comparative analysis of the historical characteristics and processes of these organizations, which were founded to meet similar needs, can reveal some unique aspects of the two societies' histories and provide illuminating information. Determining and comparing the general characteristics of professional organizations in Europe and Anatolia from the Middle Ages to the end of the New Age can also be done for this purpose.
The aim of this study is to compare the professional organizations, or guilds, that emerged, developed, and operated in different periods and regions. The main focus of this comparison is how these organizations interact with sovereign authorities. This study will attempt to examine how people who form these organizations for mutual benefit and solidarity influence or challenge rulers in the social, political, and economic spheres. It will also explore the possibility that these people constitute a gray cluster below the rulers in a hypothetical hierarchical pyramid but above the ruled, with whom they share the same social stratum, and, if this is possible, whether these organizations, subordinate to the rulers but superior to the rest of society, played any role in shaping pre-modern civil society. For instance, did they participate in the governance mechanism as informal actors, or did they represent the common interests of their members before the rulers? By analyzing historical data, this study hopes to shed light on these questions.
Prof. Dr. Zeki Arıkan Anısına Tarih Tasarımları, 2023
Sexual Crime and Punishment in Cyprus (1610-1858): Trials, Narratives and the Problem of Proof
... more Sexual Crime and Punishment in Cyprus (1610-1858): Trials, Narratives and the Problem of Proof
Today, sexual offenses are classified under sub-headings such as "abuse", "harassment", "assault" and "sexual intercourse with a minor". In Ottoman law, both adultery based on the will and consent of both parties and any sexual act performed without the consent of the person were considered sexual offenses. This study will focus on sexual assaults that violate a person's bodily inviolability by using force and violence, namely the crime of rape.
As in other parts of the pre-modern world, rape was considered a serious crime in the Ottoman lands. However, punishing rapists was a very difficult process. In rape cases, the Ottoman legal system demanded high standards of evidence; for example, at least four people had to witness the sexual assault. Of course, in some cases, circumstantial evidence could be considered equivalent to the testimony of four witnesses. Eyewitness testimonies about the social position and victimization of the victim could have an impact on the punishment of the attacker. However, if the accusation could not be proven, the female plaintiff was likely to be punished for slander. This difficult judicial process led many women to refrain from reporting sexual assault to the court due to the questioning of consent and the lack of opportunities for women to tell their story convincingly in court.
Using the case of Cyprus, this paper will examine the attitudes of individuals in court records, how accusations and punishments may differ depending on the marital status of the plaintiff and other factors, the Ottoman vocabulary on rape, and the differences between law and practice.
BEŞİNCİ ULUSLARARASI DOĞU AVRUPA ÇALIŞMALARI KONGRESİ BİLDİRİ KİTABI (CIEES 2022), 2022
The southeastern peninsula of old Europe is known around the world and in the region as "the Balk... more The southeastern peninsula of old Europe is known around the world and in the region as "the Balkans"; in the last century, all military, diplomatic and sporting events that took place in the peninsula were referred to as the Balkans: "Balkan Wars", "Balkan Treaty", "Balkan Pact", "Balkan Games"...Nowadays, the Balkans seems to have been replaced by another geographical definition, "Southeast Europe", due to the European Union's enlargement to this region. One of the most obvious examples of this is the fact that the countries of the peninsula named the regional forum they established in 1996 as the "Cooperation Process of Southeast European Countries" instead of the Balkan countries. In addition to diplomats and politicians, historians have also made a significant contribution to this change in geographical definition. They no longer refer to the borders of the region as the Balkans, but rather as Southeast Europe. Certainly, the physical structure of this mountainous peninsula, whose historical and contemporary borders are highly contested, has not changed. However, as its political, economic and cultural universe has become a part of Europe, its geographical definition is changing once again. We say "once again" because the peninsula had experienced a similar change of definition in previous centuries. In the fourteenth century, the Ottomans called the peninsula "Rumelia", in the late nineteenth century it was known as the Balkans, and by the early twentieth century it was widely accepted in the region and around the world. This paper provides a brief assessment of these geographical name and definition changes that the southeastern peninsula of Europe has undergone over a long period of time, and of the historical facts and events that have characterized these changes.
Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 2022
This paper deals with the Saljūqnāma of the Ottoman scholar Ahmed ibn Mahmud. It focuses on the t... more This paper deals with the Saljūqnāma of the Ottoman scholar Ahmed ibn Mahmud. It focuses on the two unexploited poems inserted into his Mantzikert account, and juxtaposes them with the world chronicles in verse that have been written by Constantine Manasses and Ehpraim of Ainos. The three writers recount the same event from different viewpoints. Ephraim absolves Diogenes from any responsibility, while Manasses seeks the reasons for the defeat in battle in his severe attitude. For Ahmed, the Seljuk victory came exclusively from God’s hands which were long enough to reach and protect the pious sultan with his warriors.
