Domaine : LLA

Etablissement : ANGLAIS
Parcours : LICENCE
________________________________________________________________

SYLLABUS DE COURS

Intitulé du parcours : Licence en Anglais

Semestre d’évolution : Mousson 1

Code et intitulé de l’enseignement : ANG112 – Introduction aux méthodes et

techniques en création littéraire.

Nombre de crédits : 4

Enseignant responsable de l’UE : Mensah Atsou, Maître-Assistant, Littérature de

l’Afrique anglophone, [email protected] ; Tel : 90297764

Public cible : Cette UE s’adresse aux étudiants désireux de se former à la recherche en

création littéraire ou à l’exercice du métier de critique littéraire

Prérequis : Pour suivre cet enseignement, vous devez avoir des compétences en Anglais

Objectifs de l’UE
- Objectif général : Cette UE vise à outiller les apprenant(e)s afin qu’ils/elles puissent
utiliser les connaissances relatives aux genres et notions littéraires afin de créer dans le
domaine artistique. Elle s’intéresse à la littérature et à ce qu’elle peut apporter aux
apprenants et à la société en général.

- Objectifs spécifiques :
A la fin de l’UE, les étudiants seront capables de :
- Définir les genres et notions littéraires ;
- Décrire les différentes étapes du processus de la création littéraire ;
- Expliquer l’intrigue du récit ;
- Identifier le thème et les figures de style, les modes de narration dans un récit.

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 Langue d’enseignement : Anglais

Bref descriptif de l’enseignement : (Dire le fondement ou la raison d’être du cours

dans le programme. Dire comment les savoirs seront réinvestis : Max 10 lignes)
Ce cours introduit les apprenants aux notions élémentaires de la création littéraire et aux
genres littéraires dans la perspective de développer les aptitudes et les techniques de création
auprès des apprenants.
Ce cours donne les éléments basiques de la critique littéraire et permet à l’apprenant
d’apprécier les genres littéraires essentiels qui fondent la littérature.

Organisation de l’enseignement (objectifs, contenu /activités, méthodes

d’enseignement/apprentissage)

Séance Activités Formules et Matériel/

Objectifs N° d’enseignement/apprentissage techniques Support
pédagogiques pédagogique
1 Lancement du cours Echanges sous Ordinateur ;
- Présentation du syllabus forme de questions- Tablette ; bloc-
Définir et - Explication de la plate- réponses ; notes ;
forme Moodle
expliquer les Explication du Identifiant
- Description des objectifs
objectifs du cours du cours et des modes cours (définir les
d’évaluation scénarios pour faire
atteindre l’objectif
décliné)

2 DEFINITION, NATURE AND Lecture du cours, Support de

FUNCTION OF CREATIVE échanges sous cours
WRITING forme de questions-
What is Creative Writing? Why
réponses ;
Write Creativey? Realistic
Thinking, Imagination, Fantasy Explication du
Définir les and Play cours
notions littéraires 3 Support de
TOOLS REQUIRED IN Lecture du cours, cours
CREATIVE WRITING: échanges sous
Imagination. Observation.
forme de questions-
Writing Skills. Diction. Writing
Dialogue. réponses ;

2
 Explication du
cours
Identifier le style 4 WRITING FOR THE Lecture du cours, Support de
de langue READERSHIP. échanges sous cours
approprié au Who are the Readers? Reader forme de questions-
Oriented-Writing. Creating a List
lectorat cible réponses ;
of Considerations when Writing
Creatively. Issues of Importance Explication du
in Creative Writing. cours
Définir les 5 Lecture du cours, Support de
différents genres FICTION. échanges sous cours
littéraires et Some Useful Concepts: Fiction, forme de questions-
Novel, Novelette, Short Story,
expliquer les réponses ;
Sketch/ Short Play, Elements of a
éléments du récit Story. Explication du
cours

Expliquer 6 Support de
l’intrigue du récit CREATING A PLOT. Lecture du cours, cours
The Opening. The Problem(s). échanges sous
The Obstacle(s). The Climax.
forme de questions-
The Fall. The Resolution
réponses ;
Explication du
cours
Évaluer le 7 EVALUATION FORMATIVE Révision de Support de
niveau de Bilan de mi-parcours avec les quelques exercices cours
connaissance des étudiants ; effectués en ligne
apprenants (A mi- -Echanger sur les activités
parcours) effectuées en ligne ;
-Remédiation ;
-Evaluation à mi-parcours (DST
et autres formes d’évaluation)
-Consignes pour la suite des
activités en ligne

