Single-Case Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology is the first book to fully explain ... more Single-Case Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology is the first book to fully explain single-case research in the context of sport and exercise. Starting with first principles, the book offers a comprehensive introduction to the single-case research process, from study design to data analysis and presentation. Including case studies and examples from across sport and exercise psychology, the book provides practical guidance for students and researchers and demonstrates the advantages and common pitfalls of single-case research for anybody working in applied or behavioural science in a sport or exercise setting.
This article shares a joint reflection of two psychoeducation programmes delivered to athletes ag... more This article shares a joint reflection of two psychoeducation programmes delivered to athletes aged 13 to 18 years at two professional academiescricket and soccer. These season-long programmes followed a cognitive-developmental framework, changing and adapting cognitive-behavioural techniques to benefit elite youth athletes. Initial elements of the programme focused on the 5C's: commitment, communication, concentration, control, and confidence (Harwood, 2008) which also included team building sessions and one-to-one consultations. Feedback from players and academy directors revealed that the work was suitable and effective for their needs. We have reflected on the delivery of the programme and the challenges encountered especially: time, funding, specific youth sport psychological intervention frameworks, credibility, confidentiality, determining effectiveness, professional boundaries, and relationships. Finally, we offer future directions on how to integrate psychoeducation programmes for professional sport academies.
HEN LEW HARDY delivered the 1996 Coleman Roberts Griffith Address, the FA Premiership Champions c... more HEN LEW HARDY delivered the 1996 Coleman Roberts Griffith Address, the FA Premiership Champions came from Manchester, the Cheltenham Gold Cup was won by a horse from Ireland and the man who started the year with his arms in the Green Jacket at Augusta came from Europe. Sixteen years later and you could be forgiven for thinking that some things never change. But if we reposition our lens, we can trace remarkable advances in science (e.g. mapping the human genome), technology (e.g. MP3, Wi-Fi) and social networking (e.g. Facebook,
In a one group pretest-posttest design, 15 elite academy cricketers were exposed to two personal-... more In a one group pretest-posttest design, 15 elite academy cricketers were exposed to two personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS) sessions during a preseason tour. Within PDMS1, athletes disclosed (via prepared speeches) relationship-oriented information and within PDMS2, mastery oriented information. Social identity, social identity content, and collective efficacy were measured at baseline (1 week before the tour), post-PDMS1, midpoint, and post-PDMS2, while social validation was also obtained after each intervention session. Quantitative data revealed significant increases in social identity and friendships identity content at post-PDMS1, and results identity content and collective efficacy at post-PDMS2. Qualitative social validation data highlighted the thoughts and feelings of the athletes before their speeches and supported the effectiveness of the PDMS sessions. In sum, the data suggest practitioners can develop team outcomes (e.g., a focus on results) through developing spe...
Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they prov... more Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they provide a framework for researchers and practitioners to outline intervention effects across time with individuals or groups. This paper reviews the research published since Hrycaiko and Martin's (1996) milestone overview of single-case research in sport psychology. Specifically, we examined the literature between 1997 and 2012 and located 66 studies that met our inclusion criteria of assessing interventions in sport psychology. The review summarizes the body of research, outlines trends, considers the limitations of the extant literature, and identifies areas that require further investigation for future single-case research.
We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat States i... more We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) using a cross-sectional design. One hundred and seventy-seven collegiate athletes indicated how they typically approached an important competition on measures of self-efficacy, perceived control, achievement goals, emotional states and interpretation of emotional states. Participants also indicated to what extent they typically perceived the important competition as a challenge and/or a threat. The results ...
Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress ... more Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress and enjoyment. Although research on these emotional responses has been significant, no systematic examination of these responses from a developmental perspective has been undertaken and therefore, developmental influence and implications for competitive youth sport are largely unknown. To begin to address this issue, the present study examined the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8-15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
Emotions have firmly established their place in sport psychology research over the
past 40 years.... more Emotions have firmly established their place in sport psychology research over the past 40 years. For many decades following World War II, mainstream psychology researchers placed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) ahead of positive emotions (e.g., happiness) but positive emotions are now a genuine, promising field of research because of their influence on specific components of performance (e.g., attention) and psychological well-being. The benefits of these emotions have hitherto not been wholly realized in a sport context, especially in their capacity to generate greater self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem-solving, and coping with adversity. Although the sport emotion literature is sprinkled with studies that specifically examined positive emotion in sport settings, the breadth and depth of this research is too thin to make bold claims about the value of positive emotions in the emotion-performance relation. There are, however, at least three theoretical models available to sport psychologists to better understand the influence of positive emotions on sport performance and two of these models are specifically designed for sport contexts. Not only can these models deepen and widen this knowledge base, but they can also support interventions in applied settings to improve performance and psychological well-being.
Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress ... more Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress and enjoyment. Although research on these emotional responses has been significant, no systematic examination of these responses from a developmental perspective has been undertaken and therefore, developmental influence and implications for competitive youth sport are largely unknown. To begin to address this issue, the present study examined the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8–15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
This focus group study examined the sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment
among younger and older... more This focus group study examined the sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment among younger and older English children in the sampling years of sport participation (ages 7–12). Concurrent inductive and deductive content analysis revealed that, consistent with previous research, younger and older children reported sources of enjoyment such as perceived competence, social involvement and friendships, psychosocial support, and a mastery-oriented learning environment. Nonenjoyment sources included inappropriate psychosocial support, increasing competitive orientation, negative feedback and reinforcement, injuries, pain, and demonstrating a lack of competence. Differences between younger and older children’s sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment also emerged. Younger children reported movement sensations as a source of enjoyment and punishment for skill errors and low informational support as nonenjoyment sources. Older children reported social recognition of competence, encouragement, excitement, and challenge as sources of enjoyment with rivalry, overtraining, and high standards as sources of nonenjoyment. These differences underscore the importance of tailoring youth sport in the sampling years to the needs of the child.
One reason sport psychologists teach psychological skills is to enhance performance
in sport; but... more One reason sport psychologists teach psychological skills is to enhance performance in sport; but the value of psychological skills for young athletes is questionable because of the qualitative and quantitative differences between children and adults in their understanding of abstract concepts such as mental skills. To teach these skills effectively to young athletes, sport psychologists need to appreciate what young athletes implicitly understand about such skills because maturational (e.g., cognitive, social) and environmental (e.g., coaches) factors can influence the progressive development of children and youth. In the present qualitative study, we explored young athletes’ (aged 10–15 years) understanding of four basic psychological skills: goal setting, mental imagery, self-talk, and relaxation. Young athletes (n = 118: 75 males and 43 females) completed an open-ended questionnaire to report their understanding of these four basic psychological skills. Compared with the older youth athletes, the younger youth athletes were less able to explain the meaning of each psychological skill. Goal setting and mental imagery were better understood than self-talk and relaxation. Based on these findings, sport psychologists should consider adapting interventions and psychoeducational programs to match young athletes’ age and developmental level.
We propose a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) which
is an amalgamation a... more We propose a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) which is an amalgamation and extension of the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat, the model of adaptive approaches to competition and the debilitative and facilitative competitive state anxiety model. In the TCTSA we posit that selfefficacy, perceptions of control, and achievement goals determine challenge or threat states in response to competition. Distinct patterns of neuroendocrine and cardiovascular responses are indicative of a challenge or threat state. Increases in epinephrine and cardiac activity, and a decrease in total peripheral vascular resistance (TPR) characterise a challenge state and increases in cortisol, smaller increases in cardiac activity and either no change or an increase in TPR characterise a threat state. Positive and negative emotions can occur in a challenge state while a threat state is associated with negative emotions only. Emotions are perceived as helpful to performance in a challenge state but not in a threat state. Challenge and threat states influence effort, attention, decisionmaking and physical functioning and accordingly sport performance. The TCTSA provides a framework for practitioners to enhance performance, through developing a challenge state, and encourages researchers to explore the mechanisms underlying performance in competition
Positive affect is linked to enhanced motivation, commitment, and performance
among youth sport p... more Positive affect is linked to enhanced motivation, commitment, and performance among youth sport performers; yet, few psychological interventions have specifically attempted to enhance positive affect among these athletes. To address this circumstance, we implemented a single-subject multiple-baseline design to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention on the positive and negative affective responses of three competitive youth athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with visual inspection criteria revealed a significant overall increase in positive affect for participants 1 and 2. A statistically significant increase in positive affect also emerged for participant 3, yet it was not possible to detect a significant experimental effect using visual inspection criteria. No statistically significant decreases in negative effect emerged for any of the three participants. These results show some support for the hypothesis that goal setting may enhance positive affect among junior multievent athletes.
