Pr ioe eA CoRttt Ny APT Chapter 1: Basi | Nam T. P. Le K VAA=2023 WHY DO WE STUDY AERODYNAMICS? ‘+ Study of aerodynamics is important to determine forces and ‘moments (torques) acting on flying vehicles, ~ Forces and moments are caused as a result of interaction between | a body (airplane, rocket, ete.) and air surrounding it Interaction depends on flow conditions (fluid properties, relative velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.) and body shape (geometry) + GOALS: — Develop foundation of theoretical development (mathem Gain insight into physical phenomena taking place.AERODYNAMICS, \ + Why are airplanes, wings, rockets, etc. shaped way they are? + What is relevance of their shape? + How do we design such shapes and what is impact of that design? Boeing 777 y i $ = y Basic concepts Preise er unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate of khange of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on (or crossing) that surface 11 3 important to note that even though the pressure is defined as force “per | suit area," Pressure is usually defined at a point in the fluid or a point on a solid surface and can vary from one point to another. To see this more clearly, consider point B in a fluid volume. Let elemental area at 8 force on one side of d4 due to pressure ‘Then, the pressure at point B in the fluid is defined as dF) =tim[ =] dao. psi) > © Presire risa sear variable, and its dimension s Pa or NineDensity, p, is defined as the mass per unit volume. ay! Gas particles (molecules) — | 1 is-« point propery that can vary fom pont to point in the fluid. Again, considera point # in the uid Let a ‘lemental volume around B dn mass offi inside dv | ‘Then, the density at point 3 is p= tim) dv. @ 227195 25s «seal variable, and its dimension i ky ry > |( Temperature, 7; of @ gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic | energy (KE) of the molecules of the fluid. Temperature is given by KE 3k ‘ where é is the Boltzmann constant (k = 1.38064852 * 107 m? kg s? K"), ‘Temperature is also a point property, which can vary from point to point in the gas. A high-temperature gas: molecules and atoms are randomly rattling about thigh speeds; A low-temperature gas: the random motion of the molecules slow. s relatively Temperature ,T , is a scalar variable, its dimensions are K (Kelvin), C (Celsius), #, (Fahrenheit), and & (Rankine) PK =273+ PC. ‘Temperature takes on an important role in high-speed aerodynamics. |(The principal focus of aerodynamics is fluids in motion Consider a solid object in translational motion, say, moving at 30 mvs. Then all parts of the solid are simultaneously translating at the same 30 m/s Translational motion. In contrast, a fluid is @ “squishy” substance, and for a fluid in motion, one part of the fluid may travel at a different velocity from another. A fluid element: Both the speed and direction of this fluid element can vary as it moves from point to point in the gas, Fides 2 ae — —SE ii J | Flow velocity: The velocity of a flowing gas at any fixed point “B” in space i} the velocity of an infinitesimally small fTuid element as it sweeps through B, The flow velocity V has both magnitude and direction; hence, i is a vector| quantity and dimension (ms). The scalar magnitude of V is frequently used and is denoted by V. Again, we emphasize that velocity is a point property and can vary from point to point in the flow. } ‘A moving fluid element traces out a fixed path in space (steady regime), and. then this path is called a streamline of the flow. streamline“Mach number, M, is used indicate the flow, and is defined as M 7 . where a is the speed of sound, and is calculated aee a=J7kT. where y isthe specific heat ratio, Ris specific gas constant Akg) For air R = 287 (ikeK),y= 14 Subsonic it M <1 ‘Supersonic it M > 1 SonicifM=1. Hypersonic M = 5 “Atmosphere: We consider the special ease of na Fai motion (ie. Mad statics). Consider forces in the y di oe Two types of forces act (exerting) on | his uid element=1) pressure forces} from the surtounding fhid exerted | on the surface of the, and 2) the travity force du to the weight of the | uid inside the clement. | | Sum ofthe forces exerted in they -/ gravitons acceleration. eet a Fora constant density medium, A this integrates to (ava gp(avde)=0 Bane cae [e=-apeh pit pahy= Pa pel, The change in pressure dp in a fluid with » change in vertical height dy. This equation governs the variation of atmospheric properties as a function