Achaemenid Persia left its mark on the Hebrew Bible in manifold ways. Given the profound importan... more Achaemenid Persia left its mark on the Hebrew Bible in manifold ways. Given the profound importance of fire in the Persian religion and cult, we would expect to its influence to be evidenced in the Bible. This paper investigates the notion of perpetual fire in the priestly writings in the Pentateuch and, by analyzing some relevant texts, identifies a thin layer of insertions that represents a very late effort to insert the Zoroastrian concept of divine, cultic, ever-burning fire into the Israelite priestly cult.
שמיר והכתב והמכתב והלוחות - מחקרים לכבוד פרופסור שמיר יונה, 2023
Leviticus 2:11-12 contains a prohibition against making a leavened cereal offering. An analysis o... more Leviticus 2:11-12 contains a prohibition against making a leavened cereal offering. An analysis of these difficult verses reveals that, in addition to the prohibition, the verses include a quotation of an ancient injunction as well as a late addition. This recognition discloses an unusual poetic remnant in the priestly legislation and a confrontation, even a polemic, regarding the nature of the offering of the firstlings.
Scholars have pointed out some difficulties, tensions, changes of vocabulary, and problems in seq... more Scholars have pointed out some difficulties, tensions, changes of vocabulary, and problems in sequence in the law of the cities of refuge in Numbers 35. These difficulties indicate that not a single author was involved in the production of this pericope. Usually the solution was to find layers in the process of the formation of the law which accumulated on original core of the passage. Each of the authors has his perception and aim relating to the issue of murder and asylum and left his mark on the final formulation of the law. Although this direction can solve some of the problems, it seems that some other problems still remain. The solution will be proposed is a combination of finding additions in the passage and recognizing of sources the author of the original unit used to create his law. According to this analysis one can understand the function of the cities in the original passage and the tendency of the later authors by inserting their additions to the text. This also will enable us a better understanding of the relations between this law and the parallel law in Deut. 19:1-10 and the account of the implementation of the law in Josh 20.
R. Abraham Ibn Ezra composed in France his 'second recension' ??? ???) to Genesis and his... more R. Abraham Ibn Ezra composed in France his 'second recension' ??? ???) to Genesis and his 'long commentary' to Exodus, and most scholars believe that these are parts of a single recension. This belief caused a contradiction among details of Ibn Ezra's biography and led to the accepted solution that Ibn Ezra was born in 4849 AM (1089 CE) and died in 4924 AM (1164 CE). The clarification of the distinctive character and structure of the second recension to Genesis and the long commentary to Exodus has demonstrated that they cannot be considered parts of a single commentary. This enables us to reconstruct chronological / biographical details about Ibn Ezra and to conclude that there is no reason to reject the manuscripts' evidence that Ibn Ezra died in 4927 AM (1167 CE) when he was 75. Therefore, we can determine the lifespan of Ibn Ezra as 4852-4927 AM (1091/2-1167 CE).
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2016
The Book of Numbers receives its name from the two census accounts it includes, at the beginning ... more The Book of Numbers receives its name from the two census accounts it includes, at the beginning and towards the end of the account of the wilderness wandering (chapters 1–2; 26). In this paper I examine the literary relationship between these two accounts, which contain several similar components as well as some significant differences. Upon a careful inspection, it emerges that the differing features of the census accounts are explained by the assumption that two different documents underlie both accounts, while the similarities between them suggest that the same editorial hand was responsible for the composition of both. The terms used as part of the editorial activity in both accounts can teach us that this activity took place in the Persian period. The redactional process revealed in the census accounts seems to be related also to a similar process in the story of the spies, especially in Num 14,29.35.