Antalya'nın Sosyal ve İktisadi Tarihi (Osmanlı Dönemi), 2022
British and French aristocracy especially boys in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the tr... more British and French aristocracy especially boys in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the traditional tours they carry out, namely the “Grand Tour”, have been accepted as the prototype of modern tourism. It is assumed that these trips, which wealthy men both enjoy by visiting foreign countries and having the opportunity to serve their country diplomatically, are educational. A new social order emerged due to the Industrial Revolution; changes in transportation, such as the railroad and steamboats, brought about a tremendous transformation of travel, especially in the nineteenth century. The educated middle class, who was only the gentleman's guide or servant in the Grand Tour, started expeditions with cultural and political goals with the financial support they received in the post-Industrial Revolution period. In the nineteenth century, one of the frequent destinations of these travelers, whose numbers were increasing, was Anatolia.
Some of the Western travelers who organized research trips in Anatolia also visited Antalya and its surroundings; They wrote down their impressions of the historical, geographical, social, cultural, and economic characteristics of the region. Thus, the first examples of the works that we can call “travel guides” for Antalya and its surroundings today emerged. This study, first of all, will be discussed whether the travel books can be used as a historical source, then the prominent topics about Antalya of the period will be emphasized by taking into account the travel notes of eleven travelers who visited Antalya between 1810-1882. The stories of the travelers will be examined by comparing them with the Ottoman archive records and the existing literature.
İzmir Demokrasi Üniversitesi II. Uluslararası Beşerî Bilimler Kongresi: Sosyal Bilimler Perspektifinden Salgın Hastalıklar ve Toplumsal Dönüşüm (19-21 Kasım 2021), Tam Metin Bildiri Kitabı, 2021
This study aims at outlining the transformation of the healthcare system and the emergence of the... more This study aims at outlining the transformation of the healthcare system and the emergence of the public health in relation to the making of modern state in a long-term historical context from the classical age to the end of the 19th century in the Ottoman Empire. Inspired by the statist-institutionalist approach, it suggests that there is a direct correlation between the emergence of the healthcare system for the general population and the making of the modern state during the reformation age in the empire. However, the study argues that in the late 19th century, the Ottoman State still lacked sufficient capacity for enforcing its new medical policy in its countryside.
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Öztürk Onuruna Tarih Yazıları I, 2021
Ottoman Çine at the End of the Sixteenth Century: Demographic and Socioeconomic Structure
Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektaş Velî Araştırma Dergisi , 2021
A Story of Transformation from Turkmen Baba (Father) to Bektashi Baba:
Halifet Baba Zawiya
Dervi... more A Story of Transformation from Turkmen Baba (Father) to Bektashi Baba:
Halifet Baba Zawiya
Dervishes of Heterodox sects such as Yasawiyya, Haydariyya, and Kalenderiyya migrated to Anatolia from the thirteenth century. These people, some Islamic propagandists, found a suitable ground for spreading their beliefs in Anatolia, not in cities but villages and among nomads. Turkmen “Baba” (father) and dervishes, belonging to Heterodox groups, settled in western Anatolia, especially on the Byzantine border, and established their zawiyas. Because these dervishes, who also have warrior identities, have had the opportunity to propagate jihad and Islam in this border region. As the Turkish sultans saw them as colonizers who would make the military conquest permanent in the region, the zawiyas they opened were supported by waqfs. In Western Anatolia, where nomadic and semi-settled Turkmen communities are densely settled, Turkmen dervishes became figures who shaped the spiritual world of the communities and warmed them to Islam.
Halifet Baba Zawiya was built in the village of Araphisar, founded on top of the ancient city of Alabanda after the Turkish raids. Stones from the ruins of an ancient Christian temple were also used in its construction. This zawiya was part of the process of The Turkification and Islamization of the Anatolian lands. During the Ottoman period, his primary name was forgotten, and he became known as “Baba Sultan”. Sheikhs of the Bektashiyya ruled it until the nineteenth century. After the Vaka-i Hayriyye (1826), its administration passed to the Qadiriyya. Today, it is one of the sacred temples visited by the Alawites and is known as the “Hayri Baba” and “Arap Dede”. In this study, we will emphasize the historical transformation of the Halifet Baba Zawiya in accordance with the Ottoman archival records. We will describe the adventure of turning from a Christian cult to an Islamic cult and then into a sacred place by the Bektashis, Qadiris, and Alawites.
Key words: Halifet Baba, Baba Sultan, Arab Dede, Aydın-Çine, Ottoman, Bektashiyya, Qadiriyya, zawiya.
Antalya Kitabı: Antalya'da Türk-İslâm Medeniyetinin İzleri 2, 2019
As of its geographical location, Antalya is situated on the southern coast of Anatolia around the... more As of its geographical location, Antalya is situated on the southern coast of Anatolia around the eponymous gulf. Founded in 158 B.C. by the Pergamon ruler Attalos II (159-138 B.C.), the city came under Ottoman rule in 1390 during the reign of Bayezid II (1389-1403). After the Battle of Ankara, Teke Bey Osman Çelebi, with the help of Mehmed Bey II of Karaman, moved to recapture Antalya, but by 1423, the Beylik of Teke had come to an end and Ottoman rule over Antalya and the Teke-ili sanjak, of which it was the center, was finalized. During the Seljuks, the Teke Beylik and the Ottoman period, many works such as mosques, masjids, imaret, tekke-zawiyahs, madrasahs, schools, inns, baths, fountains and bridges were built in Antalya and their continuity was ensured by the endowment of certain sources of income as foundations. Although some of them have disappeared due to natural disasters, neglect and other reasons, there are also historical buildings that have survived to this day.
