Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a clinical condition that cannot be explained by any existing psy... more Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a clinical condition that cannot be explained by any existing psychopathology. The empirical literature regarding MD suggests that it is associated with mental afflictions and exhibits attributes resembling a psychological disorder. This study aimed to meta-analytically investigate the relationship between MD and various manifestations of mental distress and dysfunction. Forty studies, totaling 24,977 individuals (Mean (age) = 28.75, SD = 9.90), met our eligibility inclusion criteria and were incorporated in the analyses. Findings revealed that MD is positively associated with depression, anxiety, dissociation, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, general psychopathology, psychotic symptoms, autism spectrum disorder and traumatic experiences. Some effects were moderated by sample type, age and gender. Our secondary analyses examined other psychological problems. We found a positive association between MD and difficulties in emotion regulation, loneliness, dysfunctional personality traits, negative affect, pathological celebrity worship, personality disorder, shame, somatic symptoms, problematic internet use and psychological distress. Additionally, there was a negative association between MD and self-efficacy and self-esteem. Our findings suggest that MD behaves like other DSM disorders by showing comorbidity with various psychopathologies. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
Although vivid fantasizing involves the creation of imagined realities that share similar process... more Although vivid fantasizing involves the creation of imagined realities that share similar processes with memory source confusion, there has been limited research on the connection between these constructs. The current study used a thematic analysis approach to investigate the perceived relationship between an extreme form of dissociative absorption called maladaptive daydreaming (MD), source confusion, and memory errors. We interviewed 41 participants who self-identified as coping with MD, volunteered for MD research, and exhibited elevated MD scores. These questions delved into topics such as instances where they had difficulty distinguishing between daydreams and reality and situations where daydreams influenced their interactions with others. Of the respondents, 51% (n = 21) confirmed that they had experienced visions that they later confused with actual events. Based on their responses, we identified several recurring themes, including the impact of MD content on current social interactions, mistaking fantasy events for actual occurrences, confusing daydreams involving real people and plausible scenarios with actual events, and realizing that memories were based on fantasy. These themes shared a common thread: Most fabricated narratives aim to rectify an adverse past event or anticipate an unwelcome future. Our research findings indicate that individuals experiencing MD may recount fictitious stories of plausible or desired experiences, highlighting a significant association between MD and memory inaccuracies in the service of distress regulation.
We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals wit... more We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences, 2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense image... more Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense imagery movements (IIM) and adult-reported maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Motor stereotypies occur in typically developing children and also with co-occurring neurodevelopmental differences. A subgroup with complex motor stereotypies reports accompanying intense imagery, often enhanced by the movements. This phenomenon can persist into adulthood and, in some cases, will need active management to prevent significant distress and impairment. Cases Cases: Six adults, self-reporting maladaptive daydreaming associated with stereotypies, are presented to demonstrate the associations. Literature Review Literature Review: The clinical significance and function of IIM and MD are unclear, but several hypotheses are discussed, including the mechanism of emotional regulation through sensory seeking, as a process for processing childhood psychological trauma, as intrusive thoughts or images as part of a subtype of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or as a result of diverse attentional networks seen in neurodevelopmental disorders. Conclusions Conclusions: This paper highlights important connections between IIM and MD. Many adults with MD show a childhood origin of stereotypical movements. Whilst immersive daydreaming may provide creativity and emotional regulation, there is evidence of distress and impairment of function for some adults, leading to MD diagnoses. Recognizing this phenomenon is important for all neurologists and physicians working with stereotypical movements.
We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals wit... more We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences, 2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period... more Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period daydreaming with a strong sense of presence. The symptoms of MD are often excessive, interfere with functioning, and are linked to distress and comorbid mental disorders. In this paper, apparent false memory is described in the context of a woman with MD and visual impairment due to a progressive eye condition. Her vivid daydreams seemed indistinguishable from actual memories. Case Report. A 35-year-old woman with a lifelong MD reported three incidents of fabricating detailed false memories of events that her family confirmed never occurred: obtaining a new job, miscarrying twins, and hospitalization for COVID-19. She experienced anxiety and shame when the stories were disproven. The assessment confirmed MD, PTSD, OCD, and other disorders. Her verbal memory was below average, especially for longer narratives. Her misattributions of daydreams as real-life memories may relate to reliance on vivid mental images over deteriorating vision and source monitoring deficits. Conclusion. This first reported case of confabulations in an individual with MD and visual disability suggests daydreams could potentially be mistaken for actual events in some MD cases. While sensitive, more research is needed on the prevalence of false memories among individuals with MD. The default mode network, prefrontal cortex, and their connectivity may be implicated in generating vivid daydreams and misattributing them to actual episodic events. Understanding the relationship between sensory impairments, dissociation, and susceptibility to memory distortions could inform interventions to improve reality testing for some MD patients.
Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period... more Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period daydreaming with a strong sense of presence. The symptoms of MD are often excessive, interfere with functioning, and are linked to distress and comorbid mental disorders. In this paper, apparent false memory is described in the context of a woman with MD and visual impairment due to a progressive eye condition. Her vivid daydreams seemed indistinguishable from actual memories. Case Report. A 35-year-old woman with a lifelong MD reported three incidents of fabricating detailed false memories of events that her family confirmed never occurred: obtaining a new job, miscarrying twins, and hospitalization for COVID-19. She experienced anxiety and shame when the stories were disproven. The assessment confirmed MD, PTSD, OCD, and other disorders. Her verbal memory was below average, especially for longer narratives. Her misattributions of daydreams as real-life memories may relate to reliance on vivid mental images over deteriorating vision and source monitoring deficits. Conclusion. This first reported case of confabulations in an individual with MD and visual disability suggests daydreams could potentially be mistaken for actual events in some MD cases. While sensitive, more research is needed on the prevalence of false memories among individuals with MD. The default mode network, prefrontal cortex, and their connectivity may be implicated in generating vivid daydreams and misattributing them to actual episodic events. Understanding the relationship between sensory impairments, dissociation, and susceptibility to memory distortions could inform interventions to improve reality testing for some MD patients.
Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense image... more Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense imagery movements (IIM) and adult-reported maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Motor stereotypies occur in typically developing children and also with co-occurring neurodevelopmental differences. A subgroup with complex motor stereotypies reports accompanying intense imagery, often enhanced by the movements. This phenomenon can persist into adulthood and, in some cases, will need active management to prevent significant distress and impairment. Cases Cases: Six adults, self-reporting maladaptive daydreaming associated with stereotypies, are presented to demonstrate the associations. Literature Review Literature Review: The clinical significance and function of IIM and MD are unclear, but several hypotheses are discussed, including the mechanism of emotional regulation through sensory seeking, as a process for processing childhood psychological trauma, as intrusive thoughts or images as part of a subtype of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or as a result of diverse attentional networks seen in neurodevelopmental disorders. Conclusions Conclusions: This paper highlights important connections between IIM and MD. Many adults with MD show a childhood origin of stereotypical movements. Whilst immersive daydreaming may provide creativity and emotional regulation, there is evidence of distress and impairment of function for some adults, leading to MD diagnoses. Recognizing this phenomenon is important for all neurologists and physicians working with stereotypical movements.
Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is the excessive employment of immersive
daydreaming characterized b... more Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is the excessive employment of immersive daydreaming characterized by highly absorbing fantasy experiences that become a preferred focus of consciousness at the expense of living in the real world. Active dissociative processes like depersonalization and derea- lization, including those also characteristic of dissociative identity disorder (DID): amnesia, identity confusion, and identity alteration, may be present and, like in DID, seem to be psychodynamically driven. Comorbidity with attention deficit disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and others is typical. Often associated with profound shame experience, it is, like DID, a condition that tends to be concealed and requires a clinician to be knowledgeable about its nature before a diagnosis can occur and effective treatment be initiated. We introduce the concept, explore its clinical associations and manifestations, and provide several case vignettes to illustrate the breadth and depth of this potentially debilitating variation on daydreaming.
This study aimed to shed light on the role of music in maladaptive daydreaming (MD), a psychologi... more This study aimed to shed light on the role of music in maladaptive daydreaming (MD), a psychological condition characterized by excessive, immersive daydreaming that interferes with well-being and functioning. Forty-one individuals with probable MD participated in asynchronous in-depth email interviews. A thematic analysis yielded three themes describing the role of music in MD. Two homogeneous themes pertained to outlier experiences: Music necessary and Music not desired. The third theme, Music enhances the MD experience, encompassed most of the data retrieved in this study and was further divided into five subthemes: Music avoided in "low energy" daydreaming scenes, Music as white noise, Music enhances MD creativity, Music as an MD trigger compromises the sense of agency; and Music as a powerful immerser that sets MD's emotional "soundtrack." This study adds to the sparse knowledge of complex visual narratives and identifies the essential role of music in inducing and formatting MD. The results led to the conclusion that music might be instrumental in MD by distancing the person from the external reality, triggering complex visual storylines, deepening the altered state of consciousness, and intensifying the vividness of the daydreamed plot by invoking an emotional response. Furthermore, hypothesis-driven controlled research was recommended.