of altitude in the air above us. Ideal gas: Equation of state p= pT |The abs © i C20 43,4, (km The geometric altitude hg (m). | as Pate solute altitude h, (i. ptdp P P=p+dp + padhig reds Nuit 7,09. If ris the radius of the earth, then h,= he +5 Variation of Tis linear with altitudes (by hy) 1% is the gravitational acceleration at sea level, the local gravitational acceleration gata given absolute altitude h, is e-o(i)-af and is given the specified relation T T;=T, + a(h ~hy) a tt, ai the keystone of the standard atmosphere isa defined variation of T with altitude, based on experimental evidence. Assuming gis constant throughout the atmosphere, equal to its value at sea level 8» (ie B= o = const.) ép =pedh “p= pRT For air R= 287 (W/kgK). A7 | Isothermal region a=0 £ jan dp Integrated —— ao Rn . P in22 =—E-()—h) i ah Prog mm) Finally, Pi Pr PRT, _ P, PRT, p, From equation of state S08) é |/Values p, T, p can be tabulated from the standard atmosphere table below \ | Standard Atmosphere, SI Units | Altitude helm) ‘h(m) Temperature Pressure Deity, 11K) PNin!) B (kg/m') 0 ° 288,16 1,01325x 10° _1,2250 | 100 100 28751 1,0013x 10813133 200 200 286,21 9,8945x 10 —1,2071 300 300 285,56 9,773 x10 11,1787 400 400 28491 956611 x 10" 1,673 500 500 284.26 9,5461x 10" 1,1560 5000 4,996 253,69 5,4048 x 10% 7,3643 x 10° 19000 9,984 223,26 -2,6500x 10* 4,135] x 10! 20000 «19,937 216,66 5,5293.x 10° 8,8909x 10? 30000 29,859 231,24 —1,1855.x 10° 1,7861 x10? gy 20s. 8280, Bent 29977 x 10 4,0028 x 10° $0000 49,610 _282,66 __8,7858x10!_1,0829x 109 _/‘Airfoil | Nonsymmetrical Airfoil (Cambered. airfoil): has different upper and lower surfaces, with a greater airfoil curvature above the chord line than below. The mean | camber line and chord line are | different. The nonsymmetrical airfoil design can produce useful lift at zero | AOA | | | | Symmetrical Airfoil The — symmetrical airfoil is, distinguished by having identical upper and lower surfaces. The mean camber line and chord line are the same on a symmetrical | airfoil, and it produces no lift at zero AOA. Symmerical col hore tine Mean camber © Asynmetical eat / Geometry of airfoil © © ~ er rspesreeescey + Mean Camber Line: Set of points lfvay between upper and lower surfaces + Leading Edge: The most forward point ofthe mean camber line Measured perpendicular tothe mean camber ine + Trailing Edge: Most renard point ofthe mean camber line + Chord Line: stright line connecting the leading an ling edges + Chord, e: Distance slong the chord line from leading to aiing ge Camber: Maximum distance betwecn mea amber ine a the chord ine (@ — eset prpentitr tote caine )| AIRFOIL THICKNESS. © Which creates most lift? Thicker airfoil ‘© Which has higher critical Mach number? Note: thickness is relative Thinner airfoil to chord in all eases Ex. NACA 0012 —» 12% © Which is better? aac ‘+ Application dependent! Relative Wind: Direction of V,, We use subscripts oto indicate far | J een fe Relative wind ‘Angle of Attack (AOA), a: Angle between relative wind (V.,) and the chord line. # Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components « Lift, Lt Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative | wind rag, D: Component of aerodyn: : jc force parallel to the relative windANGLE OF INCIDENCE (AOD, The intersection of the _p Astle f incidence wing chord line and the | | 7] Tits _/] / | horizontal plane ot | a longitudinal axis of the 1-9 Pa aircraft forms the angle | AOL (aralel to) Longtaina axis Comect AOL > low drag + longitudinal stability It doesn't change in flight because it is fixed.oA war “Why do asois have such a shape? Wit eR cae i a | It 16 tye? How are lit and dng produced? AN =a ts How do we design? el 1 A os a | @ ithe — ene en aE | NACA airfoil performance data AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS + Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure «Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure «+ Flow always desires to go from high pressure to low pressure + Flow ‘wraps’ around wing tips kK - = =| 4HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT? | * Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of wing « If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated | ‘* Why is pressure lower on top surface? ‘+ We can understand answer from basic physies: * Continuity (Mass Conservation) * Newton's 2 law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation) | NACA 4-digit airfoils ) | * First digit specifics maximum camber in