This study evaluated the effects of a personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS)
intervention on t... more This study evaluated the effects of a personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS) intervention on team cohesion and communication among 21 male professional soccer players from a top division club within the United Kingdom (UK) before an important match in the latter stages of a domestic cup competition. Data from the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and the British Scale for Effective Communication in Team Sports (BRSECTS) showed no statistically significant changes in cohesion or positive and negative communication from pre to postintervention (i.e., pretest to posttest); yet the team performed above their expectations in the important match only to lose in a penalty shoot-out. Social validation data further revealed that most players felt the intervention was worthwhile and benefitted the team by enhancing closeness, understanding of teammates, and communication. We discuss strategies and guidance for sport psychologists considering a PDMS intervention in the context of professional sport teams. Future research directions considering the effects of PDMS with other professional and youth UK sports, collective efficacy, and social identity is outlined.
Single-Case Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology is the first book to fully explain ... more Single-Case Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology is the first book to fully explain single-case research in the context of sport and exercise. Starting with first principles, the book offers a comprehensive introduction to the single-case research process, from study design to data analysis and presentation. Including case studies and examples from across sport and exercise psychology, the book provides practical guidance for students and researchers and demonstrates the advantages and common pitfalls of single-case research for anybody working in applied or behavioural science in a sport or exercise setting.
This article shares a joint reflection of two psychoeducation programmes delivered to athletes ag... more This article shares a joint reflection of two psychoeducation programmes delivered to athletes aged 13 to 18 years at two professional academiescricket and soccer. These season-long programmes followed a cognitive-developmental framework, changing and adapting cognitive-behavioural techniques to benefit elite youth athletes. Initial elements of the programme focused on the 5C's: commitment, communication, concentration, control, and confidence (Harwood, 2008) which also included team building sessions and one-to-one consultations. Feedback from players and academy directors revealed that the work was suitable and effective for their needs. We have reflected on the delivery of the programme and the challenges encountered especially: time, funding, specific youth sport psychological intervention frameworks, credibility, confidentiality, determining effectiveness, professional boundaries, and relationships. Finally, we offer future directions on how to integrate psychoeducation programmes for professional sport academies.
HEN LEW HARDY delivered the 1996 Coleman Roberts Griffith Address, the FA Premiership Champions c... more HEN LEW HARDY delivered the 1996 Coleman Roberts Griffith Address, the FA Premiership Champions came from Manchester, the Cheltenham Gold Cup was won by a horse from Ireland and the man who started the year with his arms in the Green Jacket at Augusta came from Europe. Sixteen years later and you could be forgiven for thinking that some things never change. But if we reposition our lens, we can trace remarkable advances in science (e.g. mapping the human genome), technology (e.g. MP3, Wi-Fi) and social networking (e.g. Facebook,
In a one group pretest-posttest design, 15 elite academy cricketers were exposed to two personal-... more In a one group pretest-posttest design, 15 elite academy cricketers were exposed to two personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS) sessions during a preseason tour. Within PDMS1, athletes disclosed (via prepared speeches) relationship-oriented information and within PDMS2, mastery oriented information. Social identity, social identity content, and collective efficacy were measured at baseline (1 week before the tour), post-PDMS1, midpoint, and post-PDMS2, while social validation was also obtained after each intervention session. Quantitative data revealed significant increases in social identity and friendships identity content at post-PDMS1, and results identity content and collective efficacy at post-PDMS2. Qualitative social validation data highlighted the thoughts and feelings of the athletes before their speeches and supported the effectiveness of the PDMS sessions. In sum, the data suggest practitioners can develop team outcomes (e.g., a focus on results) through developing spe...
Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they prov... more Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they provide a framework for researchers and practitioners to outline intervention effects across time with individuals or groups. This paper reviews the research published since Hrycaiko and Martin's (1996) milestone overview of single-case research in sport psychology. Specifically, we examined the literature between 1997 and 2012 and located 66 studies that met our inclusion criteria of assessing interventions in sport psychology. The review summarizes the body of research, outlines trends, considers the limitations of the extant literature, and identifies areas that require further investigation for future single-case research.
We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat States i... more We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) using a cross-sectional design. One hundred and seventy-seven collegiate athletes indicated how they typically approached an important competition on measures of self-efficacy, perceived control, achievement goals, emotional states and interpretation of emotional states. Participants also indicated to what extent they typically perceived the important competition as a challenge and/or a threat. The results ...
Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress ... more Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress and enjoyment. Although research on these emotional responses has been significant, no systematic examination of these responses from a developmental perspective has been undertaken and therefore, developmental influence and implications for competitive youth sport are largely unknown. To begin to address this issue, the present study examined the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8-15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
Emotions have firmly established their place in sport psychology research over the
past 40 years.... more Emotions have firmly established their place in sport psychology research over the past 40 years. For many decades following World War II, mainstream psychology researchers placed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) ahead of positive emotions (e.g., happiness) but positive emotions are now a genuine, promising field of research because of their influence on specific components of performance (e.g., attention) and psychological well-being. The benefits of these emotions have hitherto not been wholly realized in a sport context, especially in their capacity to generate greater self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem-solving, and coping with adversity. Although the sport emotion literature is sprinkled with studies that specifically examined positive emotion in sport settings, the breadth and depth of this research is too thin to make bold claims about the value of positive emotions in the emotion-performance relation. There are, however, at least three theoretical models available to sport psychologists to better understand the influence of positive emotions on sport performance and two of these models are specifically designed for sport contexts. Not only can these models deepen and widen this knowledge base, but they can also support interventions in applied settings to improve performance and psychological well-being.
Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress ... more Objectives: Historically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress and enjoyment. Although research on these emotional responses has been significant, no systematic examination of these responses from a developmental perspective has been undertaken and therefore, developmental influence and implications for competitive youth sport are largely unknown. To begin to address this issue, the present study examined the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8–15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
This focus group study examined the sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment
among younger and older... more This focus group study examined the sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment among younger and older English children in the sampling years of sport participation (ages 7–12). Concurrent inductive and deductive content analysis revealed that, consistent with previous research, younger and older children reported sources of enjoyment such as perceived competence, social involvement and friendships, psychosocial support, and a mastery-oriented learning environment. Nonenjoyment sources included inappropriate psychosocial support, increasing competitive orientation, negative feedback and reinforcement, injuries, pain, and demonstrating a lack of competence. Differences between younger and older children’s sources of enjoyment and nonenjoyment also emerged. Younger children reported movement sensations as a source of enjoyment and punishment for skill errors and low informational support as nonenjoyment sources. Older children reported social recognition of competence, encouragement, excitement, and challenge as sources of enjoyment with rivalry, overtraining, and high standards as sources of nonenjoyment. These differences underscore the importance of tailoring youth sport in the sampling years to the needs of the child.
One reason sport psychologists teach psychological skills is to enhance performance
in sport; but... more One reason sport psychologists teach psychological skills is to enhance performance in sport; but the value of psychological skills for young athletes is questionable because of the qualitative and quantitative differences between children and adults in their understanding of abstract concepts such as mental skills. To teach these skills effectively to young athletes, sport psychologists need to appreciate what young athletes implicitly understand about such skills because maturational (e.g., cognitive, social) and environmental (e.g., coaches) factors can influence the progressive development of children and youth. In the present qualitative study, we explored young athletes’ (aged 10–15 years) understanding of four basic psychological skills: goal setting, mental imagery, self-talk, and relaxation. Young athletes (n = 118: 75 males and 43 females) completed an open-ended questionnaire to report their understanding of these four basic psychological skills. Compared with the older youth athletes, the younger youth athletes were less able to explain the meaning of each psychological skill. Goal setting and mental imagery were better understood than self-talk and relaxation. Based on these findings, sport psychologists should consider adapting interventions and psychoeducational programs to match young athletes’ age and developmental level.
We propose a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) which
is an amalgamation a... more We propose a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) which is an amalgamation and extension of the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat, the model of adaptive approaches to competition and the debilitative and facilitative competitive state anxiety model. In the TCTSA we posit that selfefficacy, perceptions of control, and achievement goals determine challenge or threat states in response to competition. Distinct patterns of neuroendocrine and cardiovascular responses are indicative of a challenge or threat state. Increases in epinephrine and cardiac activity, and a decrease in total peripheral vascular resistance (TPR) characterise a challenge state and increases in cortisol, smaller increases in cardiac activity and either no change or an increase in TPR characterise a threat state. Positive and negative emotions can occur in a challenge state while a threat state is associated with negative emotions only. Emotions are perceived as helpful to performance in a challenge state but not in a threat state. Challenge and threat states influence effort, attention, decisionmaking and physical functioning and accordingly sport performance. The TCTSA provides a framework for practitioners to enhance performance, through developing a challenge state, and encourages researchers to explore the mechanisms underlying performance in competition
Positive affect is linked to enhanced motivation, commitment, and performance
among youth sport p... more Positive affect is linked to enhanced motivation, commitment, and performance among youth sport performers; yet, few psychological interventions have specifically attempted to enhance positive affect among these athletes. To address this circumstance, we implemented a single-subject multiple-baseline design to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention on the positive and negative affective responses of three competitive youth athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with visual inspection criteria revealed a significant overall increase in positive affect for participants 1 and 2. A statistically significant increase in positive affect also emerged for participant 3, yet it was not possible to detect a significant experimental effect using visual inspection criteria. No statistically significant decreases in negative effect emerged for any of the three participants. These results show some support for the hypothesis that goal setting may enhance positive affect among junior multievent athletes.