Journal of Anomalous Experience and Cognition, 2023
Maladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed dissociative disorder (Soffer-Dudek & Somer, 2022) cha... more Maladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed dissociative disorder (Soffer-Dudek & Somer, 2022) characterized by addictive immersions in complex fantastical daydreamed plots, generating intense emotional involvement, often accompanied by stereotypical movements such as pacing, rocking, hand movements, and mouthing (Bigelsen & Schupak, 2011; Somer, 2002; Somer et al., 2017). The construct of immersive and maladaptive daydreaming is related to Wilson and Barber's (1982) concept of fantasyproneness, a trait found among highly hypnotizable individuals who report lifelong vivid, imaginative involvement, and mystical and religious experiences, together with claims of having particular psychic abilities and out of body experiences (Wilson & Barber, 1981). The common feature of the two constructs is an elevated involvement in fantasy. This gratifying inner absorption becomes maladaptive, consuming many waking hours, when it compromises the accomplishment of daily tasks, hinders the achievement of shortand long-term goals, or generates shame or guilt. In short, immersive daydreaming becomes maladaptive when it interferes with functioning in social, academic, or occupational realms or causes clinically significant distress (
Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a compulsive form of daydreaming that causes distress ... more Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a compulsive form of daydreaming that causes distress and functional impairment. We present the first treatment trial for MD. Method: We tested the effectiveness of an eight-session internet-based self-help training for mindfulness and self-monitoring and compared three groups across three measurement points in time. A sample of 557 people was randomly assigned. A total of 353 participants (age M[SD]=28.3[10.5], 76% female, 77% unmarried) completed our program: Full-intervention group (n=114, psychoeducation + motivation enhancement + mindfulness + self-monitoring), Partial-intervention group (n=125, identical excluding self-monitoring), and waiting-list group (n=125, internet-based support as usual). Results: All MD measures assessing daydreaming pathology, daydreaming frequency, and life functioning showed significant improvement with a large effect size from baseline to post-treatment in both intervention groups, whereas the wait-list group showed no significant improvement (MD: F(3,349) = 35.76, p < 0.0001, η2 = 0.24; Frequency: F(3,349) = 32.06 , p < 0.001 , η2 = 0.22; Functioning: F(3,349) = 20.43 , p < 0.001, η2 = 0.15). Mindfulness with self-monitoring training for MD was superior to mindfulness alone in the short term, but they both were equally efficient in the long term. Both interventions were superior to relying on internet-based support forums only. The clinically Significant Improvement rate of mindfulness with self-monitoring training was 24%, while the reliable improvement rate reached 39%. At the 6-month follow-up, achievements were maintained. Conclusions: A brief internet-based intervention program comprising mindfulness meditation and self-monitoring facilitated recovery or improvement in many individuals with MD.
Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) entails excessive immersion and engagement in complex fan... more Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) entails excessive immersion and engagement in complex fantasy worlds, causing distress and impairing functioning. Maladaptive Daydreamers often report that existing diagnostic labels are unhelpful for them. Previous studies reported high rates of comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among persons with MD, raising the question of their separateness. This study explored whether MD differs essentially from ADHD by examining an ADHD sample, hypothesizing a much lower incidence of MD. Method: Adults diagnosed with ADHD (N = 83) were assessed for ADHD symptoms, MD, depression, loneliness, and self-esteem. Participants who exceeded the study's cutoff score for suspected MD were invited to participate in a structured diagnostic interview for MD. Results: In accordance with the hypothesis, only 20.5% of the ADHD sample met the proposed diagnostic criteria for MD. Compared with ADHD-only participants, this subgroup presented increased depression, loneliness, and lowered self-esteem.
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 2021
Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, almost all countries have employed varying degrees ... more Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, almost all countries have employed varying degrees of lockdown measures to limit the spread of the infection. Previous studies showed that individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD) are affected negatively by the lockdown. In this study, we explored a set of lockdown measures (e.g., self-quarantine) and personal factors (e.g., education, history of depression, and personality traits) that might potentially exacerbate MD experienced during the lockdown period. We also examined whether perceived stress acted as a mediator in the relationship between these factors and MD. During the first lockdown from April to June, we analyzed data provided by 1083 individuals from the USA, the UK, Italy, and Turkey. A path analysis revealed that perceived stress mediated the effects on MD of self-quarantine, previous episodes of depression, low education level, and introversion and emotional instability. Our study suggests a conceptual framework for t...
We hypothesized that exposure to Type IV trauma (involving alteration in a person’s basic relatio... more We hypothesized that exposure to Type IV trauma (involving alteration in a person’s basic relation to the environment), associated with prolonged terrorist threats, would impact posttraumatic distress and that exposure to terrorism would impact the intensity of coping. The relationships revealed by the data proved to be in line with this model. Our data suggested that the relationship of exposure and coping was not direct, but seemed to be mediated by posttraumatic distress, that demoralization at the height of an unrelenting terror campaign was unrelated to trauma exposure, and that acceptance was a distinct way of coping adopted by targeted Israelis. Acceptance showed the weakest association with posttraumatic distress and was related inversely to our index of low morale. Several telephone- and Web-based surveys conducted following the terror attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001, indicated that the prevalence of acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressi...
This study illuminates legitimization efforts in the discourse of individuals who suffer from exc... more This study illuminates legitimization efforts in the discourse of individuals who suffer from excessive, uncontrolled daydreaming: a contested mental condition that has not yet been recognized by the medical establishment. It aims to explore the rhetorical maneuvers employed by these “Maladaptive Daydreamers” in 35 email exchanges with the second author and two petitions, submitted to the American Psychiatric Association and to the UK Parliament, with a demand for recognition. Our analysis, anchored theoretically and methodologically in Critical Discourse Analysis, identified several verbal strategies employed by the participants to persuade their interlocutors about the realness of their suffering. The main strategies were clustered into three dimensions: (1) professional—appealing to the audience’s professional identity as scientist-practitioner and presenting shared knowledge; (2) social—forming a joint consensus group, a coalition or a partnership; (3) psychological—appealing to...