percentage of chord * Second digit indicates position of maximum camber in tenths of chord * Last two digits provide maximum thickness of airfoil in percentage of chord of NACA 2a15 Example: NACA 2415 q ‘© Airfoil has maximum thickness of 15% of chord (0.15¢) © Camber of 2% (0.02c) located 40% back from airfoil leading edge (0.40) || NACA 0012 airfoil The profile of the NACA 0012 airfoil is computed by the expression below: uas 2)’ -o1n(2).a3sn( 2} saave(2) -crou(2)) y=0.6 | where c is the chord length, ¢; -x is the running distance along the chord (0 F, | ‘© Misalignment of F, and F, creates Moments, M, which tend to rotate airfoil/wing + A moment (torque) is force x a distance * Value of induced moment depends on the point about which | moments are taken ‘+ Moments about leading edge (LE), Me, or quarter-chord point, c/4, Mn p In general, Mie # Mug Fa _ = AERODYNAMIC FORCES Resultant force and moment about the reference point. Alternative << components of the| | D resultant force. Land D are obtained from N and A as follows. L=Neosa— Asina D= Acosa + Nsina The axial force A and normal force NY, parallel and perpendicular to the airfoil chord line AS46 [Force components V and 4 acting on an elemental area of width dS. On the upper surface (subscript, On the lower surface (subscript, upper) lower) | aN, =(-p,cos6 - t, sind) dS, N,=(p,cos0 - r,sin) dS, 4A,=(-p,sind + r,cosd))dS, d4,=( pind + 1,c0s0) dS, Integration from the leading edge to the trailing edge points produces the total unit-span forces. rp ° N= fonefaw A= faa. | a os j The moment about the origin (leading edge in this case) is the integral of these forces, weighted by their moment ams x andy, with appropriate signs. Ma] -xdN, f vf +f yd, is The shear stress, 7, has negligible contributions to the lift and moment, giving the following simplified forms. L= Neosa—Asina > L = cosa( (p,- p, ate sia Beas foo dt A somewhat less accurate but still common simplification is to neglect the sina term in L, and the dy/dx terms in M. L=J(a.-p.)as ac = fs (2, - p, ae ‘The shear stress t cannot be neglected when computing the drag D 1@ on stcearine bodies such as 2D airfoils.Loy Dynamic pressure do => Pole | Pressure coefficient ¢ _ p-P. (dimensionless) : r tay 4. ere Leja ~ Pa )ae | L=|(n- pop. pada Gy=-f(c, -¢,)24(2) ‘Moment coeticent, Cy Lift coefficient, L Drag coefficient, D Wing 3D: Airfoil 2D: S N Normal force N coefficient C= > 5 Craae | Axial force A coefficient lqprioment everctent, ae48 + rspe0t ue wage ‘ot Do Airplane moves in a straight line at constant alespoed. (LIFT, DRAG, MOMENT AND FRICTION COEFFIC * Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude * Vey Pas Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, m_,, compressibility * Characterize behavior of Z, D, M with coefficients (C, w) LIFT COEFFICIENTS —_| Two different flows: Matching Mach and Reynolds (called similarity V25C, parameters) SC, keel identical‘THE REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re © One of most important dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics! aerodynamics J+ Reynolds number is ratio of two forces + Inertial Forces + Viscous Forces + cis length scale (chord) J+ Reynolds number tells you when viscous forces are important and when | LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude * Ves Poy Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, y1,, compressibility + Characterize behavior of L, D, M with coefficients (C,, Cp, Cy) LIFT DRAG PV aSCy, | D= Snurse,| C= Sila MosRe) |, Dynamics pressure CoG aes 1 Gye the pre i nl 1 v2 Gp: the pressure coefficient; an Ge =Z Pols Cokin friction drag coeflicient @ Lift-to-Drag ratio (L/D is an important factor)20 ( VARIATION OF L, D, AND M WITH a + Variations of these quantities are some of the most important information an airplane designer needs to know. ift, Drag, and Moments on an airfoil or wing will change as changes. * Acrodynamic Center, x,. ing Ri 4 Mette Moment, Aerodynamic Moment . aioase ve ow fr of tack Hoh Ange ot atck ‘The point about which moments essentially do not vary’ with Me™ constant (independent of @) For low-speed (eubsonic) airfoils aerodynamic center is neat the quarter| nord point, e/4 — J (‘Suppose we have the forces and moments specified abo | reference (ref) location about some new origin Len > ut some} for the aircraft, and we want to restate them | Mog Flow direction ae Sint % Assuming there is no change in the z location of the two points: Mres = pew — Hees)" — fin