This study evaluated the effects of a personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS)
intervention on t... more This study evaluated the effects of a personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (PDMS) intervention on team cohesion and communication among 21 male professional soccer players from a top division club within the United Kingdom (UK) before an important match in the latter stages of a domestic cup competition. Data from the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and the British Scale for Effective Communication in Team Sports (BRSECTS) showed no statistically significant changes in cohesion or positive and negative communication from pre to postintervention (i.e., pretest to posttest); yet the team performed above their expectations in the important match only to lose in a penalty shoot-out. Social validation data further revealed that most players felt the intervention was worthwhile and benefitted the team by enhancing closeness, understanding of teammates, and communication. We discuss strategies and guidance for sport psychologists considering a PDMS intervention in the context of professional sport teams. Future research directions considering the effects of PDMS with other professional and youth UK sports, collective efficacy, and social identity is outlined.
As the drive for muscularity is an important construct for researchers involved in understanding ... more As the drive for muscularity is an important construct for researchers involved in understanding men’s body image, having reliable and valid measures of the construct is essential. This study assessed the Drive forMuscularity Scale (DMS) in a community-based sample of 594 Scottish men participating in an organized running event. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two subscales (Muscularity-oriented body image and Muscularity behavior) as well as a higher-order factor. Both subscales and the total score had acceptable levels of internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity. These findings provide support for the DMS as ameasure of the drive for muscularity inmen. It is recommended that, in future, careful consideration is given to the distinction between muscularity attitudes and behavior.
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Papers by Paul McCarthy
past 40 years. For many decades following World War II, mainstream psychology
researchers placed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) ahead of positive emotions
(e.g., happiness) but positive emotions are now a genuine, promising field of
research because of their influence on specific components of performance (e.g.,
attention) and psychological well-being. The benefits of these emotions have
hitherto not been wholly realized in a sport context, especially in their capacity to
generate greater self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem-solving, and coping
with adversity. Although the sport emotion literature is sprinkled with studies that
specifically examined positive emotion in sport settings, the breadth and depth of
this research is too thin to make bold claims about the value of positive emotions in
the emotion-performance relation. There are, however, at least three theoretical
models available to sport psychologists to better understand the influence of
positive emotions on sport performance and two of these models are specifically
designed for sport contexts. Not only can these models deepen and widen this
knowledge base, but they can also support interventions in applied settings to
improve performance and psychological well-being.
among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental
differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8–15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older
children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and
recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older
children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
among younger and older English children in the sampling years of sport participation
(ages 7–12). Concurrent inductive and deductive content analysis revealed
that, consistent with previous research, younger and older children reported sources
of enjoyment such as perceived competence, social involvement and friendships,
psychosocial support, and a mastery-oriented learning environment. Nonenjoyment
sources included inappropriate psychosocial support, increasing competitive
orientation, negative feedback and reinforcement, injuries, pain, and demonstrating
a lack of competence. Differences between younger and older children’s sources
of enjoyment and nonenjoyment also emerged. Younger children reported movement
sensations as a source of enjoyment and punishment for skill errors and
low informational support as nonenjoyment sources. Older children reported
social recognition of competence, encouragement, excitement, and challenge as
sources of enjoyment with rivalry, overtraining, and high standards as sources of
nonenjoyment. These differences underscore the importance of tailoring youth
sport in the sampling years to the needs of the child.