Questions with regard to the genuineness of amnesia and DID in forensic settings have been of con... more Questions with regard to the genuineness of amnesia and DID in forensic settings have been of considerable past concern in tTials of accused criminals claiming amnesia, accused perpetmtors ofincest and psychotherapists accused ofnegligently implanting memories or creating DID symptoms. This study has used document examination methods to investigate30 different manuscripts suspected to have been mailed by three alters of a DID patient. In the present single case study we havefound that despite the striking differences between the three handwritings identified, single authorship ofthe documents could be established. We have also shown that these handwritings could not have been a result ofconscious disguise, and we were thus able to determine the authenticity ofthe phenomenon. FoTensic implications of these findings are discussed. The syndrome ofdissociative iden ti ty disorder (DID) has recently been a source ofsome controversy (Bliss, 1988; Dell, 1988a; Dell, 1988b; Goodwin, 1985; K...
Background and aimsMaladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed mental disorder, in which absorptio... more Background and aimsMaladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed mental disorder, in which absorption in rich, narrative fantasy becomes addictive and compulsive, resulting in emotional, social, vocational, or academic dysfunction. Most studies on MD were carried out on aggregated international samples, using translated versions of the Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS-16). However, it is unknown whether the properties of MD are affected by culture. Thus, we investigated the cross-cultural measurement invariance of the MDS-16.MethodsWe recruited both individuals self-identified as suffering from MD and non-clinical community participants from four countries: the USA, Italy, Turkey, and the UK (N = 1,081).ResultsConfigural invariance was shown, suggesting that the hypothesized four-factor structure of the MDS-16 (including Yearning, Impairment, Kinesthesia, and Music) holds across cultures. Metric invariance was shown for Impairment, Kinesthesia, and Music, but not for Yearning, sugges...
Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a clinical condition that cannot be explained by any existing psy... more Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a clinical condition that cannot be explained by any existing psychopathology. The empirical literature regarding MD suggests that it is associated with mental afflictions and exhibits attributes resembling a psychological disorder. This study aimed to meta-analytically investigate the relationship between MD and various manifestations of mental distress and dysfunction. Forty studies, totaling 24,977 individuals (Mean (age) = 28.75, SD = 9.90), met our eligibility inclusion criteria and were incorporated in the analyses. Findings revealed that MD is positively associated with depression, anxiety, dissociation, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, general psychopathology, psychotic symptoms, autism spectrum disorder and traumatic experiences. Some effects were moderated by sample type, age and gender. Our secondary analyses examined other psychological problems. We found a positive association between MD and difficulties in emotion regulation, loneliness, dysfunctional personality traits, negative affect, pathological celebrity worship, personality disorder, shame, somatic symptoms, problematic internet use and psychological distress. Additionally, there was a negative association between MD and self-efficacy and self-esteem. Our findings suggest that MD behaves like other DSM disorders by showing comorbidity with various psychopathologies. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
Although vivid fantasizing involves the creation of imagined realities that share similar process... more Although vivid fantasizing involves the creation of imagined realities that share similar processes with memory source confusion, there has been limited research on the connection between these constructs. The current study used a thematic analysis approach to investigate the perceived relationship between an extreme form of dissociative absorption called maladaptive daydreaming (MD), source confusion, and memory errors. We interviewed 41 participants who self-identified as coping with MD, volunteered for MD research, and exhibited elevated MD scores. These questions delved into topics such as instances where they had difficulty distinguishing between daydreams and reality and situations where daydreams influenced their interactions with others. Of the respondents, 51% (n = 21) confirmed that they had experienced visions that they later confused with actual events. Based on their responses, we identified several recurring themes, including the impact of MD content on current social interactions, mistaking fantasy events for actual occurrences, confusing daydreams involving real people and plausible scenarios with actual events, and realizing that memories were based on fantasy. These themes shared a common thread: Most fabricated narratives aim to rectify an adverse past event or anticipate an unwelcome future. Our research findings indicate that individuals experiencing MD may recount fictitious stories of plausible or desired experiences, highlighting a significant association between MD and memory inaccuracies in the service of distress regulation.
We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals wit... more We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences, 2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense image... more Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense imagery movements (IIM) and adult-reported maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Motor stereotypies occur in typically developing children and also with co-occurring neurodevelopmental differences. A subgroup with complex motor stereotypies reports accompanying intense imagery, often enhanced by the movements. This phenomenon can persist into adulthood and, in some cases, will need active management to prevent significant distress and impairment. Cases Cases: Six adults, self-reporting maladaptive daydreaming associated with stereotypies, are presented to demonstrate the associations. Literature Review Literature Review: The clinical significance and function of IIM and MD are unclear, but several hypotheses are discussed, including the mechanism of emotional regulation through sensory seeking, as a process for processing childhood psychological trauma, as intrusive thoughts or images as part of a subtype of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or as a result of diverse attentional networks seen in neurodevelopmental disorders. Conclusions Conclusions: This paper highlights important connections between IIM and MD. Many adults with MD show a childhood origin of stereotypical movements. Whilst immersive daydreaming may provide creativity and emotional regulation, there is evidence of distress and impairment of function for some adults, leading to MD diagnoses. Recognizing this phenomenon is important for all neurologists and physicians working with stereotypical movements.