the coefficient Form: Cye rand Cy mM, oe The aerodynamic center is defined as that location ac x about WI hhich the pitching moment doesn’t change with angle of attack a. _}= | Let Spey = Kae Cy i Differential with respect to a: Cee, 0a - By definition: enter x, of | er" (subsonic) flow, thin airfoil 20, aerodynami ‘Pressure center: Center of pressure is that location where the | resultant forces act and about which the aerodynamic moment is zero. ow deca || As the angle of attack of the 2D airfoil changes, the pressure || _. distribution changes. Thus, the pressure center changes with the '@ variation of the angle of attack, a.ol May Flow direction a= Met Frew Let Xyoy a = Je, #Cy, \ J : By definition M., =0 os solving for the above: eae ae TYPES OF FLOWS: FRICTION VS, NO-FRICTION | © Viscous: Flows with friction * All real flows are viscous ‘* Inviscid flow is a useful idealization * By neglecting friction analysis of flow is usually much easier! * Inviseid: Flows with no friction Flow very close to surface of airfoil is influenced by friction and is viscous (boundary layer flow) Stall (separation) is @ viscous phenomena, Flow away from airfoil is not influenced by friction and is wholly inviseidLAMINAR VERSUS TURBULENT FLOW l+ Two types of viscous flows ‘© Laminar: streamlines are smooth, and regular and a fluid element moves smoothly along a streamline. | + Turbutent: streamlines break up, and fluid clements move in a random, irregular, and chaotic fashion, FLOW SEPARATION + Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer | | + Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation a3FRICTION EXAMPLE: AIRFOIL STALL + Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary | layer 1. Boundary layers (B.L.) ae ether laminar or turbulent 2. All laminar BLL. — turbulent BL. 3, Turbulent B.L.“flleror fatter’ than laminar B.L., more resistant to separation *+ Separation creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation + Dramatic loss of lift and ierease in drag DENSITY DISCONTINUITY: SHOCK WAVES ) row region traveling through a medium, especially ait, caused by explosion or by a body moving faster than sound,/ TYPES OF FLOWS: 7) } COMPRESSIBLE VS. INCOMPRESSIBLE + Compressible: Density of fluid elements may change from point to point + All real flows are compressible + Important for gases (rarely important for liquids) + Most important at high speeds (M > 0.3) + Incompressible: Density of fluid elements is always constant + General Rule of Thumb: + If flow speed is less than about 100 m/s —+ flow can be considered incompressible «If flow is less than Mach 0.3, flow can be considered incompressible ‘Mach number, M: ratio of local velocity to local speed of sound, Via (Problems ~ 1. Caleulate the stndard atmosphere vahus of 7, p, and p at « geopotential altitude of 14k, the specific constant of air R= 287 (kak) 2, At 12km in the standard atmosphere, the pressure, density, and temperature are 1.9399 x 10" Nim?, 3.1194 x 10! ky/m!, and 216.66 K, respectively. Using these values, calculate the standard atmospheric values of pressure, density, and temperature at an altitude of I8km, (R= 287 JkgK). 3. If an airplane is flying at an altitude where the actual pressure and temperature are 4.72 10* Nim? and 255.7 K, respectively, what are the pressure, temperature, and density altitudes? 4. Incompressible and subsonic gas flow, experimental data of the NACA | 4412 airfoil at the angle of attack of dare C, = 0.85 and Cyp ga = ~0.09. Determine the location of the pressure center (x/). 5, Pressure coefficient Cp distribution over a 2-dimensional airfoil of chord ¢ ‘operating at low angle of attack is described byOle C. s-s00(2] fords 501 2277+2.2777* for 0.1 Gy=1-0984 frost ei Find C & Cy. 6. A.1:10 scale model sailplane wing is tested ina wind |¢locity} Drag. tunnel to determine the aerodynamic characteristics. |-C™s)|_(N) ‘The span of the prototype is 15 m, and the wing |—1S_| 0.31 average chord (width) is 0,8 m. Sea-level air is the |!8:2_| 0.44 working fluid for both the model and full-sized wings, | 27 [0.61 Data from the test are shown in the table, 25.1 08 }) Sensitivity of the drag coefficient to the Re based on }22:2 | 1.08. the average chord length; and 321 | 13 2) Drag estimate for the prototype at a speed of 135/341 | 1.46 knvhr. 