in sport; but the value of psychological skills for young athletes is questionable
because of the qualitative and quantitative differences between children and
adults in their understanding of abstract concepts such as mental skills. To teach
these skills effectively to young athletes, sport psychologists need to appreciate
what young athletes implicitly understand about such skills because maturational
(e.g., cognitive, social) and environmental (e.g., coaches) factors can influence the
progressive development of children and youth. In the present qualitative study, we
explored young athletes’ (aged 10–15 years) understanding of four basic psychological
skills: goal setting, mental imagery, self-talk, and relaxation. Young athletes
(n = 118: 75 males and 43 females) completed an open-ended questionnaire to
report their understanding of these four basic psychological skills. Compared with
the older youth athletes, the younger youth athletes were less able to explain the
meaning of each psychological skill. Goal setting and mental imagery were better
understood than self-talk and relaxation. Based on these findings, sport psychologists
should consider adapting interventions and psychoeducational programs to
match young athletes’ age and developmental level.
is an amalgamation and extension of the biopsychosocial model of challenge and
threat, the model of adaptive approaches to competition and the debilitative and
facilitative competitive state anxiety model. In the TCTSA we posit that selfefficacy,
perceptions of control, and achievement goals determine challenge or
threat states in response to competition. Distinct patterns of neuroendocrine and
cardiovascular responses are indicative of a challenge or threat state. Increases in
epinephrine and cardiac activity, and a decrease in total peripheral vascular
resistance (TPR) characterise a challenge state and increases in cortisol, smaller
increases in cardiac activity and either no change or an increase in TPR
characterise a threat state. Positive and negative emotions can occur in a challenge
state while a threat state is associated with negative emotions only. Emotions are
perceived as helpful to performance in a challenge state but not in a threat state.
Challenge and threat states influence effort, attention, decisionmaking and
physical functioning and accordingly sport performance. The TCTSA provides a
framework for practitioners to enhance performance, through developing a
challenge state, and encourages researchers to explore the mechanisms underlying
performance in competition
among youth sport performers; yet, few psychological interventions have specifically
attempted to enhance positive affect among these athletes. To address this
circumstance, we implemented a single-subject multiple-baseline design to examine
the effects of a goal-setting intervention on the positive and negative affective
responses of three competitive youth athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with
visual inspection criteria revealed a significant overall increase in positive affect
for participants 1 and 2. A statistically significant increase in positive affect also
emerged for participant 3, yet it was not possible to detect a significant experimental
effect using visual inspection criteria. No statistically significant decreases in
negative effect emerged for any of the three participants. These results show some
support for the hypothesis that goal setting may enhance positive affect among
junior multievent athletes.
intervention on team cohesion and communication among 21 male professional
soccer players from a top division club within the United Kingdom (UK) before an
important match in the latter stages of a domestic cup competition. Data from the
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and the British Scale for Effective Communication
in Team Sports (BRSECTS) showed no statistically significant changes
in cohesion or positive and negative communication from pre to postintervention
(i.e., pretest to posttest); yet the team performed above their expectations in the
important match only to lose in a penalty shoot-out. Social validation data further
revealed that most players felt the intervention was worthwhile and benefitted the
team by enhancing closeness, understanding of teammates, and communication.
We discuss strategies and guidance for sport psychologists considering a PDMS
intervention in the context of professional sport teams. Future research directions
considering the effects of PDMS with other professional and youth UK sports,
collective efficacy, and social identity is outlined.
past 40 years. For many decades following World War II, mainstream psychology
researchers placed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) ahead of positive emotions
(e.g., happiness) but positive emotions are now a genuine, promising field of
research because of their influence on specific components of performance (e.g.,
attention) and psychological well-being. The benefits of these emotions have
hitherto not been wholly realized in a sport context, especially in their capacity to
generate greater self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem-solving, and coping
with adversity. Although the sport emotion literature is sprinkled with studies that
specifically examined positive emotion in sport settings, the breadth and depth of
this research is too thin to make bold claims about the value of positive emotions in
the emotion-performance relation. There are, however, at least three theoretical
models available to sport psychologists to better understand the influence of
positive emotions on sport performance and two of these models are specifically
designed for sport contexts. Not only can these models deepen and widen this
knowledge base, but they can also support interventions in applied settings to
improve performance and psychological well-being.
among youth sport participants. Design: A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental
differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports. Methods: Participants (n ¼ 152) aged 8–15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older
children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded. Results: Older children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and
recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older
children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.