We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals wit... more We conducted a qualitative study investigating traumatic daydreaming themes among individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences, 2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period... more Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period daydreaming with a strong sense of presence. The symptoms of MD are often excessive, interfere with functioning, and are linked to distress and comorbid mental disorders. In this paper, apparent false memory is described in the context of a woman with MD and visual impairment due to a progressive eye condition. Her vivid daydreams seemed indistinguishable from actual memories. Case Report. A 35-year-old woman with a lifelong MD reported three incidents of fabricating detailed false memories of events that her family confirmed never occurred: obtaining a new job, miscarrying twins, and hospitalization for COVID-19. She experienced anxiety and shame when the stories were disproven. The assessment confirmed MD, PTSD, OCD, and other disorders. Her verbal memory was below average, especially for longer narratives. Her misattributions of daydreams as real-life memories may relate to reliance on vivid mental images over deteriorating vision and source monitoring deficits. Conclusion. This first reported case of confabulations in an individual with MD and visual disability suggests daydreams could potentially be mistaken for actual events in some MD cases. While sensitive, more research is needed on the prevalence of false memories among individuals with MD. The default mode network, prefrontal cortex, and their connectivity may be implicated in generating vivid daydreams and misattributing them to actual episodic events. Understanding the relationship between sensory impairments, dissociation, and susceptibility to memory distortions could inform interventions to improve reality testing for some MD patients.
Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period... more Background. When a person experiences maladaptive daydreaming (MD), they spend a prolonged period daydreaming with a strong sense of presence. The symptoms of MD are often excessive, interfere with functioning, and are linked to distress and comorbid mental disorders. In this paper, apparent false memory is described in the context of a woman with MD and visual impairment due to a progressive eye condition. Her vivid daydreams seemed indistinguishable from actual memories. Case Report. A 35-year-old woman with a lifelong MD reported three incidents of fabricating detailed false memories of events that her family confirmed never occurred: obtaining a new job, miscarrying twins, and hospitalization for COVID-19. She experienced anxiety and shame when the stories were disproven. The assessment confirmed MD, PTSD, OCD, and other disorders. Her verbal memory was below average, especially for longer narratives. Her misattributions of daydreams as real-life memories may relate to reliance on vivid mental images over deteriorating vision and source monitoring deficits. Conclusion. This first reported case of confabulations in an individual with MD and visual disability suggests daydreams could potentially be mistaken for actual events in some MD cases. While sensitive, more research is needed on the prevalence of false memories among individuals with MD. The default mode network, prefrontal cortex, and their connectivity may be implicated in generating vivid daydreams and misattributing them to actual episodic events. Understanding the relationship between sensory impairments, dissociation, and susceptibility to memory distortions could inform interventions to improve reality testing for some MD patients.
Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense image... more Background Background: This case series highlights the connection between childhood intense imagery movements (IIM) and adult-reported maladaptive daydreaming (MD). Motor stereotypies occur in typically developing children and also with co-occurring neurodevelopmental differences. A subgroup with complex motor stereotypies reports accompanying intense imagery, often enhanced by the movements. This phenomenon can persist into adulthood and, in some cases, will need active management to prevent significant distress and impairment. Cases Cases: Six adults, self-reporting maladaptive daydreaming associated with stereotypies, are presented to demonstrate the associations. Literature Review Literature Review: The clinical significance and function of IIM and MD are unclear, but several hypotheses are discussed, including the mechanism of emotional regulation through sensory seeking, as a process for processing childhood psychological trauma, as intrusive thoughts or images as part of a subtype of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or as a result of diverse attentional networks seen in neurodevelopmental disorders. Conclusions Conclusions: This paper highlights important connections between IIM and MD. Many adults with MD show a childhood origin of stereotypical movements. Whilst immersive daydreaming may provide creativity and emotional regulation, there is evidence of distress and impairment of function for some adults, leading to MD diagnoses. Recognizing this phenomenon is important for all neurologists and physicians working with stereotypical movements.
Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is the excessive employment of immersive
daydreaming characterized b... more Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is the excessive employment of immersive daydreaming characterized by highly absorbing fantasy experiences that become a preferred focus of consciousness at the expense of living in the real world. Active dissociative processes like depersonalization and derea- lization, including those also characteristic of dissociative identity disorder (DID): amnesia, identity confusion, and identity alteration, may be present and, like in DID, seem to be psychodynamically driven. Comorbidity with attention deficit disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and others is typical. Often associated with profound shame experience, it is, like DID, a condition that tends to be concealed and requires a clinician to be knowledgeable about its nature before a diagnosis can occur and effective treatment be initiated. We introduce the concept, explore its clinical associations and manifestations, and provide several case vignettes to illustrate the breadth and depth of this potentially debilitating variation on daydreaming.