In this paper, the Mütesellim Mosque, which was built by Hacı Osman's son, Hacı Mehmed Ağa in Elmalı District within Antalya Castle, and its complex consisting of a library, madrasah and school will be discussed. A brief biography of the beneficiary will be given and the endowment will be analyzed; the economic rise of the landowner families that played a role in the establishment of central authority over the countryside and the foundation of Hacı Mehmed Ağa's complex in Antalya in the context of an economic market will be examined.
Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektaş Velî Araştırma Dergisi, 2020
The Turkification and Islamization of the Anatolian lands in the Seljuk age was carried out both ... more The Turkification and Islamization of the Anatolian lands in the Seljuk age was carried out both through the sufi movements, which had the Asian and Turco-Persion cultural past and, the activities of the military and occupational organizations, called as the “dervishes colonisateurs” in the Turkish history-writing, based on the Islamic ghazā (the holy war) principle. Many dervish orders were built in the Anatolian lands during the settlement process of Turks came from Asian steps. Eskişehir and its region, was one of the transition points for the Turkish conquest and settlement in Anatolia, was an important region where the sufis played an active role since the time of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad (1220-1237). It is the oldest one, among the numerous zāwiya (small Islamic monastery) buildings in Eskişehir, is the Sheikh Shehabeddin Sühreverdi which was built in the period of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad. There was another zāwiya building in Eskişehir, whose historical existence can be determined through the archival documents, known as Bahşayış Baba, which its building cannot be find anymore. The Bektashi Order (tarīqa) found an opportunity to spread its teaching in Eskişehir when the Ottoman State was supporting the orders, whose genealogies (silsila) were based on the Caliph Ali, against Shah Ismail’s Shia expansionism. Bahşayış Baba was one of those zāwiya buildings which was built at that time. The administration of that building, which started its activities as a Bektashi lodge in the 15th century, was carried out by the Khalwati family from the second half of the 18th century. This essay aims to study the Bahşayış Baba Zāwiya in Eskişehir in the context of spatial organizations of Bektashis that shaped the Anatolian human geography in the Ottoman age. It suggests, based on the Ottoman archival sources, that the Bahşayış Baba Zāwiya was in a connection with another dervish lodge, Balıklı Tekke, known as Khalwati in Kütahya.
Vakıflar Dergisi, 2020
A New Source About Hatunsaray-Sheikh Shibli Zawiya: Waqfiyya of Karamanoghlu Suleiman I
The arch... more A New Source About Hatunsaray-Sheikh Shibli Zawiya: Waqfiyya of Karamanoghlu Suleiman I
The archive record of the zawiya built by Elvan Sheikh, on behalf of Abu Bekr Shibli in the Gilisra, a village in Konya, is limited and although there are documents referring to the waqfiyya, itself could not be identified. In May 2019, an Arabic document provided by the Konya Manuscripts Regional Directorate by donation was shared with us by Director Bekir Şahin and we reached the waqfiyya that we could not find in the archives. The waqfiyya, which shows that the religious endowment of Sheikh Shibli’s zawiya in Gilisra was founded by Karamanoghlu Suleiman I in 1307, is very important in several ways, therefore a general assessment will be made by giving latinization and Turkish translation in this study.
Uluslararası Beşerî Bilimler Kongresi (7-9 Aralık 2020), Tam Metin Bildiri Kitabı, 2020
The Problem of Deserted Villages in Izmir at The End of The Sixteenth Century
Between the fiftee... more The Problem of Deserted Villages in Izmir at The End of The Sixteenth Century
Between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries, many villages were established by the Turkmen communities (Yörüks/Yürüks) in Izmir and its vicinity. These villages were new villages compared to the villages established in the Byzantine period in terms of Anatolian settlement history. The villages established in Byzantine and earlier periods, where Genoese and Greeks from the Aegean islands were settled, began to be deserted in the second half of the sixteenth century. The drying of water resources, especially the Menderes river changing beds, public order, infectious diseases such as malaria and plague, and sometimes the pressure of public officials, led to the desertion of villages. Since the Ottoman State was an agricultural state, it was not deemed appropriate to abandon the villages, that is to leave agricultural lands in ruins and empty. The lands of these deserted villages were started to be cultivated by those coming from outside and the surrounding villagers. So over time, these deserted villages regained village status; village borders were determined by the administrators; each of them had a border. In addition, common areas such as cemeteries, wells and pastures were determined. We know that over time, these villages were deserted again, but some of them continued until Tanzimat. In this study, we especially want to contribute to the settlement history of Izmir. Although Central Anatolian cities have been examined in different studies, İzmir and its vicinity have not been sufficiently studied in this respect yet. In this paper, the location of deserted villages in Izmir, why they were deserted, the conditions and livelihoods of the people living in the villages, their relations with the government and local administrators will be discussed. The main source of this paper that has been preserved in the state archives of the Republic of Turkey waqfiyas, censuses of land and population, bond are, malfunctions and the other public documents.