In its present form, the census description in Numbers 26 can be identified as the product of a p... more In its present form, the census description in Numbers 26 can be identified as the product of a protracted literary process. Three principal stages of composition may be discerned as: a) close reliance on the list in Genesis 46 produced a census description and a list of the Israelite clans when they left Egypt ; b) the displacement of the original list from its original location to its extant position, wherein it serves as a “database” for the allocation of Canaan in accordance with the size of the tribes; c) the text reflected in the MT, in which the original form of the list was changed to better fit the new context, thereby establishing a greater similitude between Numbers 26 and other parts in its literary context.
Since we cannot determine with certainty the method used by the authors of the Pentateuch, this c... more Since we cannot determine with certainty the method used by the authors of the Pentateuch, this calls for independent examination of each biblical unit, rather than a priori determination of the authorial method employed in the whole Pentateuch. In this article I assess which of the three principal approaches to the Pentateuchal text and its composition best applies to, and is most persuasive in, the case of Num 32:1-38. The similarity between the two literary parts of the story makes it more plausible that the narrative contains an original core with Priestly additions.
A careful attention to the change in the employment of Greek equivalents in the translation of He... more A careful attention to the change in the employment of Greek equivalents in the translation of Hebrew words in the Septuagint may help us to identify involvement of different translators. Such a change may sometimes point to some stages in the composition of the Hebrew text. In this article some interesting differences in the vocabulary of the Septuagint in the passage of the investiture of Joshua in Num 27, 15-23 are examined and with some other literal-critical considerations lead to exact exploring of the literal process of the graduated formation of the Hebrew passage.
In the book of Chronicles, in several passages that relate the establishment of the temple, we fi... more In the book of Chronicles, in several passages that relate the establishment of the temple, we find an emphasis on—and an elevation of the status of—the altar and the sacrifices offered on it. To compare, we do not find this elevation of the altar’s status in the accounts of Samuel and Kings. This article examines this phenomenon and suggests that this shift is part of the Chronicler’s coping with a fundamental theological problem regarding the Second Temple.
In the story of the siege of Samaria (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20), the passage in which the king surprisingl... more In the story of the siege of Samaria (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20), the passage in which the king surprisingly threatens to kill Elisha (6:31–33) is problematic. This passage also recounts the preparations by Elisha and the elders who are with him for the arrival of the king’s messenger who comes to kill the prophet (6:32). Eventually, and without explanation, the king abandons his initial intention to kill Elisha (6:33). This strange passage does not promote the plot and its function in the story is not clear. An analysis of this passage in its context leads to the recognition that the story is not unified and reveals the stages of its development. Understanding the motivation for developing the story leads to another conclusion: that the formation of this story is closely related to the wider context, namely the redaction of the Elisha cycle.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
To date, scholarly examination of the developed legal section in Numbers 28–29 has taken place in... more To date, scholarly examination of the developed legal section in Numbers 28–29 has taken place in the context of its relationship to the Lev 23 festival calendar and other pentateuchal calendars (Exod 23:14–19; 34:18–26; Deut 16:1–17) and its place in the formation of the Pentateuch. Independent analysis of this unit has the ability to illuminate this unit’s formation, probably the product of a long editorial process, enables isolation of the stage at which it was integrated in its current context, and reveals the purpose underlying its integration.
Rashi’s commentary on the Torah draws heavily on rabbinic derash. In many instances, however, Ras... more Rashi’s commentary on the Torah draws heavily on rabbinic derash. In many instances, however, Rashi does not quote rabbinic homilies word-for-word, and it turns out that a guiding principle in Rashi's reworking of midrash is making it correspondence with Scripture. This article treats Rashi’s commentary on Genesis 18:2, which explains why three angels were sent to Abraham, using it to illustrate Rashi's method of selecting and processing midrashim. Although Rashi relies on some rabbinic works in his comment on this verse, he does not cite any of them verbatim. A detailed analysis of the specific wording of that comment indicates Rashi's careful compilation of the appropriate elements from rabbinic literature for his interpretative needs, the deliberate reworking of his sources and the accurate wording of the comment and also explains what motivated that literary activity.
