Traffic collisions are a principal cause of death in Europe, disproportionately affecting young d... more Traffic collisions are a principal cause of death in Europe, disproportionately affecting young drivers. Driving safety depends not only on our ability to anticipate and respond to dangers on the road but also on the level of risk we are willing to engage within our own driving behaviour. Methods: Hazard prediction (HPr) and risky decision-making (RDM) tests were given to three groups of young Spaniards (169 participants): 54 non-drivers (M=20), 65 novice (M=21) and, 50 experienced drivers (M=26 years old). Both tests presented participants with video clips of driving recorded from the driver's perspective. The HPr test contained hazardous situations caused by the actions of another road user (eg, a pedestrian crossing the road). Each HPr clip was occluded as a hazard began to unfold and participants were asked to predict "what happens next?" They selected their answer from four on-screen options. The RDM test used clips where any imminent danger would be provoked by the film-car driver's risky behaviour (eg, overtaking illegally). Participants were asked to report the probability of following certain types of risky behaviour (eg, "Would you go forward with the lights on amber?" or "Would you overtake the cyclist/lorry/bus at this point?"). In addition, the effect of the locality of the driving scenarios was manipulated: they could take place in the participant's native country (Spain) or in a different country (UK). Results: Non-drivers and novice drivers were less able to predict upcoming hazards and more likely to make risky decisions. Driving scenarios from another country (UK) provoked riskier decisions than those from the participants' home country (Spain). Conclusion: Improvement in HPr skills among novice or new drivers poses a huge challenge as far as driver training is concerned, though it is only part of the solution. Young inexperienced drivers' willingness to engage in risky behaviour also needs to be tackled. Our results suggest that such RDM can be assessed in a similar way to HPr skill, using a naturalistic approach, which raises the possibility of assessing and training drivers on a wider range of safety-related behaviours.
Thinking for action: The role of obligatory and prohibitory traffic sign information in driving p... more Thinking for action: The role of obligatory and prohibitory traffic sign information in driving performance Javier Roca University of Granada (UGR) Mercedes Bueno University of Granada (UGR) Sergio Moreno-R´ios University of Granada (UGR) C´ andida Castro University of Granada (UGR) Abstract: Traffic users must combine the information provided by the signs with their own goals to decide on an appropriate action. In the current experiment, the participants imagine they are driving a car at an intersection, a T-junction. A destination goal (turn right or left) is then given. This goal might or might not be an allowed manoeuvre, according to the message of the traffic sign displayed in each trial (it could be either an obligatory or a prohibitory traffic sign pointing to the left or to the right). The participants were instructed to respond as to where the car should go, according to the destination cued and the traffic sign displayed in that particular traffic scene. We tested conditi...
Evaluating traffic scenes while performing motor tasks Mercedes Bueno Universidad de Granada C´ a... more Evaluating traffic scenes while performing motor tasks Mercedes Bueno Universidad de Granada C´ andida Castro Universidad de Granada Javier Roca Universidad de Granada Sergio Moreno-R´ios Universidad de Granada Abstract: Driving is a complex task that requires doing different subtasks simultaneously. The possible interference between two of these subtasks is analysed: a) to judge manoeuvres regulated by traffic signs that can be made by a vehicle at an intersection (in the shape of a T-junction) and b) to perform a motor task. In addition, we test the possible effect of the spatial component of the motor task on the judgment task. Interpreting traffic signs requires comprehension and inference. In previous studies, the evaluation of these pro- cesses allowed us to predict and prove differences in a judgment task with prohibitory and obligatory signs (Tornay, Castro & Moreno-R´ios, in press). When the task showed simple situations, obligatory and prohibitory signs were easily judged ...
