Sustainable Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction

Water is of paramount importance to sustain life, development and the environment. Its governance has profound implications on the society, economy and environment. Traditionally, the focus of water management projects has been on optimizing economic benefits overlooking the distribution of benefits and costs among different socio-economic groups. Theories of social justice and equity underscore the need for ensuring social justice in water resource management. Using Bangladesh as a case study, this paper examines how and to what extent the concept of social equity has been integrated in water resource management. Analysis revealed that the governance of water resources in Bangladesh is biased towards structural solutions of flood control and irrigation through a centralized approach that ignores the other uses of water such as drinking and sanitation, fisheries, navigation, and ecology, and ignores the costs borne by the rural poor. Often, the access to water resources and the costs and benefits of water resources project is distributed unequally. While the rich get more access to water resources, the poor bear the cost. Recommendations are made to promote equity in water resource governance.

As in other mountain regions of Asia, agricultural lands in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh are undergoing degradation due primarily to environmentally incompatible land use systems such as distorted from of shifting cultivation (jhum) requiring the slashing and burning of vegetation every year. Agroforestry is considered to be environmentally suitable for the mountainous areas like CHT, as the rate of soil erosion under such systems is considerably less than jhum. To design strategies in the pursuit of promoting agroforestry its financial and economic benefits need to be evaluated systematically. Based on three criteria such as benefit-cost ratio, net present value, and return to labor, this paper evaluated the financial and economic benefits of agroforestry and jhum using farm household data. Information was collected from farm households and agricultural commodity traders through questionnaire surveys, case studies, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews following a two-stage sampling method. The results show that economic returns from agroforestry are better than from jhum in terms of all the three criteria. When economic benefits of two land use systems are analyzed by taking into account the cost of nutrient depletion arising 0308-521X/$ -see front matter Ó (G. Rasul).

Indigenous people have widely been blamed for degrading South Asia's montane forest resources through the practice of shifting cultivation, yet some studies have revealed that indigenous people used forests in a sustainable way for centuries until external intervention. The history of external intervention in the forests of South Asia is more than two centuries old. The process of degradation of forest resources requires understanding of the political and social processes that condition access, control and management of the land and resources involved. The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh, a part of the Himalayan region, underwent essentially the same socio-political and historical processes as many other countries in the region and had very similar experiences in forest management. By examination of policies and associated effects on CHT forest over the past two centuries, this paper reveals that the process of forest degradation in the CHT started during the British colonial period with the nationalization of forests, establishment of reserve forests (RFs), management of forests by government agencies and weakening of traditional institutions. The process of degradation was accelerated by: privatization of forest land for the promotion of sedentary agriculture, horticulture and rubber plantation; the construction of a hydraulic dam on the Karnafuli River; the settlement of lowland people; and the constant conflict between indigenous people and the Forest Department. The degradation of CHT forests is not only the result of traditional agricultural practices, but also of many other factors including inappropriate policies and programmes.

Shifting cultivation is a traditional agricultural land use in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. It is, however, changing over the time under the influence of several internal and external pressures. In some areas, it is partly or completely replaced by more intensive land-use systems, but in other areas it is still dominant. Due to steadily increasing population pressure on land arising from natural growth of indigenous population and inmigration of lowland settlers combined with the government restriction on encroachment of reserve forests, farmers have been forced to shorten the fallow period, thereby accelerating deforestation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Such environmental problems have threatened undermining the livelihood of people depending on it. Policies and programs aimed at promoting alternative land-use systems have failed to achieve expected goals because of inadequate understanding of the evolution of existing land-use systems and forces driving the changes. Using cluster analysis, this study identified three types of land-use systems in Bandarban, a typical hill district of CHT, which are different from each other in intensity of use, degree of diversification and commercialization. Factors influencing the development of land-use systems were explored through factor and discriminant analyses. The results show that institutional support, productive resource base and distance to the market and service center were the main factors responsible for the development of three different types of landuse systems.

This paper examines the sustainability of conventional and ecological agricultural systems based on their environmental soundness, economic viability and social acceptability. Significant differences were found in crop diversification, soil fertility management, pests and diseases management, and use of agrochemicals. No remarkable variations were found in land-use pattern, crop yield and stability, financial and economic returns, risk and uncertainties, or food security. The findings suggest that ecological agriculture is relatively more sustainable, and it could be an economically and environmentally viable alternative to the conventional agricultural system. Ecological agriculture could become an alternative if market distortions created by subsidies were removed, and financial benefits were provided to resource-conserving farmers along with necessary support through extension, credit, research, and marketing.

