Papers by Stacy Lindshield
Folia Primatologica
This paper reports the social-cultural findings from building an artificial canopy bridge for man... more This paper reports the social-cultural findings from building an artificial canopy bridge for mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) and other arboreal mammals in Puerto Viejo, Costa Rica. We analyzed participatory observation results from participatory designing and building, and camera trap data from monitoring the bridge. This article also discusses how local perceptions towards monkeys, regional developments, and bridge functions inform primate conservation in that region. It examines a broader primate conservation strategy that addresses entangled values and bridge design in a human-centered, peri-urban, and coastal evergreen forest. We found that artificial canopy bridge design is a complex problem related to humans and targeted species. Connecting habitat with artificial canopy bridges in this context is part of a more significant urban planning problem. Bridge material and design are related to animal usage and existing infrastructure and can shape public views that buil...
Provides the geographic locations of chimpanzee observations in Niokolo Koba National Park betwee... more Provides the geographic locations of chimpanzee observations in Niokolo Koba National Park between 2015 and 2021.
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 2022
While anthropological primatology is known for its basic research on understanding the human cond... more While anthropological primatology is known for its basic research on understanding the human condition from comparative and evolutionary perspectives, its applied and practicing domains are equally important to society. Applied researchers and practitioners often work in the fields of environmental sustainability and conservation, biomedicine, captive care and management, and education. For sustainability and conservation specializations, primatologists seek careers in higher education, government, and nongovernmental organizations and may work in large and diverse teams on conservation and management problems for nonhuman primates (hereafter, termed primates). Primate conservation has largely focused on population monitoring in protected and unprotected areas; measuring effects of agriculture, extractive industries, and tourism on primates; and evaluating intervention strategies. Primate population management in urban and peri-urban areas is a growth area; these landscapes pose ris...
2020 IEEE Southwest Symposium on Image Analysis and Interpretation (SSIAI), 2020
Motion-sensor camera traps help collect images of animals in the wild without intruding upon thei... more Motion-sensor camera traps help collect images of animals in the wild without intruding upon their native habitat. To obtain key insights about animal health and population densities, accurate counting, detection and classification of animals is important. Deep convolution neural networks perform well on these tasks when the background is free from dense vegetation, shadows, occlusions and rapid illumination changes. However, when the camera traps are located in regions with extremely complex backgrounds, performance of these models degrades significantly. This is due to the fact that the models learn to focus on aspects of the image that are unrelated to the animals. In this paper, we propose a system based on Robust Principal Component Analysis (Robust PCA) that spatially localizes the animals in the image. This localization can then be integrated into existing models to improve classification and detection accuracy. We demonstrate that our system creates better localizations than those of a pre-trained R3Net.
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 2021
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are the only great apes that inhabit hot, dry, and open savannas. W... more Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are the only great apes that inhabit hot, dry, and open savannas. We review the environmental pressures of savannas on chimpanzees, such as food and water scarcity, and the evidence for chimpanzees' behavioral responses to these landscapes. In our analysis, savannas were generally associated with low chimpanzee population densities and large home ranges. In addition, thermoregulatory behaviors that likely reduce hyperthermia risk, such as cave use, were frequently observed in the hottest and driest savanna landscapes. We hypothesize that such responses are evidence of a "savanna landscape effect" in chimpanzees and offer pathways for future research to understand its evolutionary processes and mechanisms. We conclude by discussing the significance of research on savanna chimpanzees to modeling the evolution of early hominin traits and informing conservation programs for these endangered apes.
American Journal of Primatology, 2021
Intrinsic to several hypotheses explaining the evolution of foraging behavior complexity, such as... more Intrinsic to several hypotheses explaining the evolution of foraging behavior complexity, such as proto‐tool use, is the assumption that more complex ingestive behaviors are adaptations allowing individuals to access difficult to procure but nutritionally or energetically rewarding foods. However, nutritional approaches to understanding this complexity have been underutilized. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential nutritional determinants of two unusual foraging behaviors, fruit cracking with anvils and seed reingestion, by adult male western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal during the baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit season. We examined these behaviors in relation to nutrient and energy intake, and compared macronutrient and energy concentrations found in baobab fruits to other plant foods. Adult males ingested at least 31 distinct foods from 23 plant species. Baobab fruit comprised the majority of daily energy intake (68 ± 34%, range: 0%–98%). The energetic concentration of baobab fruit varied by phenophase and part ingested, with ripe and semi‐ripe fruit ranking high in energy return rate. Males preferred ripe and semi‐ripe baobab fruit but unripe fruit intake was higher overall. The seed kernels were high in protein and fat relative to fruit pulp, and these kernels were easier to access during the unripe stage. During the ripe stage, seed kernels were accessible by reingestion, after the seed coat was softened during gut passage. In addition to providing macronutrients and energy, baobab fruit was a relatively abundant food source. We conclude that baobab pulp and seed are high quality foods at Fongoli during the baobab season because they are nutritionally balanced, high in energy, and relatively abundant in the environment. These nutritional and abundance characteristics may explain, in part, why these chimpanzees use anvils and reingestion to access a mechanically challenging food.
Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 2021
International Journal of Primatology, 2020
Zoologists have long been fascinated by nonhuman primates because of their shared evolutionary hi... more Zoologists have long been fascinated by nonhuman primates because of their shared evolutionary history with us (Imanishi 1960; Washburn 1951) and for that reason our nearest living relatives, the chimpanzee and bonobo (Pan spp.), have long held our attention. Going back further, neither Darwin (1871) nor Huxley (1863) had the benefit of observing the behavior of wild apes, yet both recognized the significance of African apes in explaining human behavior, anatomy, and origins. The molecular revolution of the 1960s (Sarich and Wilson 1967), and recent advances in molecular taxonomy, provided us with persuasive evidence that Pan is our sibling taxon with whom we shared a common ancestor as recently as 4-7 MYA (Langergraber et al. 2012; Mikkelsen et al. 2005). The pioneering work of Goodall (1986) and Nishida (2012) revealed the complexities of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) socioecology and encouraged other researchers to further document the behavioral biology of the species (e.g., Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 2000; Kano 1992; Matsuzawa et al. 2011). Additionally, anthropologists saw the usefulness of incorporating this taxon into human origins models (Moore 1996). In this special issue we focus on a subset of chimpanzee communities that are collectively referred to as "savanna chimpanzees." We also are fortunate to have a contribution from Pennec et al. (2020) to provide us with a comparative perspective for the bonobo (Pan paniscus). The descriptor "savanna chimpanzees" is somewhat imprecise yet does suggest that these apes are not found in habitats dominated by some form of forest cover (van Leeuwen et al. 2020). Rather, the habitats they occupy, as implied by the use of "savanna," are more open; may include woodland, grassland; and are often labeled mosaic habitats (Hunt and McGrew 2002). These habitats also represent some of the extremes of where chimpanzees can persist-occupying the biogeographical edges of the species' distribution (Wessling et al. 2020).
African Journal of Wildlife Research, 2018
While West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) were elevated to Critically Endangered sta... more While West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) were elevated to Critically Endangered status by the IUCN in 2016 as a result of significant population declines in recent decades, little is known about the population in Senegal. We surveyed the West African chimpanzees outside protected areas in the Kedougou region of southeastern Senegal between November 2014 and July 2015 using recce walks (n = 57, totalling 300 km of pedestrian survey distance) in potential chimpanzee habitats. We recorded direct observations of chimpanzees or indices of chimpanzee activity, such as sleeping nests, footprints and faeces. We accumulated 21 direct contacts with chimpanzees and recorded 3489 chimpanzee nests. We mapped the distribution of chimpanzee sleeping sites and indicators of anthropogenic activity by regional administrative units to facilitate species management and conservation planning in the immediate future. In addition, we identified the habitats and tree species used by chimpanzees to construct their nests in order to explore nesting tree preferences. Chimpanzees used almost 40 tree species in the Kedougou region but 84% of nests were associated with eight tree species, namely Pterocarpus erinaceus, Diospyros mespiliformis, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Hexalobus monopetalus, Cola cordifolia, Lannea sp., Parkia biglobosa and Piliostigma thonningii. Among these eight nesting tree species, 60% of the corresponding nests were located in three species: P. erinaceus, D. mespiliformis and A. leiocarpus. Chimpanzees nested more often in woodland habitat than in gallery forests, although the latter accounts for only a small percentage of available habitat. This study is the most geographically extensive survey of chimpanzees in Senegal to date, broadening our knowledge of the species' northwestern-most distribution in West Africa.