Background: Road safety audits are becoming increasingly important around the world. They are o... more Background: Road safety audits are becoming increasingly important around the world. They are often used to assess a new road before it is opened to the public, or to audit an existing highway. Aims: Whilst traditional road audits are of critical importance, it is hypothesized that a driver-centred approach by means of "psychological road audits" could be beneficial for the safe road design process. The aim of this ongoing research is to develop a psychological road auditing process. Method: The methodology being developed currently consists of three main components. Firstly, a naturalistic driving study, in which participants drive along the road being audited. Secondly, experimenters perform an analysis of the main driving tasks: these are decomposed into sub-tasks. Finally, a driver-centred design workshop based on the tasks decomposed in component 2; this identifies risks for each sub-tasks by means of a participatory ergonomics process, current controls employed are noted, road design deficiencies are identified and user-centred design improvements are developed. Results: The project is a new Australian-Spanish-UK collaboration. For the naturalistic driving study component, initial data have been collected using a newly-opened highway in Granada, Spain. This road had a mixture of driving tasks, such as intersections and multi-lanes, plus has a comparatively high accident rate. To date, a range of experienced and novice drivers have driven the 10km route and had their verbal responses recorded. For the task analysis and driver-centred design workshop components, the driving task of "approaching an intersection" was first decomposed into sub-tasks and then used as the subject matter for the safe design workshop. This revealed many potential road design deficiencies and suggestions for improvement. Conclusions: This research is still in its early stages. However, the approach used here, of providing a structured means of driver-centred safe highway design, is producing potentially valuable results.
Objective: The aim of the current study is to develop and obtain valid evidence for a hazard perc... more Objective: The aim of the current study is to develop and obtain valid evidence for a hazard perception test suitable for the Spanish driving population. To obtain valid evidence to support the use of the test, the effect of hazardous and quasi-hazardous situations on the participants’ hazard prediction is analyzed and the pattern of results for drivers with different driving experience—that is, learner, novice, and expert drivers and reoffender vs. nonoffender drivers—is compared. Potentially hazardous situations are those that develop without involving any real hazard (i.e., the driver did not actually have to decelerate or make any evasive maneuver to avoid a potential collision). The current study analyzed repeat offender drivers attending compulsory reeducation programs as a result of reaching the maximum number of penalty points on their driving license due to repeated violations of traffic laws. Method: A new video-based hazard perception test was developed, using a total of 20 hazardous situation videos plus 8 quasihazardous situation videos. They were selected from 167 recordings of natural hazards in real Spanish driving settings. Results: The test showed adequate psychometric properties and evidence of validity, distinguishing between different types of drivers. Psychometric results confirm a final version of the hazard perception test composed of 11 video clips of hazards and 6 video clips of quasi-hazards, for which an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .77 was obtained. A lack of ability to detect quasi-hazards and distinguish them from hazardous situations was also found for learner, novice, and reoffender drivers. Learner drivers obtained lower average scores than novice and experienced drivers with the hazardous situation videos, and learner drivers obtained lower average scores than experienced drivers with the quasi-hazardous situation videos, suggesting that the ability to correctly identify hazardous traffic situations may develop early by accumulating initial driving experience. However, the ability to correctly identify quasi-hazardous situations may develop later with the accumulation of further driving experience. Developing this ability is also difficult for reoffender drivers. Conclusion: The test has adequate psychometric properties and is useful in distinguishing between learner, novice, and expertdrivers. In addition, it is useful in that it analyzes the performance of both safe and unsafe drivers (reoffenders who have already lost their driving license).
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: PROJECT TITLE... more Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: PROJECT TITLE: Drivers are both born and made: The relationship between Hazard Perception and Risk-Taking. The influence of training, driving style and family ethos for road safety. View project Study of post-traumatic stress in drivers involved in road traffic accidents View project
Vigilance could be a crucial aspect of attention that may modulate the functioning of the attenti... more Vigilance could be a crucial aspect of attention that may modulate the functioning of the attentional system. Some behavioural tests, such as the Attention Network Test (ANT), have been developed to obtain an individual index of the three attentional networks (alertness, orientation, and executive control). However, alerting network measures are usually inferred using a phasic alertness task, and some indirect indexes of tonic alertness or vigilance have been proposed but not properly evaluated. The general aim for the present study is to provide the ANT with a direct measure of vigilance and then to analyse the relationship between this measure and other alternative indirect indexes. The obtained results suggest that the proposed new test (ANTI-Vigilance or ANTI-V) is useful to achieve a direct measure of vigilance and could be considered as a new tool available in cognitive, clinical or behavioural neurosciences for analysing vigilance in addition to the usual ANT scores. Other alternative indexes (such as global reaction time and global accuracy averaged across conditions) are only moderately correlated to a direct vigilance measure. As a consequence, although they may be to some extent related to the participants' vigilance level, they could not be used isolatedly as appropriate indexes of vigilance. Also, the role played by these global measures in the ANT task, which have been previously associated with some performance measures in applied areas (such as driving performance), is discussed.