Shifting cultivation, which long provided the subsistence requirements of a large number of people in the mountains of South and Southeast Asia under a situation of low population, has been shown to be an environmentally and economically unsuitable practice. Efforts have been made throughout the region to replace it with more productive and sustainable land-use systems. Experiences have been mixed. Shifting cultivation has been almost entirely replaced by sedentary agriculture in Nepal, a considerable change has taken place in Thailand, and moderate changes have taken place in Indonesia and Malaysia. However, shifting cultivation is still being widely practised in the mountains of Bangladesh and Laos, and northeastern India. Such interregional variations are explained by several socio-economic, institutional and policy factors, including population growth, government control of common property resources, the land tenure system, physical infrastructure, technology and necessary support services. This paper concludes that the change from shifting to permanent cultivation does not take place automatically with increasing population pressure as postulated by Boserüp (1965). It takes place when the favourable condition created by population growth is reinforced by other appropriate measures, including ownership rights to land, development of infrastructure and provision of necessary support services and facilities. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Shifting cultivation is a traditional agricultural land use in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. It is, however, changing over the time under the influence of several internal and external pressures. In some areas, it is partly or completely replaced by more intensive land-use systems, but in other areas it is still dominant. Due to steadily increasing population pressure on land arising from natural growth of indigenous population and inmigration of lowland settlers combined with the government restriction on encroachment of reserve forests, farmers have been forced to shorten the fallow period, thereby accelerating deforestation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Such environmental problems have threatened undermining the livelihood of people depending on it. Policies and programs aimed at promoting alternative land-use systems have failed to achieve expected goals because of inadequate understanding of the evolution of existing land-use systems and forces driving the changes. Using cluster analysis, this study identified three types of land-use systems in Bandarban, a typical hill district of CHT, which are different from each other in intensity of use, degree of diversification and commercialization. Factors influencing the development of land-use systems were explored through factor and discriminant analyses. The results show that institutional support, productive resource base and distance to the market and service center were the main factors responsible for the development of three different types of landuse systems.

Land use in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh had undergone changes over the past several centuries. The landscape, which was mostly covered with forest with interspersed shifting cultivation plots until the beginning of the colonial period, has gradually changed into a landscape with a blend of land uses. Overall, the forest area has gradually declined, while the area under shifting cultivation and sedentary agriculture has expanded. The process of the change was multi-directional. National forestry, land use, land taxation, population migration polices, and development activities, such as construction of a hydroelectric dam and roads, played an important role in this process. Shifting cultivation had inflicted little damage on the forest until the beginning of the colonial period. The pace of deforestation accelerated with the nationalization of forests which abolished tribal people's customary use and management rights to the forest, and allowed large-scale commercial logging both legally and illegally. The pace was further intensified by the policy encouraging population migration to CHT and construction of a reservoir on the Karnafuli River. Efforts were made to replace shifting cultivation with more productive types of sedentary agriculture. However, much change could not take place in the absence of secure land rights, supportive trade policies, and the required support services and facilities, including infrastructure. Locationally suitable land use evolved in areas where transportation facilities were available and farmers were granted land title with the necessary extension services and credit facilities. These findings have important policy implications for the promotion of environmentally and economically sound land use in CHT. r

The sustainability of conventional agriculture in Bangladesh is under threat from the continuous degradation of land and water resources, and from declining yields due to indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals. An NGO is pursuing efforts to promote ecological agriculture with emphasis on better use of on-farm resources and the reduction of external inputs. This paper examines the sustainability of two production systems in terms of their environmental soundness, economic viability and social acceptability based on empirical data collected through a household survey, soil sample analysis, observations and discussions with key informants. Twelve indicators were selected to evaluate sustainability. Significant differences were found between the two systems in crop diversification, soil fertility management, pests and diseases management, and use of agro-chemicals. However, no significant variations were found in other indicators such as land-use pattern, crop yield and stability, risk and uncertainties, and food security. Although crop yield and financial return were found to be slightly higher in the conventional system, the economic return and value addition per unit of land did not show any difference. The findings suggest that ecological agriculture has a tendency towards becoming ecologically, economically and socially more sound than conventional agriculture, as it requires considerably less agro-chemicals, adds more organic matter to the soil, provides balanced food, and requires higher local inputs without markedly compromising output and financial benefits. Broad-policy measures, including the creation of mass 0308-521X/03/$ -see front matter #

Urban areas consume more than two-thirds of the world's primary energy and contribute nearly four-fi fths to global greenhouse gas emissions. The promotion of a green economy and enhancement of eco-ef fi ciency of urban economies are closely linked. Although the concept of a green economy has raised hopes among urban stakeholders to enhance eco-ef fi ciency, there is little understanding on the available policy and economic instruments to realize this, as well as on the new role to be played by the state in promoting the green economy. This chapter brie fl y examines the concept and principles of a green economy, types of available policy and economic instruments and new governance mechanisms, particularly the evolving role of the state to foster a green urban economy. The analysis reveals that a transition to a green economy would require a fundamental shift in the design of policy and institutions and in the organization of economic activities so as to enhance ef fi ciency and reduce unsustainable practices. Financial, economic, and market instruments need to be aligned to provide incentives to enhance energy ef fi ciency, encourage recycling and reuse, and greening the urban economy. This necessitates a new role for the state, moving from its traditional command and control approach towards a market-based economic approach by facilitating and creating a conductive environment for the proper functioning of markets, the private sector and other actors. The fi ndings of this chapter are expected to be useful in designing a green economy approach for developing green cities.