Camara and Sira. A warm thanks goes to Morty, Beverly, Josh, and Emanuel Marshack for their kindn... more Camara and Sira. A warm thanks goes to Morty, Beverly, Josh, and Emanuel Marshack for their kindness and generosity. Finally, I am thankful for my family and friends for their support and encouragement, especially my parents, Lori McKinney, David Lindshield, and
Folia Primatologica, 2018
Diaguiri is a non-protected area situated in south-eastern Senegal. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ... more Diaguiri is a non-protected area situated in south-eastern Senegal. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) have been living here since 1999 but information on the characteristics of their nest sites have been lacking until now. Furthermore, we implemented nest survey methods recently standardised to arid landscapes during a national chimpanzee survey. Variations in nest decay rates are poorly understood in savanna-woodland mosaic habitats. This study aims to describe in Diaguiri: (1) the distribution of chimpanzee nests and the location of their core sleeping area, (2) the tree species used for nest building, (3) the association between nests and nesting tree heights, and (4) differences in nest decay rates between habitats. We surveyed 43 km of chimpanzee nesting habitats and recorded 871 nests in gallery forest and woodland habitats between March 2015 and June 2016. Diaguiri chimpanzees used at least 17 tree species for nest building, and 58.8% of nests were in only 3 tree species: P...
Folia Primatologica, 2019
Updated information on Critically Endangered western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Seneg... more Updated information on Critically Endangered western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Senegal is urgently needed, given that gold mining is rapidly transforming landscapes and livelihoods. Specifically, biodiversity assessments will better elucidate the chimpanzee extinction risk here and yield baselines for monitoring. We compared mammal species richness between Fongoli (unprotected) and Assirik in Niokolo-Koba National Park to assess the efficacy of the only nationally protected area where chimpanzees range in this country. The primary habitat difference between these sites was the degree of human activity. Although Assirik and Fongoli had similar mammal assemblages and were equivalent in primate species richness, the protected area was higher in species richness overall, particularly for ungulates and carnivores. The protected status and management plan of Niokolo-Koba almost certainly resulted in fewer mammal extinctions. In unprotected areas, the flexible behavioural responses of chimpanzees to human-driven landscape dynamics is likely essential to their long-term survival. Furthermore, the near absence of chimpanzee killings in this country greatly facilitates conservation efforts. Given that mineral extraction is a key development strategy in Senegal, we encourage primatologists to collaborate with mining stakeholders to ensure that sustainability programming includes contributions from experts in savannah chimpanzee behavior and ecology.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2017
Objectives: We evaluated risk-sensitive foraging in adult male western chimpanzees (Pan troglodyt... more Objectives: We evaluated risk-sensitive foraging in adult male western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) occupying a savanna environment at Fongoli, Senegal. The aim of this study was to determine how the risks of predation and heat stress influenced their behavior while feeding on a key food, fruit of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata). Materials and Methods: Proximity of fruiting baobab trees to anthropogenic landmarks were compared to food intake, feeding rate, and behavioral indicators of fear in adult males (N 5 11) at Fongoli. Additionally, we compared foraging to vegetative habitats, baobab ripe fruit nutritive quality, surface water availability, and foraging party composition. Results: Fruit abundance increased with proximity to anthropogenic landmarks, and chimpanzees exhibited higher frequencies of antipredator behaviors as they approached these risky areas. However, predation risk did not deter adult males from visiting these fruiting trees; instead, risky foraging bouts were associated with higher food intakes and longer feeding times. Additionally, higher feeding rates were observed in open-canopy habitats, and this behavior may have minimized their risk of heat stress. Conclusions: Adaptations that minimize predation risk are widespread in mammalian prey species, but these traits are poorly understood in chimpanzees. Great apes encounter few nonhuman predators capable of successfully capturing and killing them; thus, such events are rarely observed. Although people rarely hunt chimpanzees in Senegal, we found that adult males perceived humans as predators and adjusted their behavior while foraging in risky habitats. From an applied perspective, risk-taking behavior is important for understanding and mitigating the problem of cropfeeding in locations where chimpanzees and humans live in sympatry.
International Journal of Primatology, 2017
Lethal coalitionary aggression is of significant interest to primatologists and anthropologists g... more Lethal coalitionary aggression is of significant interest to primatologists and anthropologists given its pervasiveness in human, but not nonhuman, animal societies. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) provide the largest sample of recorded lethal coalitionary aggression in nonhuman primates, and most long-term chimpanzee study sites have recorded coalitionary killing of conspecifics. We report an inferred lethal attack by resident males on a former alpha male chimpanzee (P. t. verus) at Fongoli in Senegal. We describe the male's presence in the
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Papers by Stacy Lindshield