Every traffic sign conveys a single proposition about traffic conditions. Drivers must integrate ... more Every traffic sign conveys a single proposition about traffic conditions. Drivers must integrate this proposition with their goals and other known facts to decide on an appropriate action in what amounts to a deduction task. For example, imagine that you are driving a car and you want to turn right at an intersection but there is a no right turn sign. You have to assess the options and make a decision (reach a conclusion). Theoretical accounts from research about reasoning can be applied to how we understand traffic signs and make inferences from them. This study includes two experiments that analysed how people decide whether a situation is allowed or not, taking into account the information provided by one sign -obligatory or prohibitory -or two signs -two obligatory or two prohibitory signs. The number of signs, that is, the complexity of the driving scene, was a key factor in this study. The two experiments differ in the presentation format of the two-sign experimental condition. In the first experiment, the signs were presented as two isolated signs. In the second experiment, the two signs were embedded in one. Equivalent results were found whether two isolated signs or two embedded signs were shown. When an obligatory sign was used at the junction, faster responses were obtained for allowed manoeuvres than for those not allowed. When a prohibitory sign was used, the results were the opposite. However, the advantage of prohibitory signs in the not-allowed situation was not replicated when people had to collect information from two prohibitory signs. Results showed that people integrate two obligatory sign messages -informing where one can go -more easily than two prohibitory sign messages -informing where not to go. Therefore, it could be said that each traffic sign elicits an internal mental model elaboration in which forbidden actions are explicitly labelled by means of attached ''mental footnotes" indicating the epistemic status of ''prohibitory information." Ó
This article studies the role that luminous flux and inter-headlight width play in nighttime vehi... more This article studies the role that luminous flux and inter-headlight width play in nighttime vehicle distance estimation. As part of the real setting devised for this study, participants were asked to estimate the distance between themselves and an approaching car, while the actual position of the oncoming vehicle was determined by means of a photocell system. The distances used for the study ranged from 60 m to 870 m. The results obtained point to the existence of a linear relationship between estimated and real distances with a slope close to 1. This suggests that participants were able to successfully estimate distances between themselves and the vehicle. However, their estimations were clearly affected by the amount of horizontal separation between the headlights. The participants tended to overestimate the distance when the headlights were farther apart, while underestimating it when the lights were closer together. Surprisingly enough, luminous flux variation seemed to be irrelevant to their estimations. This may have been due to 1369-8478/$ -see front matter Ó (C. Castro). www.elsevier.com/locate/trf Transportation Research Part F 8 (2005) 31-45
The ubiquitous nature of transport signs on roadways, railways, and in airports can lead to an ov... more The ubiquitous nature of transport signs on roadways, railways, and in airports can lead to an overload of visual information, yet little research has been done to understand the design and use of such signs from a driver's perspective. The Human Factors of Transport Signs ...
Traffic collisions are a principal cause of death in Europe, disproportionately affecting young d... more Traffic collisions are a principal cause of death in Europe, disproportionately affecting young drivers. Driving safety depends not only on our ability to anticipate and respond to dangers on the road but also on the level of risk we are willing to engage within our own driving behaviour. Methods: Hazard prediction (HPr) and risky decision-making (RDM) tests were given to three groups of young Spaniards (169 participants): 54 non-drivers (M=20), 65 novice (M=21) and, 50 experienced drivers (M=26 years old). Both tests presented participants with video clips of driving recorded from the driver's perspective. The HPr test contained hazardous situations caused by the actions of another road user (eg, a pedestrian crossing the road). Each HPr clip was occluded as a hazard began to unfold and participants were asked to predict "what happens next?" They selected their answer from four on-screen options. The RDM test used clips where any imminent danger would be provoked by the film-car driver's risky behaviour (eg, overtaking illegally). Participants were asked to report the probability of following certain types of risky behaviour (eg, "Would you go forward with the lights on amber?" or "Would you overtake the cyclist/lorry/bus at this point?"). In addition, the effect of the locality of the driving scenarios was manipulated: they could take place in the participant's native country (Spain) or in a different country (UK). Results: Non-drivers and novice drivers were less able to predict upcoming hazards and more likely to make risky decisions. Driving scenarios from another country (UK) provoked riskier decisions than those from the participants' home country (Spain). Conclusion: Improvement in HPr skills among novice or new drivers poses a huge challenge as far as driver training is concerned, though it is only part of the solution. Young inexperienced drivers' willingness to engage in risky behaviour also needs to be tackled. Our results suggest that such RDM can be assessed in a similar way to HPr skill, using a naturalistic approach, which raises the possibility of assessing and training drivers on a wider range of safety-related behaviours.