Uluslararası Horasan'dan Anadolu'ya İrfan Geleneği: Elvan Çelebi Sempozyumu (02-04 Ekim 2020), 2020
ISLAMIC CONVENTS IN ÇINE (AYDIN) UNTIL THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Nowadays, Çine is one of... more ISLAMIC CONVENTS IN ÇINE (AYDIN) UNTIL THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Nowadays, Çine is one of the seventeen districts of Aydın province in administrative terms, with a population about 50,000. It is a historically and culturally modern city. In the Ottoman archival texts, the word Çine refers to Old Çine, and the location we focus on in this paper is Old Çine. The paper is focus on Islamic convents in the region of Aydın-Çine sub-province that were existed until the end of the sixteenth century according to mainly waqfiyyas, various foundation records and registers of the deeds. Most of them were Akhi convents in that time such as Akhi Bahşayış, Akhi Bayram Beyi, Akhi Debbağ, Akhi İsmail, Akhi Polad and Akhi Ümmet. Apart from these, there were also Halifet Baba, Hacı Ali Fakih, Hacı Nasuh, Zikirhane and Kuşoğlu zawiyas in Çine. As it is understood from the archive documents, some of them were captured by the Bektashis in the process, probably in the eighteenth century, and one of them was named Baba Sultan, whose original name was forgotten. In my paper, the situation of these zawiyas of sixteenth century, their connection with tariqas, their waqfs and functions will be discussed in my paper, based on Ottoman archival documents and oral information.
Osmanlı İdaresinde Balkanlar , 2020
The cash waqfs (foundations), which were started to be considered for the first time in the Islam... more The cash waqfs (foundations), which were started to be considered for the first time in the Islamic world with a question asked to Hüzeyl’s son, Imam Züfer, are the foundation funds which consist of founding capital money. It is understood that in the sixteenth century in the Ottoman Empire, cash foundations, which had a legal structure with the fatwas of Ebussuud Efendi. Those foundations, which have become widespread in Anatolia and Rumelia, have played a role in the development of cities. Veliko Tarnovo in today’s Bulgarian geography is one example of this.
As a matter of fact, the book, which is registered in number 201 in the collection of Muallim Cevdet Manuscripts in Atatürk Library of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, consists of six chapters in a black leather covered volume and contains information about some money foundations established in Veliko Tarnovo in the nineteenth century. A total of 11.150 kuruş was donated by Hacı Hafız Ahmed Efendi to be used for the expenses of Cami-i Cisr, which is adjacent to the bridge in Şehreküstü Neighborhood and some schools and ice houses in Tarnovo. Documents containing this information are dated to 1812, 1831, 1832, 1834, 1847 and 1851. In this paper, these six foundations will be evaluated in the context of money foundations, a financial management model.
Her Yönüyle İpsala (Cilt 1-Sosyal Bilimler), 2020
When analyzing the history of a city or region in a certain period, areas such as social, economi... more When analyzing the history of a city or region in a certain period, areas such as social, economic, administrative, physical, geographical, architectural and demographic structure and settlement history can be chosen as the subject of study. However, in order to properly examine these subjects, factors such as the sources of the relevant period, the characteristics of the field to be studied and the time that can be allocated for research are important. Kadi registers, land registry books, population, income and property registers are among the main sources for the history of the region and provide collective and serialized information about the area. Since this study will examine the Ipsala kaza, which was located within the borders of Pasha Sanjak until the second half of the 16th century, the source to be examined in terms of the period is the land registry books. Below, the social, economic and demographic structure of Ipsala will be analyzed in line with the data provided by the book dated 1530.
Tarih Yolunda Bir Ömür: Ergün Öz Akçora Armağanı-1, 2019
Retaliation Case In Cyprus In The Year of 1699
We have two verdicts written in Ottoman Turkish o... more Retaliation Case In Cyprus In The Year of 1699
We have two verdicts written in Ottoman Turkish on retaliation from Nicosia Islamic Court registers dated 1699. This verdict shows that Hanafi law cover both in Cyprus Muslims and non-Muslims from retaliation point of view in Cyprus. This case took place in the village of Prasiyou of Mesaria region in 1699. An Orthodox man from Prasiyou village whose name was Yorgi (or George), son of Yorgi, was killed in planned way by Andoni who was a Orthodox man. The killed Yorgi’s hairs legally demand retaliation against Antoni in Nicosia Islamic Court. Both Nicosia and Mesaria Ottoman judges has investigated the case and in conclusion they gave a negative verdict against the killer Andoni. This event was one of the interesting cases in the history of Cyprus both from Cypriot non-Muslims and Muslims. In my article, my comments were given on these verdicts.
Key words: retaliation, Ottoman law, Cyprus, Orthodox Greeks, Nicosia.