Achaemenid Persia left its mark on the Hebrew Bible in manifold ways. Given the profound importan... more Achaemenid Persia left its mark on the Hebrew Bible in manifold ways. Given the profound importance of fire in the Persian religion and cult, we would expect to its influence to be evidenced in the Bible. This paper investigates the notion of perpetual fire in the priestly writings in the Pentateuch and, by analyzing some relevant texts, identifies a thin layer of insertions that represents a very late effort to insert the Zoroastrian concept of divine, cultic, ever-burning fire into the Israelite priestly cult.
שמיר והכתב והמכתב והלוחות - מחקרים לכבוד פרופסור שמיר יונה, 2023
Leviticus 2:11-12 contains a prohibition against making a leavened cereal offering. An analysis o... more Leviticus 2:11-12 contains a prohibition against making a leavened cereal offering. An analysis of these difficult verses reveals that, in addition to the prohibition, the verses include a quotation of an ancient injunction as well as a late addition. This recognition discloses an unusual poetic remnant in the priestly legislation and a confrontation, even a polemic, regarding the nature of the offering of the firstlings.
Scholars have pointed out some difficulties, tensions, changes of vocabulary, and problems in seq... more Scholars have pointed out some difficulties, tensions, changes of vocabulary, and problems in sequence in the law of the cities of refuge in Numbers 35. These difficulties indicate that not a single author was involved in the production of this pericope. Usually the solution was to find layers in the process of the formation of the law which accumulated on original core of the passage. Each of the authors has his perception and aim relating to the issue of murder and asylum and left his mark on the final formulation of the law. Although this direction can solve some of the problems, it seems that some other problems still remain. The solution will be proposed is a combination of finding additions in the passage and recognizing of sources the author of the original unit used to create his law. According to this analysis one can understand the function of the cities in the original passage and the tendency of the later authors by inserting their additions to the text. This also will enable us a better understanding of the relations between this law and the parallel law in Deut. 19:1-10 and the account of the implementation of the law in Josh 20.
R. Abraham Ibn Ezra composed in France his 'second recension' ??? ???) to Genesis and his... more R. Abraham Ibn Ezra composed in France his 'second recension' ??? ???) to Genesis and his 'long commentary' to Exodus, and most scholars believe that these are parts of a single recension. This belief caused a contradiction among details of Ibn Ezra's biography and led to the accepted solution that Ibn Ezra was born in 4849 AM (1089 CE) and died in 4924 AM (1164 CE). The clarification of the distinctive character and structure of the second recension to Genesis and the long commentary to Exodus has demonstrated that they cannot be considered parts of a single commentary. This enables us to reconstruct chronological / biographical details about Ibn Ezra and to conclude that there is no reason to reject the manuscripts' evidence that Ibn Ezra died in 4927 AM (1167 CE) when he was 75. Therefore, we can determine the lifespan of Ibn Ezra as 4852-4927 AM (1091/2-1167 CE).
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2016
The Book of Numbers receives its name from the two census accounts it includes, at the beginning ... more The Book of Numbers receives its name from the two census accounts it includes, at the beginning and towards the end of the account of the wilderness wandering (chapters 1–2; 26). In this paper I examine the literary relationship between these two accounts, which contain several similar components as well as some significant differences. Upon a careful inspection, it emerges that the differing features of the census accounts are explained by the assumption that two different documents underlie both accounts, while the similarities between them suggest that the same editorial hand was responsible for the composition of both. The terms used as part of the editorial activity in both accounts can teach us that this activity took place in the Persian period. The redactional process revealed in the census accounts seems to be related also to a similar process in the story of the spies, especially in Num 14,29.35.