36.8 17 e 38.9 To 7. Fora particular airfoil section, the pitching moment coefficient about an axis a third of the chord behind the leading edge varies with the lift coefficient in the following manner: Cu 0020.0 0.02 0,04 8. Incompressible and subsonic gas flow, experimental data of the NACA 412 airfoil at the angle of attack of 4° are C, = 0.85 and Cy = ~0.09. Determine the location of the pressure center (x/¢). 9. Incompressible and subsonic gas flow, experimental data of the NACA | 412 airfoil at the angle of attack of 4°are C, = 0.85 and Cys = 0.09. Determine the location of the pressure center (4/0) 10, An airfoil has section lif, drag, and quarter-chord moment coetlicients given by the following equations: C= 61+ 0.2, Cy = 0.202 + 0.006, Cy ge -0.05 ~ 0.014, where a. is the angle of attack in radians, find the center of pressure and the aerodynamic center of the airfoil for a = -5, 0, 5, and 10 degresChapter 2:Fundamental Principles and Equat + How to model the fluid? + How to describe the fundamental principles with the model mathematically? + Learn some concepts for studying the fluid. How to model the fluid? Three Approaches + Finite Control Volume Approach + Infinitesimal Fluid Element Approach * Molecular Approach a+Bo Finite Control Volume is a closed volume drawn with a finite region of the flow. Denoted by “v” Finite Control Surface is the closed surface which bounds the control volume Denoted by age Finite contol volume fixed in space withthe Aid moving through it Finite control volume moving with the fluid such thatthe same Mid particles arealways in the same contol volume. _/ An Infinitesimal Fluid Element is an infinitesimally small fluid element in the flow with a differential volume dv. Remark: It has the same meaning as in calculus; however, it should be large enough to contain a huge number of molecules to be viewed as a continuous medium, Infinitesimal fluid element are moving a long a streamline with the velocity V equal to the local flow velocity at each point. |Infinitesimal Fluid Element Approach — Volume d¥ Infinitesimal fluid element fixed in space with the fluid moving through it, -Molecular Approach — |Three Fundamental Principles * Conservation of mass + Newton’s second law (momentum) * Conservation of energy / ! | In actuality, the motion of @ fluid oN a | is the mean motion of its atoms \ \ 4 and molecules - —- More elegant method with many ¢-» e 1 é advantages in the long run, ea However, it is beyond the scope _, - of this stud. Clea : | > |” Conservation of mass Rate of mass Rate of mass) accumulation |_| — flow inside the control |~ ) into the control “b | volume {volume AvAyAz| (2) at +Axdy pw), — = AxAz py| {Rate of mass wr | of the control volume Aydz pul, + AxAz py, AyAE Pl 5. say AY OMA ae0 Conservation of mass Divide through by the volume of the control volume (CV) AxAyAz Pl... ~Pul, | PY Ax /dot product |. 2.v4ovy-0 © Conti constant) equation Note that this equation applies to both steady and unsteady incompressible flow] ‘Conservation of momentum Momentum transport due to convection ee fe flow into the | } flow out of the * on the iirc | [Jom {comtro! volume} [control volume] [control volume) | control volume} Fluxes of x-momentum through a CV. el Avdydel’ 228) yp + Axde pun, greet 7%) say \ a2 AT FAxdy pun, — Aydz pul, — Arde pu... ale . JAY Acdy pun +PMomentum transport due to molecular motion + AyAz(r,,| ja Fol,)3g substituting F, nayas( 2) = AyAz pual, + Axdz pus, + Axdy pun, ~ AyAz pu)... ~AxAz pur, — Ardy pur, lea (-7+r),) +AxAe(r, Ig t4,)+ AyAz(tal. sa, —Ful,) + AyAe((-p+r,,)} Divide through by the volume of CV AxAyAz Pas =, + Let Av 0, Ay» 0, Az» 0 @ Bou , Som , Opw , 2pww , Op _ Oty Oy Or 0 a ox ty ee ky a(pu) ® Rewrite = AE. puV)=-Piver | aes Similar: Momentum balance in the y-direction Spr , Govu , dow , dpvw , Op _ Fy Bty IF oe Gy & by ox Momentum balance in the z-direction apw , dpwu , dpwy . pww , op _ Or. a ey a Ge ae‘Momentum equation in the vector form pv — ov ‘Tis the stress tensor Momentum equatio x-direction Recall V-(gD)=D-Vo+¢-VD Here ¢ Su va D=pV Vi Aie)= Ni + WP) | Me) oa) =p Lap vusuv() - Sarvuloe ov | _ = 0 contimuty equation | Fos rust be firstly physical possible (Le, satisfying the continuity Conservation of energy ‘The 1* law of thermodynamics: 6q + w = de Rate of Rate of Rate of Work done on energy energy flow energy flow the control accumulation }=/ into the =Joutof the — p+4volumeby p+ inside the control volume| |eontrol volume] _ | pressure and control volume| by convection by convection Rate of energy Energy generation viscous forces addition due | | | due tosources to heat inside the conduction control volume