Üçüncü İktisat Tarihi Kongresi Bildirileri, 2019
The subject of this paper is the foundation of the complex of school and fountain built in the Ol... more The subject of this paper is the foundation of the complex of school and fountain built in the Old Imaret Neighborhood in Istanbul by the son of Hacı Mehmed Ağa, Pir Mustafa Paşa. The Pir Mustafa Pasha Foundation, which is understood to have a wealthy income from the founding document dated 08 March 1741, has created an important economic market and employment area by means of grocery shop and hammam in Istanbul and hammam, dyehouse, and various shops in İzmir. Pir Mustafa Pasha Foundation will be examined, particularly in the context of the dyehouse role in the economic development of Izmir, according to the data of the President of the Republic of Turkey State Archives and the General Directorate of Foundations.
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Papers by Ayşe DEĞERLİ VELET
The aim of this study is to compare the professional organizations, or guilds, that emerged, developed, and operated in different periods and regions. The main focus of this comparison is how these organizations interact with sovereign authorities. This study will attempt to examine how people who form these organizations for mutual benefit and solidarity influence or challenge rulers in the social, political, and economic spheres. It will also explore the possibility that these people constitute a gray cluster below the rulers in a hypothetical hierarchical pyramid but above the ruled, with whom they share the same social stratum, and, if this is possible, whether these organizations, subordinate to the rulers but superior to the rest of society, played any role in shaping pre-modern civil society. For instance, did they participate in the governance mechanism as informal actors, or did they represent the common interests of their members before the rulers? By analyzing historical data, this study hopes to shed light on these questions.
Today, sexual offenses are classified under sub-headings such as "abuse", "harassment", "assault" and "sexual intercourse with a minor". In Ottoman law, both adultery based on the will and consent of both parties and any sexual act performed without the consent of the person were considered sexual offenses. This study will focus on sexual assaults that violate a person's bodily inviolability by using force and violence, namely the crime of rape.
As in other parts of the pre-modern world, rape was considered a serious crime in the Ottoman lands. However, punishing rapists was a very difficult process. In rape cases, the Ottoman legal system demanded high standards of evidence; for example, at least four people had to witness the sexual assault. Of course, in some cases, circumstantial evidence could be considered equivalent to the testimony of four witnesses. Eyewitness testimonies about the social position and victimization of the victim could have an impact on the punishment of the attacker. However, if the accusation could not be proven, the female plaintiff was likely to be punished for slander. This difficult judicial process led many women to refrain from reporting sexual assault to the court due to the questioning of consent and the lack of opportunities for women to tell their story convincingly in court.
Using the case of Cyprus, this paper will examine the attitudes of individuals in court records, how accusations and punishments may differ depending on the marital status of the plaintiff and other factors, the Ottoman vocabulary on rape, and the differences between law and practice.
Some of the Western travelers who organized research trips in Anatolia also visited Antalya and its surroundings; They wrote down their impressions of the historical, geographical, social, cultural, and economic characteristics of the region. Thus, the first examples of the works that we can call “travel guides” for Antalya and its surroundings today emerged. This study, first of all, will be discussed whether the travel books can be used as a historical source, then the prominent topics about Antalya of the period will be emphasized by taking into account the travel notes of eleven travelers who visited Antalya between 1810-1882. The stories of the travelers will be examined by comparing them with the Ottoman archive records and the existing literature.
Halifet Baba Zawiya
Dervishes of Heterodox sects such as Yasawiyya, Haydariyya, and Kalenderiyya migrated to Anatolia from the thirteenth century. These people, some Islamic propagandists, found a suitable ground for spreading their beliefs in Anatolia, not in cities but villages and among nomads. Turkmen “Baba” (father) and dervishes, belonging to Heterodox groups, settled in western Anatolia, especially on the Byzantine border, and established their zawiyas. Because these dervishes, who also have warrior identities, have had the opportunity to propagate jihad and Islam in this border region. As the Turkish sultans saw them as colonizers who would make the military conquest permanent in the region, the zawiyas they opened were supported by waqfs. In Western Anatolia, where nomadic and semi-settled Turkmen communities are densely settled, Turkmen dervishes became figures who shaped the spiritual world of the communities and warmed them to Islam.
Halifet Baba Zawiya was built in the village of Araphisar, founded on top of the ancient city of Alabanda after the Turkish raids. Stones from the ruins of an ancient Christian temple were also used in its construction. This zawiya was part of the process of The Turkification and Islamization of the Anatolian lands. During the Ottoman period, his primary name was forgotten, and he became known as “Baba Sultan”. Sheikhs of the Bektashiyya ruled it until the nineteenth century. After the Vaka-i Hayriyye (1826), its administration passed to the Qadiriyya. Today, it is one of the sacred temples visited by the Alawites and is known as the “Hayri Baba” and “Arap Dede”. In this study, we will emphasize the historical transformation of the Halifet Baba Zawiya in accordance with the Ottoman archival records. We will describe the adventure of turning from a Christian cult to an Islamic cult and then into a sacred place by the Bektashis, Qadiris, and Alawites.