In its present form, the census description in Numbers 26 can be identified as the product of a p... more In its present form, the census description in Numbers 26 can be identified as the product of a protracted literary process. Three principal stages of composition may be discerned as: a) close reliance on the list in Genesis 46 produced a census description and a list of the Israelite clans when they left Egypt ; b) the displacement of the original list from its original location to its extant position, wherein it serves as a “database” for the allocation of Canaan in accordance with the size of the tribes; c) the text reflected in the MT, in which the original form of the list was changed to better fit the new context, thereby establishing a greater similitude between Numbers 26 and other parts in its literary context.
Since we cannot determine with certainty the method used by the authors of the Pentateuch, this c... more Since we cannot determine with certainty the method used by the authors of the Pentateuch, this calls for independent examination of each biblical unit, rather than a priori determination of the authorial method employed in the whole Pentateuch. In this article I assess which of the three principal approaches to the Pentateuchal text and its composition best applies to, and is most persuasive in, the case of Num 32:1-38. The similarity between the two literary parts of the story makes it more plausible that the narrative contains an original core with Priestly additions.
A careful attention to the change in the employment of Greek equivalents in the translation of He... more A careful attention to the change in the employment of Greek equivalents in the translation of Hebrew words in the Septuagint may help us to identify involvement of different translators. Such a change may sometimes point to some stages in the composition of the Hebrew text. In this article some interesting differences in the vocabulary of the Septuagint in the passage of the investiture of Joshua in Num 27, 15-23 are examined and with some other literal-critical considerations lead to exact exploring of the literal process of the graduated formation of the Hebrew passage.
In the book of Chronicles, in several passages that relate the establishment of the temple, we fi... more In the book of Chronicles, in several passages that relate the establishment of the temple, we find an emphasis on—and an elevation of the status of—the altar and the sacrifices offered on it. To compare, we do not find this elevation of the altar’s status in the accounts of Samuel and Kings. This article examines this phenomenon and suggests that this shift is part of the Chronicler’s coping with a fundamental theological problem regarding the Second Temple.
In the story of the siege of Samaria (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20), the passage in which the king surprisingl... more In the story of the siege of Samaria (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20), the passage in which the king surprisingly threatens to kill Elisha (6:31–33) is problematic. This passage also recounts the preparations by Elisha and the elders who are with him for the arrival of the king’s messenger who comes to kill the prophet (6:32). Eventually, and without explanation, the king abandons his initial intention to kill Elisha (6:33). This strange passage does not promote the plot and its function in the story is not clear. An analysis of this passage in its context leads to the recognition that the story is not unified and reveals the stages of its development. Understanding the motivation for developing the story leads to another conclusion: that the formation of this story is closely related to the wider context, namely the redaction of the Elisha cycle.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
To date, scholarly examination of the developed legal section in Numbers 28–29 has taken place in... more To date, scholarly examination of the developed legal section in Numbers 28–29 has taken place in the context of its relationship to the Lev 23 festival calendar and other pentateuchal calendars (Exod 23:14–19; 34:18–26; Deut 16:1–17) and its place in the formation of the Pentateuch. Independent analysis of this unit has the ability to illuminate this unit’s formation, probably the product of a long editorial process, enables isolation of the stage at which it was integrated in its current context, and reveals the purpose underlying its integration.
Rashi’s commentary on the Torah draws heavily on rabbinic derash. In many instances, however, Ras... more Rashi’s commentary on the Torah draws heavily on rabbinic derash. In many instances, however, Rashi does not quote rabbinic homilies word-for-word, and it turns out that a guiding principle in Rashi's reworking of midrash is making it correspondence with Scripture. This article treats Rashi’s commentary on Genesis 18:2, which explains why three angels were sent to Abraham, using it to illustrate Rashi's method of selecting and processing midrashim. Although Rashi relies on some rabbinic works in his comment on this verse, he does not cite any of them verbatim. A detailed analysis of the specific wording of that comment indicates Rashi's careful compilation of the appropriate elements from rabbinic literature for his interpretative needs, the deliberate reworking of his sources and the accurate wording of the comment and also explains what motivated that literary activity.
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