Thinking for action: The role of obligatory and prohibitory traffic sign information in driving p... more Thinking for action: The role of obligatory and prohibitory traffic sign information in driving performance Javier Roca University of Granada (UGR) Mercedes Bueno University of Granada (UGR) Sergio Moreno-R´ios University of Granada (UGR) C´ andida Castro University of Granada (UGR) Abstract: Traffic users must combine the information provided by the signs with their own goals to decide on an appropriate action. In the current experiment, the participants imagine they are driving a car at an intersection, a T-junction. A destination goal (turn right or left) is then given. This goal might or might not be an allowed manoeuvre, according to the message of the traffic sign displayed in each trial (it could be either an obligatory or a prohibitory traffic sign pointing to the left or to the right). The participants were instructed to respond as to where the car should go, according to the destination cued and the traffic sign displayed in that particular traffic scene. We tested conditi...
Evaluating traffic scenes while performing motor tasks Mercedes Bueno Universidad de Granada C´ a... more Evaluating traffic scenes while performing motor tasks Mercedes Bueno Universidad de Granada C´ andida Castro Universidad de Granada Javier Roca Universidad de Granada Sergio Moreno-R´ios Universidad de Granada Abstract: Driving is a complex task that requires doing different subtasks simultaneously. The possible interference between two of these subtasks is analysed: a) to judge manoeuvres regulated by traffic signs that can be made by a vehicle at an intersection (in the shape of a T-junction) and b) to perform a motor task. In addition, we test the possible effect of the spatial component of the motor task on the judgment task. Interpreting traffic signs requires comprehension and inference. In previous studies, the evaluation of these pro- cesses allowed us to predict and prove differences in a judgment task with prohibitory and obligatory signs (Tornay, Castro & Moreno-R´ios, in press). When the task showed simple situations, obligatory and prohibitory signs were easily judged ...
Background: Road safety audits are becoming increasingly important around the world. They are o... more Background: Road safety audits are becoming increasingly important around the world. They are often used to assess a new road before it is opened to the public, or to audit an existing highway. Aims: Whilst traditional road audits are of critical importance, it is hypothesized that a driver-centred approach by means of "psychological road audits" could be beneficial for the safe road design process. The aim of this ongoing research is to develop a psychological road auditing process. Method: The methodology being developed currently consists of three main components. Firstly, a naturalistic driving study, in which participants drive along the road being audited. Secondly, experimenters perform an analysis of the main driving tasks: these are decomposed into sub-tasks. Finally, a driver-centred design workshop based on the tasks decomposed in component 2; this identifies risks for each sub-tasks by means of a participatory ergonomics process, current controls employed are noted, road design deficiencies are identified and user-centred design improvements are developed. Results: The project is a new Australian-Spanish-UK collaboration. For the naturalistic driving study component, initial data have been collected using a newly-opened highway in Granada, Spain. This road had a mixture of driving tasks, such as intersections and multi-lanes, plus has a comparatively high accident rate. To date, a range of experienced and novice drivers have driven the 10km route and had their verbal responses recorded. For the task analysis and driver-centred design workshop components, the driving task of "approaching an intersection" was first decomposed into sub-tasks and then used as the subject matter for the safe design workshop. This revealed many potential road design deficiencies and suggestions for improvement. Conclusions: This research is still in its early stages. However, the approach used here, of providing a structured means of driver-centred safe highway design, is producing potentially valuable results.