Key words: Halifet Baba, Baba Sultan, Arab Dede, Aydın-Çine, Ottoman, Bektashiyya, Qadiriyya, zawiya.
In this paper, the Mütesellim Mosque, which was built by Hacı Osman's son, Hacı Mehmed Ağa in Elmalı District within Antalya Castle, and its complex consisting of a library, madrasah and school will be discussed. A brief biography of the beneficiary will be given and the endowment will be analyzed; the economic rise of the landowner families that played a role in the establishment of central authority over the countryside and the foundation of Hacı Mehmed Ağa's complex in Antalya in the context of an economic market will be examined.
The archive record of the zawiya built by Elvan Sheikh, on behalf of Abu Bekr Shibli in the Gilisra, a village in Konya, is limited and although there are documents referring to the waqfiyya, itself could not be identified. In May 2019, an Arabic document provided by the Konya Manuscripts Regional Directorate by donation was shared with us by Director Bekir Şahin and we reached the waqfiyya that we could not find in the archives. The waqfiyya, which shows that the religious endowment of Sheikh Shibli’s zawiya in Gilisra was founded by Karamanoghlu Suleiman I in 1307, is very important in several ways, therefore a general assessment will be made by giving latinization and Turkish translation in this study.
Between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries, many villages were established by the Turkmen communities (Yörüks/Yürüks) in Izmir and its vicinity. These villages were new villages compared to the villages established in the Byzantine period in terms of Anatolian settlement history. The villages established in Byzantine and earlier periods, where Genoese and Greeks from the Aegean islands were settled, began to be deserted in the second half of the sixteenth century. The drying of water resources, especially the Menderes river changing beds, public order, infectious diseases such as malaria and plague, and sometimes the pressure of public officials, led to the desertion of villages. Since the Ottoman State was an agricultural state, it was not deemed appropriate to abandon the villages, that is to leave agricultural lands in ruins and empty. The lands of these deserted villages were started to be cultivated by those coming from outside and the surrounding villagers. So over time, these deserted villages regained village status; village borders were determined by the administrators; each of them had a border. In addition, common areas such as cemeteries, wells and pastures were determined. We know that over time, these villages were deserted again, but some of them continued until Tanzimat. In this study, we especially want to contribute to the settlement history of Izmir. Although Central Anatolian cities have been examined in different studies, İzmir and its vicinity have not been sufficiently studied in this respect yet. In this paper, the location of deserted villages in Izmir, why they were deserted, the conditions and livelihoods of the people living in the villages, their relations with the government and local administrators will be discussed. The main source of this paper that has been preserved in the state archives of the Republic of Turkey waqfiyas, censuses of land and population, bond are, malfunctions and the other public documents.
Nowadays, Çine is one of the seventeen districts of Aydın province in administrative terms, with a population about 50,000. It is a historically and culturally modern city. In the Ottoman archival texts, the word Çine refers to Old Çine, and the location we focus on in this paper is Old Çine. The paper is focus on Islamic convents in the region of Aydın-Çine sub-province that were existed until the end of the sixteenth century according to mainly waqfiyyas, various foundation records and registers of the deeds. Most of them were Akhi convents in that time such as Akhi Bahşayış, Akhi Bayram Beyi, Akhi Debbağ, Akhi İsmail, Akhi Polad and Akhi Ümmet. Apart from these, there were also Halifet Baba, Hacı Ali Fakih, Hacı Nasuh, Zikirhane and Kuşoğlu zawiyas in Çine. As it is understood from the archive documents, some of them were captured by the Bektashis in the process, probably in the eighteenth century, and one of them was named Baba Sultan, whose original name was forgotten. In my paper, the situation of these zawiyas of sixteenth century, their connection with tariqas, their waqfs and functions will be discussed in my paper, based on Ottoman archival documents and oral information.
As a matter of fact, the book, which is registered in number 201 in the collection of Muallim Cevdet Manuscripts in Atatürk Library of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, consists of six chapters in a black leather covered volume and contains information about some money foundations established in Veliko Tarnovo in the nineteenth century. A total of 11.150 kuruş was donated by Hacı Hafız Ahmed Efendi to be used for the expenses of Cami-i Cisr, which is adjacent to the bridge in Şehreküstü Neighborhood and some schools and ice houses in Tarnovo. Documents containing this information are dated to 1812, 1831, 1832, 1834, 1847 and 1851. In this paper, these six foundations will be evaluated in the context of money foundations, a financial management model.
We have two verdicts written in Ottoman Turkish on retaliation from Nicosia Islamic Court registers dated 1699. This verdict shows that Hanafi law cover both in Cyprus Muslims and non-Muslims from retaliation point of view in Cyprus. This case took place in the village of Prasiyou of Mesaria region in 1699. An Orthodox man from Prasiyou village whose name was Yorgi (or George), son of Yorgi, was killed in planned way by Andoni who was a Orthodox man. The killed Yorgi’s hairs legally demand retaliation against Antoni in Nicosia Islamic Court. Both Nicosia and Mesaria Ottoman judges has investigated the case and in conclusion they gave a negative verdict against the killer Andoni. This event was one of the interesting cases in the history of Cyprus both from Cypriot non-Muslims and Muslims. In my article, my comments were given on these verdicts.