Although mountains are rich in natural resources and provide vital ecosystem services to the global community, mountain people are marginalised. As the ecosystem services they provide are mostly free of charge, they have no incentive to invest in the conservation. We examine the feasibility of improving their livelihoods through the sale of water services to downstream communities. Using hydrometeorological data, we assessed the effects of forest conservation on water yield and estimated the value of water services to downstream communities. Results show that if a system of payment for ecosystem services is established, mountain communities can improve their livelihoods by converting their farmland into conservation areas. However, it will take 15 years to increase the water yield, which means that external assistance is required in early years. Policy measures are suggested to establish a market for ecosystem services to encourage upstream communities to take conservation measures.

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal in the Eastern Himalayas are interconnected by the common river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna (GBM). The GBM basin is home to approximately 700 million people, comprising over 10% of the world's population. The economy and environment of the region depend on water, but while the need for water is increasing, poor management and climate-related effects are making water supplies erratic. Upstream-downstream interdependencies necessitate developing a shared river system in an integrated manner through collaboration of the riparian countries. This paper examines the opportunities for, and potential benefits of, regional cooperation in water resource management. It suggests that the benefits can increase considerably when a regional (river basin) perspective is adopted that promotes optimum use of water resources for consumptive and non-consumptive use. Regional cooperation can bring additional economic, environmental, social, and political benefits through multi-purpose river projects, which help by storing monsoon water, mitigating the effects of floods and droughts, augmenting dry season river flows, expanding irrigation and navigation facilities, generating hydropower, and enhancing energy and environmental security. A broader framework to facilitate regional cooperation in transboundary rivers in the Eastern Himalayan region is suggested.

Water is of paramount importance to sustain life, development and the environment. Its governance has profound implications on the society, economy and environment. Traditionally, the focus of water management projects has been on optimizing economic benefits overlooking the distribution of benefits and costs among different socio-economic groups. Theories of social justice and equity underscore the need for ensuring social justice in water resource management. Using Bangladesh as a case study, this paper examines how and to what extent the concept of social equity has been integrated in water resource management. Analysis revealed that the governance of water resources in Bangladesh is biased towards structural solutions of flood control and irrigation through a centralized approach that ignores the other uses of water such as drinking and sanitation, fisheries, navigation, and ecology, and ignores the costs borne by the rural poor. Often, the access to water resources and the costs and benefits of water resources project is distributed unequally. While the rich get more access to water resources, the poor bear the cost. Recommendations are made to promote equity in water resource governance.

Shifting cultivation is a traditional agricultural land use in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. It is, however, changing over the time under the influence of several internal and external pressures. In some areas, it is partly or completely replaced by more intensive land-use systems, but in other areas it is still dominant. Due to steadily increasing population pressure on land arising from natural growth of indigenous population and inmigration of lowland settlers combined with the government restriction on encroachment of reserve forests, farmers have been forced to shorten the fallow period, thereby accelerating deforestation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Such environmental problems have threatened undermining the livelihood of people depending on it. Policies and programs aimed at promoting alternative land-use systems have failed to achieve expected goals because of inadequate understanding of the evolution of existing land-use systems and forces driving the changes. Using cluster analysis, this study identified three types of land-use systems in Bandarban, a typical hill district of CHT, which are different from each other in intensity of use, degree of diversification and commercialization. Factors influencing the development of land-use systems were explored through factor and discriminant analyses. The results show that institutional support, productive resource base and distance to the market and service center were the main factors responsible for the development of three different types of landuse systems.

possesses many valuable tourist resources and attractions, which could be important vehicles for reducing the widespread persistent poverty in South Asia. However, the potential of tourism has remained largely unrealized for several reasons. Recently, several organizations, including the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), have focused on promoting intra-regional tourism by utilizing common resources, shared culture and common physical infrastructures. This article examines the progress made in promoting tourism in South Asia and explores the factors that facilitate and constrain the promotion of tourism in South Asia. The analyses show that despite several initiatives, tourism's contribution to regional national economies, in terms of employment generation, foreign exchange earnings and national revenue, has remained minimal. Complicated travel procedures, inadequate infrastructure and transport facilities and the poor quality of management and service, together with a negative image arising from safety and security concerns, have constrained intra-regional tourism. This article argues that inadequate political commitment and bureaucratic meandering are the