This study aimed to shed light on the role of music in maladaptive daydreaming (MD), a psychologi... more This study aimed to shed light on the role of music in maladaptive daydreaming (MD), a psychological condition characterized by excessive, immersive daydreaming that interferes with well-being and functioning. Forty-one individuals with probable MD participated in asynchronous in-depth email interviews. A thematic analysis yielded three themes describing the role of music in MD. Two homogeneous themes pertained to outlier experiences: Music necessary and Music not desired. The third theme, Music enhances the MD experience, encompassed most of the data retrieved in this study and was further divided into five subthemes: Music avoided in "low energy" daydreaming scenes, Music as white noise, Music enhances MD creativity, Music as an MD trigger compromises the sense of agency; and Music as a powerful immerser that sets MD's emotional "soundtrack." This study adds to the sparse knowledge of complex visual narratives and identifies the essential role of music in inducing and formatting MD. The results led to the conclusion that music might be instrumental in MD by distancing the person from the external reality, triggering complex visual storylines, deepening the altered state of consciousness, and intensifying the vividness of the daydreamed plot by invoking an emotional response. Furthermore, hypothesis-driven controlled research was recommended.
Journal of Anomalous Experience and Cognition, 2023
Maladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed dissociative disorder (Soffer-Dudek & Somer, 2022) cha... more Maladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed dissociative disorder (Soffer-Dudek & Somer, 2022) characterized by addictive immersions in complex fantastical daydreamed plots, generating intense emotional involvement, often accompanied by stereotypical movements such as pacing, rocking, hand movements, and mouthing (Bigelsen & Schupak, 2011; Somer, 2002; Somer et al., 2017). The construct of immersive and maladaptive daydreaming is related to Wilson and Barber's (1982) concept of fantasyproneness, a trait found among highly hypnotizable individuals who report lifelong vivid, imaginative involvement, and mystical and religious experiences, together with claims of having particular psychic abilities and out of body experiences (Wilson & Barber, 1981). The common feature of the two constructs is an elevated involvement in fantasy. This gratifying inner absorption becomes maladaptive, consuming many waking hours, when it compromises the accomplishment of daily tasks, hinders the achievement of shortand long-term goals, or generates shame or guilt. In short, immersive daydreaming becomes maladaptive when it interferes with functioning in social, academic, or occupational realms or causes clinically significant distress (
Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a compulsive form of daydreaming that causes distress ... more Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a compulsive form of daydreaming that causes distress and functional impairment. We present the first treatment trial for MD. Method: We tested the effectiveness of an eight-session internet-based self-help training for mindfulness and self-monitoring and compared three groups across three measurement points in time. A sample of 557 people was randomly assigned. A total of 353 participants (age M[SD]=28.3[10.5], 76% female, 77% unmarried) completed our program: Full-intervention group (n=114, psychoeducation + motivation enhancement + mindfulness + self-monitoring), Partial-intervention group (n=125, identical excluding self-monitoring), and waiting-list group (n=125, internet-based support as usual). Results: All MD measures assessing daydreaming pathology, daydreaming frequency, and life functioning showed significant improvement with a large effect size from baseline to post-treatment in both intervention groups, whereas the wait-list group showed no significant improvement (MD: F(3,349) = 35.76, p < 0.0001, η2 = 0.24; Frequency: F(3,349) = 32.06 , p < 0.001 , η2 = 0.22; Functioning: F(3,349) = 20.43 , p < 0.001, η2 = 0.15). Mindfulness with self-monitoring training for MD was superior to mindfulness alone in the short term, but they both were equally efficient in the long term. Both interventions were superior to relying on internet-based support forums only. The clinically Significant Improvement rate of mindfulness with self-monitoring training was 24%, while the reliable improvement rate reached 39%. At the 6-month follow-up, achievements were maintained. Conclusions: A brief internet-based intervention program comprising mindfulness meditation and self-monitoring facilitated recovery or improvement in many individuals with MD.
Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) entails excessive immersion and engagement in complex fan... more Objective: Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) entails excessive immersion and engagement in complex fantasy worlds, causing distress and impairing functioning. Maladaptive Daydreamers often report that existing diagnostic labels are unhelpful for them. Previous studies reported high rates of comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among persons with MD, raising the question of their separateness. This study explored whether MD differs essentially from ADHD by examining an ADHD sample, hypothesizing a much lower incidence of MD. Method: Adults diagnosed with ADHD (N = 83) were assessed for ADHD symptoms, MD, depression, loneliness, and self-esteem. Participants who exceeded the study's cutoff score for suspected MD were invited to participate in a structured diagnostic interview for MD. Results: In accordance with the hypothesis, only 20.5% of the ADHD sample met the proposed diagnostic criteria for MD. Compared with ADHD-only participants, this subgroup presented increased depression, loneliness, and lowered self-esteem.