Key words: retaliation, Ottoman law, Cyprus, Orthodox Greeks, Nicosia.
The aim of this study is to compare the professional organizations, or guilds, that emerged, developed, and operated in different periods and regions. The main focus of this comparison is how these organizations interact with sovereign authorities. This study will attempt to examine how people who form these organizations for mutual benefit and solidarity influence or challenge rulers in the social, political, and economic spheres. It will also explore the possibility that these people constitute a gray cluster below the rulers in a hypothetical hierarchical pyramid but above the ruled, with whom they share the same social stratum, and, if this is possible, whether these organizations, subordinate to the rulers but superior to the rest of society, played any role in shaping pre-modern civil society. For instance, did they participate in the governance mechanism as informal actors, or did they represent the common interests of their members before the rulers? By analyzing historical data, this study hopes to shed light on these questions.
Today, sexual offenses are classified under sub-headings such as "abuse", "harassment", "assault" and "sexual intercourse with a minor". In Ottoman law, both adultery based on the will and consent of both parties and any sexual act performed without the consent of the person were considered sexual offenses. This study will focus on sexual assaults that violate a person's bodily inviolability by using force and violence, namely the crime of rape.
As in other parts of the pre-modern world, rape was considered a serious crime in the Ottoman lands. However, punishing rapists was a very difficult process. In rape cases, the Ottoman legal system demanded high standards of evidence; for example, at least four people had to witness the sexual assault. Of course, in some cases, circumstantial evidence could be considered equivalent to the testimony of four witnesses. Eyewitness testimonies about the social position and victimization of the victim could have an impact on the punishment of the attacker. However, if the accusation could not be proven, the female plaintiff was likely to be punished for slander. This difficult judicial process led many women to refrain from reporting sexual assault to the court due to the questioning of consent and the lack of opportunities for women to tell their story convincingly in court.
Using the case of Cyprus, this paper will examine the attitudes of individuals in court records, how accusations and punishments may differ depending on the marital status of the plaintiff and other factors, the Ottoman vocabulary on rape, and the differences between law and practice.
Some of the Western travelers who organized research trips in Anatolia also visited Antalya and its surroundings; They wrote down their impressions of the historical, geographical, social, cultural, and economic characteristics of the region. Thus, the first examples of the works that we can call “travel guides” for Antalya and its surroundings today emerged. This study, first of all, will be discussed whether the travel books can be used as a historical source, then the prominent topics about Antalya of the period will be emphasized by taking into account the travel notes of eleven travelers who visited Antalya between 1810-1882. The stories of the travelers will be examined by comparing them with the Ottoman archive records and the existing literature.
Halifet Baba Zawiya
Dervishes of Heterodox sects such as Yasawiyya, Haydariyya, and Kalenderiyya migrated to Anatolia from the thirteenth century. These people, some Islamic propagandists, found a suitable ground for spreading their beliefs in Anatolia, not in cities but villages and among nomads. Turkmen “Baba” (father) and dervishes, belonging to Heterodox groups, settled in western Anatolia, especially on the Byzantine border, and established their zawiyas. Because these dervishes, who also have warrior identities, have had the opportunity to propagate jihad and Islam in this border region. As the Turkish sultans saw them as colonizers who would make the military conquest permanent in the region, the zawiyas they opened were supported by waqfs. In Western Anatolia, where nomadic and semi-settled Turkmen communities are densely settled, Turkmen dervishes became figures who shaped the spiritual world of the communities and warmed them to Islam.
Halifet Baba Zawiya was built in the village of Araphisar, founded on top of the ancient city of Alabanda after the Turkish raids. Stones from the ruins of an ancient Christian temple were also used in its construction. This zawiya was part of the process of The Turkification and Islamization of the Anatolian lands. During the Ottoman period, his primary name was forgotten, and he became known as “Baba Sultan”. Sheikhs of the Bektashiyya ruled it until the nineteenth century. After the Vaka-i Hayriyye (1826), its administration passed to the Qadiriyya. Today, it is one of the sacred temples visited by the Alawites and is known as the “Hayri Baba” and “Arap Dede”. In this study, we will emphasize the historical transformation of the Halifet Baba Zawiya in accordance with the Ottoman archival records. We will describe the adventure of turning from a Christian cult to an Islamic cult and then into a sacred place by the Bektashis, Qadiris, and Alawites.
Key words: Halifet Baba, Baba Sultan, Arab Dede, Aydın-Çine, Ottoman, Bektashiyya, Qadiriyya, zawiya.
In this paper, the Mütesellim Mosque, which was built by Hacı Osman's son, Hacı Mehmed Ağa in Elmalı District within Antalya Castle, and its complex consisting of a library, madrasah and school will be discussed. A brief biography of the beneficiary will be given and the endowment will be analyzed; the economic rise of the landowner families that played a role in the establishment of central authority over the countryside and the foundation of Hacı Mehmed Ağa's complex in Antalya in the context of an economic market will be examined.