Définir les 8 CREATING CHARACTERS. Support de

différents types Lecture du cours, cours
de personnages What is a Character? Types of échanges sous
Characters in a Story. Functions
dans le récit ou forme de questions-
of Characters. Building a
dans la création Character. réponses ;
littéraire Explication du
cours

3
Expliquer le cadre 9 Support de
d'un récit dans la CREATING SETTING. Lecture du cours, cours
création littéraire What is Setting? Space in a échanges sous
Story. Time in a Story. Creating
forme de questions-
Atmosphere in a Story. Creating
Setting. réponses ;
Explication du
cours
Expliquer et 10 THEME Lecture du cours, Support de
identifier le thème What is Theme? Function of échanges sous cours
dans un récit Theme. Developing Theme in forme de questions-
Creative Writing.
réponses;
Explication du
cours
Définir les 11 NARRATIVE POINT OF Lecture du cours, Support de
différents modes VIEW. échanges sous cours
de narration dans What is Point of view? Types of forme de questions-
Point of View in Creative
un récit réponses ;
Writing. First Person Point of
View. Third Person Omniscient
Point of View. Third Person
Limited Point of View. Dramatic
Point of View. Second Person
Point of View.

Évaluer le niveau 12 Bilan final avec les étudiants ; Révision de Support de

d’acquisition des Echanges sur les activités quelques exercices cours
connaissances des effectuées en ligne ; effectués en ligne
Préparation de l’évaluation
apprenants (Fin
finale ;
de parcours) Evaluation finale des
enseignements
NB : Un objectif peut se donner sur plusieurs séances. Il faut donc fusionner les cellules de l’objectif en
question.

Évaluation

- Contrôle continu : les types d’activités d’évaluation retenus pour cette UE sont les
devoirs de maison. Ces activités comptent pour 50% dans la validation de l’UE.

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 - Examen final : le type d’activité d’évaluation pour cette UE est un examen écrit.
Ceci compte pour 50% dans la validation de l’UE.

Bibliographie
Johnson, Burges and Syracuse University. "Creative Writing"; Inferences Drawn from an
Inquiry Now being Carried on at Syracuse University Under the Direction of Burges Johnson,
Litt. D., and Helene Hartley, Ph.D., into the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Written
Composition in American Colleges. (Syracuse: Syracuse University,1934), p.7

Ames, Lois B. and Learned J. 'Imaginary Companion and Related Phenomena' in Genetic
Phychology,69. 1946 (pp 147-167).

Neshani Andreas, The Purple Violet of Oshaantu (England: Pearson Education Limited,
2001), p.1
Kofi Agyekum, Intoduction to Literature. 2nd Edition (Ghana : MediaDesign, 1999), p.74
David Starkey, Creative Writing: Four Genres in Brief
Janet Burroway, Imaginative Writing: The Elements of Craft
Symonds, PM, ‘Fantasy’ in Dynamics of Human Adjustment

Sites internet
“How To Write A Book Review” (Retrieved April 2018, https://www.wikihow.com/Write-
a-Book-Review)

https://literarydevices.net/theme/
https://www.wikihow.com/Develop-a-Theme-when-Writing
https://literarydevices.net/analogy/

Space in Discourse and Story: https://www2.anglistik.uni-

freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/Space01.htm

What is story setting? Mastering writing time and place:

https://www.nownovel.com/blog/what-is-story-setting/
How to create Atmosphere in your writing:
https://www.writing.ie/resources/how-to-create-atmosphere-in-your-
writing-by-rachel-burge/

Techniques for Atmosphere and Mood Building In Fiction:

https://writershelpingwriters.net/2008/08/creating-atmosphere/

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Creating Atmosphere in Fiction by Esther Newton:
https://www.writersbureau.com/e-zee-writer/august-2012/page3.htm
How to Build Your Story’s Setting : https://www.novel-writing-
help.com/story-setting.html
How Setting Is Developed in Fiction Writing:
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/how-to-employ-all-five-senses-in-
creating-your-setting-1277047
Narratology https://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/node/55.html