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 2021
Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, almost all countries have employed varying degrees ... more Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, almost all countries have employed varying degrees of lockdown measures to limit the spread of the infection. Previous studies showed that individuals with maladaptive daydreaming (MD) are affected negatively by the lockdown. In this study, we explored a set of lockdown measures (e.g., self-quarantine) and personal factors (e.g., education, history of depression, and personality traits) that might potentially exacerbate MD experienced during the lockdown period. We also examined whether perceived stress acted as a mediator in the relationship between these factors and MD. During the first lockdown from April to June, we analyzed data provided by 1083 individuals from the USA, the UK, Italy, and Turkey. A path analysis revealed that perceived stress mediated the effects on MD of self-quarantine, previous episodes of depression, low education level, and introversion and emotional instability. Our study suggests a conceptual framework for t...
We hypothesized that exposure to Type IV trauma (involving alteration in a person’s basic relatio... more We hypothesized that exposure to Type IV trauma (involving alteration in a person’s basic relation to the environment), associated with prolonged terrorist threats, would impact posttraumatic distress and that exposure to terrorism would impact the intensity of coping. The relationships revealed by the data proved to be in line with this model. Our data suggested that the relationship of exposure and coping was not direct, but seemed to be mediated by posttraumatic distress, that demoralization at the height of an unrelenting terror campaign was unrelated to trauma exposure, and that acceptance was a distinct way of coping adopted by targeted Israelis. Acceptance showed the weakest association with posttraumatic distress and was related inversely to our index of low morale. Several telephone- and Web-based surveys conducted following the terror attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001, indicated that the prevalence of acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressi...
This study illuminates legitimization efforts in the discourse of individuals who suffer from exc... more This study illuminates legitimization efforts in the discourse of individuals who suffer from excessive, uncontrolled daydreaming: a contested mental condition that has not yet been recognized by the medical establishment. It aims to explore the rhetorical maneuvers employed by these “Maladaptive Daydreamers” in 35 email exchanges with the second author and two petitions, submitted to the American Psychiatric Association and to the UK Parliament, with a demand for recognition. Our analysis, anchored theoretically and methodologically in Critical Discourse Analysis, identified several verbal strategies employed by the participants to persuade their interlocutors about the realness of their suffering. The main strategies were clustered into three dimensions: (1) professional—appealing to the audience’s professional identity as scientist-practitioner and presenting shared knowledge; (2) social—forming a joint consensus group, a coalition or a partnership; (3) psychological—appealing to...
Questions with regard to the genuineness of amnesia and DID in forensic settings have been of con... more Questions with regard to the genuineness of amnesia and DID in forensic settings have been of considerable past concern in tTials of accused criminals claiming amnesia, accused perpetmtors ofincest and psychotherapists accused ofnegligently implanting memories or creating DID symptoms. This study has used document examination methods to investigate30 different manuscripts suspected to have been mailed by three alters of a DID patient. In the present single case study we havefound that despite the striking differences between the three handwritings identified, single authorship ofthe documents could be established. We have also shown that these handwritings could not have been a result ofconscious disguise, and we were thus able to determine the authenticity ofthe phenomenon. FoTensic implications of these findings are discussed. The syndrome ofdissociative iden ti ty disorder (DID) has recently been a source ofsome controversy (Bliss, 1988; Dell, 1988a; Dell, 1988b; Goodwin, 1985; K...
Background and aimsMaladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed mental disorder, in which absorptio... more Background and aimsMaladaptive Daydreaming (MD) is a proposed mental disorder, in which absorption in rich, narrative fantasy becomes addictive and compulsive, resulting in emotional, social, vocational, or academic dysfunction. Most studies on MD were carried out on aggregated international samples, using translated versions of the Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS-16). However, it is unknown whether the properties of MD are affected by culture. Thus, we investigated the cross-cultural measurement invariance of the MDS-16.MethodsWe recruited both individuals self-identified as suffering from MD and non-clinical community participants from four countries: the USA, Italy, Turkey, and the UK (N = 1,081).ResultsConfigural invariance was shown, suggesting that the hypothesized four-factor structure of the MDS-16 (including Yearning, Impairment, Kinesthesia, and Music) holds across cultures. Metric invariance was shown for Impairment, Kinesthesia, and Music, but not for Yearning, sugges...
I swore never to be silent whenever and wherever human beings endure suffering and humiliation. W... more I swore never to be silent whenever and wherever human beings endure suffering and humiliation. We must always take sides. Neutrality helps the oppressor, never the victim. Silence encourages the tormentor, never the tormented. (ellie Wiesel: Nobel acceptance speech, 10 December, 1986)
I first planned to write this chapter as a purely academic project aimed at reviewing culturally divergent manifestations of altered states of consciousness and identity that I saw as pertinent to dissociative identity disorder (DID). I knew, then, that the book was planned to include a first-person account of DID and that my chapter would be part of its scientific backdrop. However, when I read the memoir I realised not only the courage of the writer but also the atmosphere of secrecy, silencing , and scepticism that surround the experiences of victims of child abuse in general and ritual abuse in particular. For a long time, an atmosphere of doubt and delegitimisation has haunted survivors, their therapists, and scholars of dissociation. Memories of childhood abuse, rooted in serious crimes, have been labeled false by the accused families, therapists have been charged with implanting false memories, and scholars have been attacked for
One hundred inpatients in a hospital-based Trauma Program in the United States were interviewed w... more One hundred inpatients in a hospital-based Trauma Program in the United States were interviewed with the Dissociative Trance Disorder Interview Schedule (DTDIS). There were no significant differences for the DTDIS total score or any of the subscale scores on test-retest: all t values comparing the two administrations of the DTDIS were below 0.7, and all p values were above 0.5. Cronbach’s alpha for the US sample was .966 and for the Israeli sample it was .971. The findings indicate that the DTDIS has good reliability and may be suitable for use in cross- cultural research, however the results require replication by independent researchers in a variety of cultures and languages, and in both clinical and non- clinical samples.