The archive record of the zawiya built by Elvan Sheikh, on behalf of Abu Bekr Shibli in the Gilisra, a village in Konya, is limited and although there are documents referring to the waqfiyya, itself could not be identified. In May 2019, an Arabic document provided by the Konya Manuscripts Regional Directorate by donation was shared with us by Director Bekir Şahin and we reached the waqfiyya that we could not find in the archives. The waqfiyya, which shows that the religious endowment of Sheikh Shibli’s zawiya in Gilisra was founded by Karamanoghlu Suleiman I in 1307, is very important in several ways, therefore a general assessment will be made by giving latinization and Turkish translation in this study.
Between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries, many villages were established by the Turkmen communities (Yörüks/Yürüks) in Izmir and its vicinity. These villages were new villages compared to the villages established in the Byzantine period in terms of Anatolian settlement history. The villages established in Byzantine and earlier periods, where Genoese and Greeks from the Aegean islands were settled, began to be deserted in the second half of the sixteenth century. The drying of water resources, especially the Menderes river changing beds, public order, infectious diseases such as malaria and plague, and sometimes the pressure of public officials, led to the desertion of villages. Since the Ottoman State was an agricultural state, it was not deemed appropriate to abandon the villages, that is to leave agricultural lands in ruins and empty. The lands of these deserted villages were started to be cultivated by those coming from outside and the surrounding villagers. So over time, these deserted villages regained village status; village borders were determined by the administrators; each of them had a border. In addition, common areas such as cemeteries, wells and pastures were determined. We know that over time, these villages were deserted again, but some of them continued until Tanzimat. In this study, we especially want to contribute to the settlement history of Izmir. Although Central Anatolian cities have been examined in different studies, İzmir and its vicinity have not been sufficiently studied in this respect yet. In this paper, the location of deserted villages in Izmir, why they were deserted, the conditions and livelihoods of the people living in the villages, their relations with the government and local administrators will be discussed. The main source of this paper that has been preserved in the state archives of the Republic of Turkey waqfiyas, censuses of land and population, bond are, malfunctions and the other public documents.
Nowadays, Çine is one of the seventeen districts of Aydın province in administrative terms, with a population about 50,000. It is a historically and culturally modern city. In the Ottoman archival texts, the word Çine refers to Old Çine, and the location we focus on in this paper is Old Çine. The paper is focus on Islamic convents in the region of Aydın-Çine sub-province that were existed until the end of the sixteenth century according to mainly waqfiyyas, various foundation records and registers of the deeds. Most of them were Akhi convents in that time such as Akhi Bahşayış, Akhi Bayram Beyi, Akhi Debbağ, Akhi İsmail, Akhi Polad and Akhi Ümmet. Apart from these, there were also Halifet Baba, Hacı Ali Fakih, Hacı Nasuh, Zikirhane and Kuşoğlu zawiyas in Çine. As it is understood from the archive documents, some of them were captured by the Bektashis in the process, probably in the eighteenth century, and one of them was named Baba Sultan, whose original name was forgotten. In my paper, the situation of these zawiyas of sixteenth century, their connection with tariqas, their waqfs and functions will be discussed in my paper, based on Ottoman archival documents and oral information.
As a matter of fact, the book, which is registered in number 201 in the collection of Muallim Cevdet Manuscripts in Atatürk Library of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, consists of six chapters in a black leather covered volume and contains information about some money foundations established in Veliko Tarnovo in the nineteenth century. A total of 11.150 kuruş was donated by Hacı Hafız Ahmed Efendi to be used for the expenses of Cami-i Cisr, which is adjacent to the bridge in Şehreküstü Neighborhood and some schools and ice houses in Tarnovo. Documents containing this information are dated to 1812, 1831, 1832, 1834, 1847 and 1851. In this paper, these six foundations will be evaluated in the context of money foundations, a financial management model.
We have two verdicts written in Ottoman Turkish on retaliation from Nicosia Islamic Court registers dated 1699. This verdict shows that Hanafi law cover both in Cyprus Muslims and non-Muslims from retaliation point of view in Cyprus. This case took place in the village of Prasiyou of Mesaria region in 1699. An Orthodox man from Prasiyou village whose name was Yorgi (or George), son of Yorgi, was killed in planned way by Andoni who was a Orthodox man. The killed Yorgi’s hairs legally demand retaliation against Antoni in Nicosia Islamic Court. Both Nicosia and Mesaria Ottoman judges has investigated the case and in conclusion they gave a negative verdict against the killer Andoni. This event was one of the interesting cases in the history of Cyprus both from Cypriot non-Muslims and Muslims. In my article, my comments were given on these verdicts.
Key words: retaliation, Ottoman law, Cyprus, Orthodox Greeks, Nicosia.
Based on primary sources such as Ottoman archival documents, foundation records, hurufat books and kadi registers, this study is important for its historical reliability and detail. It sheds light on Ottoman urban and rural policies by providing in-depth information on the role of zawiyas in settlement and social structure in Anatolia.