6
SESSION ONE: DEFINITION, NATURE, AND FUNCTION.
1.1. What is Creation Writing?
Creative Writing is anything where the purpose is to express thoughts, feelings
and emotions rather than to simply convey information.
Creative writing is writing that expresses the writer's thoughts and feelings in an
imaginative, often unique, and poetic way.
Writing is a form of personal freedom. it frees us from the mass identity we see
all around us. In the end, writers will write not to be outlaw heroes of some under
culture but mainly to save themselves, to survive as individuals.
Writing of any sort is hard, but rewarding work-- you will gain a huge amount of
satisfaction from a finished piece. Being creative can also be difficult and
challenging at times, but immensely fun.
Creative Writing is considered to be any writing, fiction or non-fiction that goes
outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, and technical
forms of literature. Works which fall into this category include most of novels and
epics, as well as any short stories and poems. Writing for the screen and stage,
screenwriting and playwriting respectively, typically have their programs of
study, but fit under the creative writing category as well.
Creative Writing can technically be considered any writing of original
composition that is no guilty of plagiarism. In this sense creative writing is a
more contemporary and process-oriented name for what has been traditionally
called literature, including the variety of its genres.
1.2. Why Write Creatively?
Somewhere in the educational scheme there must be encouragement for the
dreams and imaginings of youth. The student must be permitted emotional
expression in order that he/she may be taught to discipline his/her emotions.
His/her shy fancies must be drawn out of him/her for the good of his/her soul. i

Witty and LaBrant'.....( say Creative Writing) is a composition of any type of

writing at any time primarily in the service such needs as:
1 the need for keeping records of significant experience,
2. the need for sharing experience with an interested group and,

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 3. the need for free individual expression which contributes to mental and
physical health.ii
According to Paul Engle, in his article "The Writer and the Place" published in A
Community of Writers: Paul Engle and Iowa Writers' Workshop, edited by Robert
Dana, 2( Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999),
For the first time in the sad and enchanting history of literature, for the
first time in the glorious and dreadful history of the world, the writer
was welcome in the academic place. If the mind could be honoured
there, why not the imagination.

Those who support creative writing programs either as part or separate from
English discipline, argue for the academic worth of creative writing experience.
They argue that creative writing hones the students' abilities to clearly express
their thoughts. They further argue that creative writing also entails an in-depth
study of literary terms and mechanisms so they can be applied to the writer's own
work to foster improvement. These critical analysis skills are further used in other
literary study outside the creative writing sphere. Indeed the process of creative
writing, the crafting of a thought-out and original piece, is considered by some to
be experience in creative problem solving.

1.3 Realistic Thinking, Imagination, Fantasy and Play.

Realistic thinking is basically a process of coping adequately or efficiently with
environmental conditions, either by application of knowledge and skills or by
arriving at the correct solutions to problems. Thus the outcome may be regarded
as a sequence or acts or as a definite product of some kind.
In contrast, imaginative thinking is largely a process of responding to, or
expressing, intrinsic states-wishes, feelings, motives. No definite product is
involved. As the name implies, imagery is an important characteristic of
imagination, although we can allow also for free play of symbolic activities of
other kinds, such as in plastic flow of intrinsic verbal responses. Another
characteristic is the likelihood that imaginative activity will display novel and
sometimes peculiar content. Because the usual demands of realistic control are
diminished, past experience can reappear in unusual forms.
Play is an important kind of imaginative activity. Children engage in many forms
of play.iii They invent inanimate personalities, animals and people, endow
inanimate objects with human attributes, and express themselves freely in games
8
and conversation. Often they adopt patterns of adult behaviour to their play, in
this manner learning significant rules and skills. The important thing to note about
play is its expressive character: it has no objective beyond engaging in the activity
itself. Free play, however, gradually changes into the more realistic recreational
of adulthood. For example, hobbies tend to become highly organized matters of
expertise, in which the scholarly, financial, competitive, perfectionist, or other
qualities of the activity become paramount. Similarly, games turn into very
systematic, controlled, demanding skills.