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Papers by Eli Somer
51% (n = 21) confirmed that they had experienced visions that they later
confused with actual events. Based on their responses, we identified several recurring themes, including the impact of MD content on current social interactions, mistaking fantasy events for actual occurrences, confusing daydreams involving real people and plausible scenarios with actual events, and realizing that memories were based on fantasy. These themes shared a common thread: Most fabricated narratives aim to rectify an adverse past event or anticipate an unwelcome future. Our research findings indicate that individuals experiencing MD may recount fictitious stories of plausible or desired experiences, highlighting a significant association between MD and memory inaccuracies in the service of distress regulation.
daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their
traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences,
2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic
experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual
events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants
also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most
participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on
the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
daydreaming characterized by highly absorbing fantasy experiences that
become a preferred focus of consciousness at the expense of living in the
real world. Active dissociative processes like depersonalization and derea-
lization, including those also characteristic of dissociative identity disorder
(DID): amnesia, identity confusion, and identity alteration, may be present
and, like in DID, seem to be psychodynamically driven. Comorbidity with
attention deficit disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic
stress disorder, and others is typical. Often associated with profound
shame experience, it is, like DID, a condition that tends to be concealed
and requires a clinician to be knowledgeable about its nature before
a diagnosis can occur and effective treatment be initiated. We introduce
the concept, explore its clinical associations and manifestations, and provide
several case vignettes to illustrate the breadth and depth of this potentially
debilitating variation on daydreaming.
51% (n = 21) confirmed that they had experienced visions that they later
confused with actual events. Based on their responses, we identified several recurring themes, including the impact of MD content on current social interactions, mistaking fantasy events for actual occurrences, confusing daydreams involving real people and plausible scenarios with actual events, and realizing that memories were based on fantasy. These themes shared a common thread: Most fabricated narratives aim to rectify an adverse past event or anticipate an unwelcome future. Our research findings indicate that individuals experiencing MD may recount fictitious stories of plausible or desired experiences, highlighting a significant association between MD and memory inaccuracies in the service of distress regulation.
daydreaming (MD). Forty-one participants were interviewed regarding connections between their
traumatic daydreams and real-life adversity. Specifically, we asked participants about 1) childhood trauma experiences,
2) trauma-related daydreaming, 3) perceived relationships between such daydreams and authentic
experiences, and 4) difficulty distinguishing traumatic memories originating from daydreams versus actual
events. Many participants reported past trauma and frequent traumatic daydream themes. However, participants
also noted their daydreams often depicted corrected, more positive versions of experienced events. Finally, most
participants stated they did not confuse daydreaming with actual experiences. This study provides new data on
the complex interplay between trauma, memory, and daydreaming in MD.
daydreaming characterized by highly absorbing fantasy experiences that
become a preferred focus of consciousness at the expense of living in the
real world. Active dissociative processes like depersonalization and derea-
lization, including those also characteristic of dissociative identity disorder
(DID): amnesia, identity confusion, and identity alteration, may be present
and, like in DID, seem to be psychodynamically driven. Comorbidity with
attention deficit disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic
stress disorder, and others is typical. Often associated with profound
shame experience, it is, like DID, a condition that tends to be concealed
and requires a clinician to be knowledgeable about its nature before
a diagnosis can occur and effective treatment be initiated. We introduce
the concept, explore its clinical associations and manifestations, and provide
several case vignettes to illustrate the breadth and depth of this potentially
debilitating variation on daydreaming.
I first planned to write this chapter as a purely academic project aimed at reviewing culturally divergent manifestations of altered states of consciousness and identity that I saw as pertinent to dissociative identity disorder (DID). I knew, then, that the book was planned to include a first-person account of DID and that my chapter would be part of its scientific backdrop. However, when I read the memoir I realised not only the courage of the writer but also the atmosphere of secrecy, silencing , and scepticism that surround the experiences of victims of child abuse in general and ritual abuse in particular. For a long time, an atmosphere of doubt and delegitimisation has haunted survivors, their therapists, and scholars of dissociation. Memories of childhood abuse, rooted in serious crimes, have been labeled false by the accused families, therapists have been charged with implanting false memories, and scholars have been attacked for