Objective: The aim of the current study is to develop and obtain valid evidence for a hazard perc... more Objective: The aim of the current study is to develop and obtain valid evidence for a hazard perception test suitable for the Spanish driving population. To obtain valid evidence to support the use of the test, the effect of hazardous and quasi-hazardous situations on the participants’ hazard prediction is analyzed and the pattern of results for drivers with different driving experience—that is, learner, novice, and expert drivers and reoffender vs. nonoffender drivers—is compared. Potentially hazardous situations are those that develop without involving any real hazard (i.e., the driver did not actually have to decelerate or make any evasive maneuver to avoid a potential collision). The current study analyzed repeat offender drivers attending compulsory reeducation programs as a result of reaching the maximum number of penalty points on their driving license due to repeated violations of traffic laws. Method: A new video-based hazard perception test was developed, using a total of 20 hazardous situation videos plus 8 quasihazardous situation videos. They were selected from 167 recordings of natural hazards in real Spanish driving settings. Results: The test showed adequate psychometric properties and evidence of validity, distinguishing between different types of drivers. Psychometric results confirm a final version of the hazard perception test composed of 11 video clips of hazards and 6 video clips of quasi-hazards, for which an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .77 was obtained. A lack of ability to detect quasi-hazards and distinguish them from hazardous situations was also found for learner, novice, and reoffender drivers. Learner drivers obtained lower average scores than novice and experienced drivers with the hazardous situation videos, and learner drivers obtained lower average scores than experienced drivers with the quasi-hazardous situation videos, suggesting that the ability to correctly identify hazardous traffic situations may develop early by accumulating initial driving experience. However, the ability to correctly identify quasi-hazardous situations may develop later with the accumulation of further driving experience. Developing this ability is also difficult for reoffender drivers. Conclusion: The test has adequate psychometric properties and is useful in distinguishing between learner, novice, and expertdrivers. In addition, it is useful in that it analyzes the performance of both safe and unsafe drivers (reoffenders who have already lost their driving license).
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: PROJECT TITLE... more Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: PROJECT TITLE: Drivers are both born and made: The relationship between Hazard Perception and Risk-Taking. The influence of training, driving style and family ethos for road safety. View project Study of post-traumatic stress in drivers involved in road traffic accidents View project
Vigilance could be a crucial aspect of attention that may modulate the functioning of the attenti... more Vigilance could be a crucial aspect of attention that may modulate the functioning of the attentional system. Some behavioural tests, such as the Attention Network Test (ANT), have been developed to obtain an individual index of the three attentional networks (alertness, orientation, and executive control). However, alerting network measures are usually inferred using a phasic alertness task, and some indirect indexes of tonic alertness or vigilance have been proposed but not properly evaluated. The general aim for the present study is to provide the ANT with a direct measure of vigilance and then to analyse the relationship between this measure and other alternative indirect indexes. The obtained results suggest that the proposed new test (ANTI-Vigilance or ANTI-V) is useful to achieve a direct measure of vigilance and could be considered as a new tool available in cognitive, clinical or behavioural neurosciences for analysing vigilance in addition to the usual ANT scores. Other alternative indexes (such as global reaction time and global accuracy averaged across conditions) are only moderately correlated to a direct vigilance measure. As a consequence, although they may be to some extent related to the participants' vigilance level, they could not be used isolatedly as appropriate indexes of vigilance. Also, the role played by these global measures in the ANT task, which have been previously associated with some performance measures in applied areas (such as driving performance), is discussed.