Fantasy, rather than play, is perhaps the chief imaginative process of adulthood.
By this term we mean extended trains of thoughts dissociated from environmental
stimuli, which satisfy or express vicariously some wish or motive. Symonds
(1946) thinks that it is likely that the content of fantasy would often closely
correspond to an overt pattern of behaviour, if the person were to report it fully.
But because it is wish-fulfilling, fantasy differs from the realistic sequence-
consideration of social disapproval, insuperable obstacles, personal limitations,
and so on, play no part in the stories one tells to oneself.iv
For instance, any sexual conquest, startling accomplishment, exercise of power,
punishment of enemies, or spiritual elevation is possible in fantasy- even if the
rude truth obtrudes itself eventually.
the counterpart of such pleasurable autistic thinking is the painful, horrifying, and
violent cognitive activity engendered by anxiety, fear, hatred, and other states.
____________________________________________________________
Notes

i Johnson, Burges and Syracuse University. "Creative Writing"; Inferences Drawn from an Inquiry Now being
Carried on at Syracuse University Under the Direction of Burges Johnson, Litt. D., and Helene Hartley, Ph.D.,
into the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Written Composition in American Colleges. (Syracuse: Syracuse
University,1934), p.7
1
Ames, Lois B. and Learned J. 'Imaginary Companion and Related Phenomena' in Genetic Phychology,69. 1946
(pp 147-167).
1
Symonds, P.M. 'Fantasy' in Dynamics of Human Adjustment (New York: Appleton Century-Crofts, 1946.(pp487-
519)

9
SESSION TWO: TOOLS REQUIRED IN CREATIVE WRITING
In the field of creative writing, there are three fundamental tools which are
imagination, observation and writing skills.
1- Imagination

Imagination is the ability that someone has to form ideas or pictures in their mind.
It is also something that is caused only by your mind and which does not really
exist or which has not really happened. It is the world of fantasy where everything
is imagined.
The freedom of thinking and forming ideas or pictures in one’s mind remains
perhaps the only one that knows no limitations. This is why in creative writing the
freedom of expression is exercised to its fullest proportions.
Imagery is as fundamental to imagination as the latter is to creative writing. It is
the “mental picture(s),” that the reader of a poem or fiction or play experiences in
his reading activity. Imagery is used to signify all the objects and qualities of sense
perceptions referred to in a poem or any other work of literature.
Imagery can be achieved by “literal description” or through the use of similes and
metaphors; and not only visual sense qualities but also qualities that are auditory,
tactile, thermal (heat or cold), olfactory, gustatory and kinaesthetic (sensations of
movement). All this helps consider imagery as figurative language.
2- Observation

It is the process of watching something or someone carefully for a period of time.

It engages the use of all the senses or sense organs. We can observe pictures,
maps, environment, landscapes, peoples, actions, behaviours, etc.
If very well performed, your observations can effectively fertilize your
imagination.
Practice: Sunday evening at the beach
Go to the beach and observe the activities of people and things. Engage all your
senses in this observation process: sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Now write
a short paragraph that relates the mental picture that you have formed through
your observation (this can also be imagined). Try to evaluate how effective your
observation has been and how far it has shaped your imagination.

10
 3- Writing Skills

A skill is an ability to do something well especially because you have learned or

practised it.
The best way to convey thoughts and ideas, feelings and emotions is by
developing your writing skills. This enables you to present the scenes ... of your
creative writing. And the best way to do this is to show, not to tell! Good writers
don’t just tell what happens in a story or what a place or person is like. They
describe actions, conversations, and appearances that let readers see things for
themselves.
The following excerpts are examples of how authors use descriptive details
(diction and dialogues) to “show” setting and emotion.
SHOWING SETTING – FEELINGS – ACTIONS AND REACTIONS.

The streets of Guanajuato smell of dried chilies, of jasmine and carnations in

pots behind the iron-barred windows, of hot baked bread and of burro
1-Showing droppings. It is my town in central Mexico, a romantic old town that has lived
Setting days of wealth and luxury, because of the rich silver mines nearby, and days
of poverty, because of the turmoil of revolutions and social change.

Elizabeth Borton de Treviño, from “The Secret of the Wall”

Showing Setting: What does this passage reveal? Compare this passage to a
telling sentence, such as “Guanajuato smelled wonderful” or “Guanajuato is an
old town.”