among younger and older English children in the sampling years of sport participation
(ages 7–12). Concurrent inductive and deductive content analysis revealed
that, consistent with previous research, younger and older children reported sources
of enjoyment such as perceived competence, social involvement and friendships,
psychosocial support, and a mastery-oriented learning environment. Nonenjoyment
sources included inappropriate psychosocial support, increasing competitive
orientation, negative feedback and reinforcement, injuries, pain, and demonstrating
a lack of competence. Differences between younger and older children’s sources
of enjoyment and nonenjoyment also emerged. Younger children reported movement
sensations as a source of enjoyment and punishment for skill errors and
low informational support as nonenjoyment sources. Older children reported
social recognition of competence, encouragement, excitement, and challenge as
sources of enjoyment with rivalry, overtraining, and high standards as sources of
nonenjoyment. These differences underscore the importance of tailoring youth
sport in the sampling years to the needs of the child.
in sport; but the value of psychological skills for young athletes is questionable
because of the qualitative and quantitative differences between children and
adults in their understanding of abstract concepts such as mental skills. To teach
these skills effectively to young athletes, sport psychologists need to appreciate
what young athletes implicitly understand about such skills because maturational
(e.g., cognitive, social) and environmental (e.g., coaches) factors can influence the
progressive development of children and youth. In the present qualitative study, we
explored young athletes’ (aged 10–15 years) understanding of four basic psychological
skills: goal setting, mental imagery, self-talk, and relaxation. Young athletes
(n = 118: 75 males and 43 females) completed an open-ended questionnaire to
report their understanding of these four basic psychological skills. Compared with
the older youth athletes, the younger youth athletes were less able to explain the
meaning of each psychological skill. Goal setting and mental imagery were better
understood than self-talk and relaxation. Based on these findings, sport psychologists
should consider adapting interventions and psychoeducational programs to
match young athletes’ age and developmental level.
is an amalgamation and extension of the biopsychosocial model of challenge and
threat, the model of adaptive approaches to competition and the debilitative and
facilitative competitive state anxiety model. In the TCTSA we posit that selfefficacy,
perceptions of control, and achievement goals determine challenge or
threat states in response to competition. Distinct patterns of neuroendocrine and
cardiovascular responses are indicative of a challenge or threat state. Increases in
epinephrine and cardiac activity, and a decrease in total peripheral vascular
resistance (TPR) characterise a challenge state and increases in cortisol, smaller
increases in cardiac activity and either no change or an increase in TPR
characterise a threat state. Positive and negative emotions can occur in a challenge
state while a threat state is associated with negative emotions only. Emotions are
perceived as helpful to performance in a challenge state but not in a threat state.
Challenge and threat states influence effort, attention, decisionmaking and
physical functioning and accordingly sport performance. The TCTSA provides a
framework for practitioners to enhance performance, through developing a
challenge state, and encourages researchers to explore the mechanisms underlying
performance in competition
among youth sport performers; yet, few psychological interventions have specifically
attempted to enhance positive affect among these athletes. To address this
circumstance, we implemented a single-subject multiple-baseline design to examine
the effects of a goal-setting intervention on the positive and negative affective
responses of three competitive youth athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with
visual inspection criteria revealed a significant overall increase in positive affect
for participants 1 and 2. A statistically significant increase in positive affect also
emerged for participant 3, yet it was not possible to detect a significant experimental
effect using visual inspection criteria. No statistically significant decreases in
negative effect emerged for any of the three participants. These results show some
support for the hypothesis that goal setting may enhance positive affect among
junior multievent athletes.
intervention on team cohesion and communication among 21 male professional
soccer players from a top division club within the United Kingdom (UK) before an
important match in the latter stages of a domestic cup competition. Data from the
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and the British Scale for Effective Communication
in Team Sports (BRSECTS) showed no statistically significant changes
in cohesion or positive and negative communication from pre to postintervention
(i.e., pretest to posttest); yet the team performed above their expectations in the
important match only to lose in a penalty shoot-out. Social validation data further
revealed that most players felt the intervention was worthwhile and benefitted the
team by enhancing closeness, understanding of teammates, and communication.
We discuss strategies and guidance for sport psychologists considering a PDMS
intervention in the context of professional sport teams. Future research directions
considering the effects of PDMS with other professional and youth UK sports,
collective efficacy, and social identity is outlined.
organized running event. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two subscales (Muscularity-oriented body image and Muscularity behavior) as well as a higher-order factor. Both subscales and the total score had acceptable levels of internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity. These findings provide support for the DMS as ameasure of the drive for muscularity inmen. It is recommended that, in future, careful consideration is given to the distinction between muscularity attitudes and behavior.