Every traffic sign conveys a single proposition about traffic conditions. Drivers must integrate ... more Every traffic sign conveys a single proposition about traffic conditions. Drivers must integrate this proposition with their goals and other known facts to decide on an appropriate action in what amounts to a deduction task. For example, imagine that you are driving a car and you want to turn right at an intersection but there is a no right turn sign. You have to assess the options and make a decision (reach a conclusion). Theoretical accounts from research about reasoning can be applied to how we understand traffic signs and make inferences from them. This study includes two experiments that analysed how people decide whether a situation is allowed or not, taking into account the information provided by one sign -obligatory or prohibitory -or two signs -two obligatory or two prohibitory signs. The number of signs, that is, the complexity of the driving scene, was a key factor in this study. The two experiments differ in the presentation format of the two-sign experimental condition. In the first experiment, the signs were presented as two isolated signs. In the second experiment, the two signs were embedded in one. Equivalent results were found whether two isolated signs or two embedded signs were shown. When an obligatory sign was used at the junction, faster responses were obtained for allowed manoeuvres than for those not allowed. When a prohibitory sign was used, the results were the opposite. However, the advantage of prohibitory signs in the not-allowed situation was not replicated when people had to collect information from two prohibitory signs. Results showed that people integrate two obligatory sign messages -informing where one can go -more easily than two prohibitory sign messages -informing where not to go. Therefore, it could be said that each traffic sign elicits an internal mental model elaboration in which forbidden actions are explicitly labelled by means of attached ''mental footnotes" indicating the epistemic status of ''prohibitory information." Ó
This article studies the role that luminous flux and inter-headlight width play in nighttime vehi... more This article studies the role that luminous flux and inter-headlight width play in nighttime vehicle distance estimation. As part of the real setting devised for this study, participants were asked to estimate the distance between themselves and an approaching car, while the actual position of the oncoming vehicle was determined by means of a photocell system. The distances used for the study ranged from 60 m to 870 m. The results obtained point to the existence of a linear relationship between estimated and real distances with a slope close to 1. This suggests that participants were able to successfully estimate distances between themselves and the vehicle. However, their estimations were clearly affected by the amount of horizontal separation between the headlights. The participants tended to overestimate the distance when the headlights were farther apart, while underestimating it when the lights were closer together. Surprisingly enough, luminous flux variation seemed to be irrelevant to their estimations. This may have been due to 1369-8478/$ -see front matter Ó (C. Castro). www.elsevier.com/locate/trf Transportation Research Part F 8 (2005) 31-45
The ubiquitous nature of transport signs on roadways, railways, and in airports can lead to an ov... more The ubiquitous nature of transport signs on roadways, railways, and in airports can lead to an overload of visual information, yet little research has been done to understand the design and use of such signs from a driver's perspective. The Human Factors of Transport Signs ...
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Papers by Candida Castro
Method: A new video-based hazard perception test was developed, using a total of 20 hazardous situation videos plus 8 quasihazardous situation videos. They were selected from 167 recordings of natural hazards in real Spanish driving settings.
Results: The test showed adequate psychometric properties and evidence of validity, distinguishing between different types of drivers. Psychometric results confirm a final version of the hazard perception test composed of 11 video clips of hazards and 6 video clips of quasi-hazards, for which an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .77 was obtained. A lack of ability to detect quasi-hazards and distinguish them from hazardous situations was also found for learner, novice, and reoffender drivers. Learner drivers obtained lower average scores than novice and experienced drivers with the hazardous situation videos, and learner drivers obtained lower average scores than experienced drivers with the quasi-hazardous situation videos, suggesting that the ability to correctly identify
hazardous traffic situations may develop early by accumulating initial driving experience. However, the ability to correctly identify quasi-hazardous situations may develop later with the accumulation of further driving experience. Developing this ability is also difficult for reoffender drivers.
Conclusion: The test has adequate psychometric properties and is useful in distinguishing between learner, novice, and expertdrivers. In addition, it is useful in that it analyzes the performance of both safe and unsafe drivers (reoffenders who have already lost
their driving license).
Method: A new video-based hazard perception test was developed, using a total of 20 hazardous situation videos plus 8 quasihazardous situation videos. They were selected from 167 recordings of natural hazards in real Spanish driving settings.
Results: The test showed adequate psychometric properties and evidence of validity, distinguishing between different types of drivers. Psychometric results confirm a final version of the hazard perception test composed of 11 video clips of hazards and 6 video clips of quasi-hazards, for which an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .77 was obtained. A lack of ability to detect quasi-hazards and distinguish them from hazardous situations was also found for learner, novice, and reoffender drivers. Learner drivers obtained lower average scores than novice and experienced drivers with the hazardous situation videos, and learner drivers obtained lower average scores than experienced drivers with the quasi-hazardous situation videos, suggesting that the ability to correctly identify
hazardous traffic situations may develop early by accumulating initial driving experience. However, the ability to correctly identify quasi-hazardous situations may develop later with the accumulation of further driving experience. Developing this ability is also difficult for reoffender drivers.
Conclusion: The test has adequate psychometric properties and is useful in distinguishing between learner, novice, and expertdrivers. In addition, it is useful in that it analyzes the performance of both safe and unsafe drivers (reoffenders who have already lost
their driving license).