2- Showing Feeling: How does this passage show how the narrator is feeling? Which words are especially
helpful in revealing her feelings?

I could not believe that I was actually holding the umbrella, opening it. It sprang up by itself as if it
were alive, as if that were what it wanted to do – as if it belonged in my hands, above my head. I
stared up at the network of silver spokes, then spun the umbrella around and around and around. It
was so clean and white that it seemed to glow, to illuminate everything around it.
Gish Jen, from “The White Umbrella”

11
 “Helado, por favor,” I croak, my eyes watering. His [the waiter’s] return with the ice
cream is mercifully quick. I shovel it in. I let it wallow on my tongue and linger against
the roof and sides of my mouth and the back of my throat. The fire finally goes out.

Jim Robbins
From “It feels like your lips are going to fall off,” Smithsonian

3- Showing Actions and Reactions: What did the writer think of peppers? Which words
show you how he reacted?

Practice: Showing, Not Telling

1. IMAGINE THE ACTIONS: think about the noises, facial expressions, and
physical motions that you see when someone is angry, sad, or tired. Can
you act out these emotions with your body? Write down a list of the
physical clues you give people to show them how you feel.
2. SHOW ME HOW: add descriptive details that change these sentences so
that they show rather than tell.
- Akossiwa was bored.
- Dela heard something.
- Abalo is coming from an AG held on campus.
3. TRY IT: with a partner, try writing a paragraph showing what makes your
neighbourhood or village or town special. Use descriptive words that allow
your readers “see” the special things you describe.

a- Diction

Diction is the choice and the use of words and phrases to express meaning
especially in literature. If very well handled, your diction can help bring your
writing to life. Most of the time, a good diction always appeals to the senses. This
is because good writers are generally good observers. They write about the look
and feel, the smell and taste, and the sounds of things.
Practice: How can you bring your writing to life?
The following excerpts are literary models in which the authors use their diction
to appeal to the sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Study them carefully and
write paragraphs that follow their examples.

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 APPEALING TO THE SENSES: SIGHT – SOUND – TOUCH – TASTE
AND SMELL.

Sigh
t
Out of the trees on the right side of the house came walking the blackest, biggest horse Thomas could
remember seeing. ... Riding on it was a tiny girl, sitting straight and tall. She had a white, frilly nightcap on
her head and she wore red flannel pajamas with lace at the neck and sleeves. She had no shoes on her feet
and she sat well forward, her toes clasped in the horse’s mane. With her arms folded across her chest, she
stared into the distance. She was serene and happy and seemed not to notice Thomas.
Virginia Hamilton, The House of Dies Drear

What words has the writer of the passage used to describe the sizes, shapes,
colours, and conditions of the things in it?

Sound
dd

Every whale everywhere moves in a sea of total sound. From the moment of its birth until its final hour, day
and night, it hears the endless orchestra of life around its massive frame. Silence is an unknown thing. The
snapping and crackling of tiny shrimps and crablike organisms, the grunting and grating, puffing and booming,
of a hundred fishes, the eerie whining and squealing of dolphins, the sad voices of sea birds overhead, the
chatter of its own companions, the undertone of moving water and the drone of wind, all these notes and
many more flooding through its senses all the time. It feels the music, too, for water presses firmly on its
frame – a smooth continuous sounding board.

Victor B. Scheffer, The Year of the Whale

Touch Platero is small, downy, smooth – so soft to the touch that one would
think he were all cotton, that he had no bones. Only the jet mirrors of his
eyes are hard as two beetles of dark crystal.
Juan Ramón Jiménez, Platero and I

13
 The lettuce heart, for example, it was thick like a
turnip, crunchy but sweet, easy to cook. And the
bean curd, we could buy that from a man who
rolled his cart by our house every morning, calling,
“Cho tofu! Cho tofu!” It was fried on the outside,
and when you broke it open, inside you’d find a
creamy-soft middle with such a good, stinky smell
for waking up your nose.
Taste and Smell Amy Tan, The Kitchen God’s Wife

b-Writing Dialogue

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. Writers use dialogue to

give information about characters and events and actions. Dialogue operates in
three ways: it adds more to the plot, reveals characters’ personalities and
provides background information to the story.
Practice 1: The Swan and the Old Woman!
Observe the picture of the Old Woman and the Swan and create a dialogue of not
more than 10 lines about them. Follow the example below.

THE SWAN AND THE OLD WOMAN

Swan: You’re late!

Old Woman: I’m sorry. I went to the store to
buy bread for you.
Swan: Bread again! I’m tired of eating bread
everyday.
Old Woman: But you know I don’t have much
money.
Swan: I want cake for dinner!
Old Woman: Do you know what I want for
dinner?
Swan: What?
Old Woman: I want roast swan!
Swan: Roast Swan? Oh! ... I think I do want
bread after all.

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Practice 2: Writing Dialogue
The following excerpts are literary models in which the authors use dialogue to
add more to the plot, to reveal characters’ personalities and to provide background
information to the story. Study them carefully and write paragraphs that follow
their examples.
Dialogue adds
“Don’t play dumb,” Chuck went on. “I mean those creepy phone calls. to the Plot
Anytime my sister gets on the phone, some voice cuts in and says things
to her.” How does this
“What kind of things?” I asked, trying to get loose. conversation tell you
“You know what they are. Ginny told me about talking to you what is happening in
yesterday. You got some girl to make those calls for you and say all those the story? How does
things. ...” it suggest what might
happen?
T. Ernesto Bethancourt, from “User Friendly”

Dialogue reveals Characters’ Personalities.

“I spit on money,” my uncle Khosrove said. He got up and stalked out

of the house, slamming the screen door.
What do you
learn about My mother explained.
Uncle Khosrove “He has a gentle heart,” she said. “It is simply that he is homesick and
from this such a large man.”
conversation?
William Saroyan,
from “The Summer of the Beautiful White Horse”

15
In a script (play) the author cannot explain all past events in a narrative form.
Therefore, dialogue is used to tell readers about important information or events
that happened earlier.

Luke: You told me Vader betrayed and murdered my

Script: Dialogue provides
father.
background information.
Ben: Your father was seduced by the dark side of the
Force. He ceased to be Anakin Skywalker and became
Darth Vader. When that happened, the good man who
was your father was destroyed. So what I have told you
was true ... from a certain point of view.
Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas,
from Return of the Jedi

Exercise: Using Dialogue

Select a paragraph of your choice and write a dialogue out of it.

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SESSION THREE: WRITING FOR THE READERSHIP
1- Who are the Readers?
If you want to develop all your interest and talent to their fullest, you must be able
and ready to read, and read well. A good reader is a careful and thoughtful reader
who knows and understands the reason why he/she is reading. A good reader
knows how to use “context clues” and read between the lines. Finally, a good
reader knows when to simply “enjoy” a good book and how to “study” one.
A good creative writer has the duty to satisfy the need or the curiosity of the
reader. He/she should know that there different categories of readers such as
beginners, intermediates, and advanced readers. This is what brings us to identify
children’s literature and literature for adults, for instance.

2- Reader-Oriented Writing
When you write, you usually have some goals or reasons for writing in mind. This
is important! It is also important to consider WHO you are writing for; i.e. your
audience. These are the people with whom you will share the product of your
imagination.
Thinking about your audience can help you figure out what you have or want to
say. You must ask yourself questions like the following:
- Who is my audience (children, school children, adolescents, students,
adults)?
- What do they already know about my subject?
- What do I want them to know?
- What details might they find most interesting?

As you consider your audience also think about the kind of language you will use
to present your ideas, describe the setting and convey the feelings and emotions.
If you write for younger readers, you will use simpler language and shorter
sentences than if you were writing for adults.

3- Creating a List of Considerations when writing Creatively

We can identify four steps, among others, in the writing process: Selecting,
Collecting, Connecting and Correcting.
Selecting: it refers to the process of choosing a subject or an event or an idea to
explore in writing.
Collecting: Collecting refers to all the searching, gathering, thinking, talking and
planning that goes on during the writing project. Its aim is to provide the writer
with a wide range of materials (in form of a book/writing log) to select from.

17
Connecting: it has to do with all your writing you do to connect and shape your
ideas and events into a meaningful composition or passage.
Correcting: this includes editing and proofreading. It is the finishing touches
which are made as the writing is put into its final form.

4- Issues of Importance in Creative Writing

A creative writer must always ask what the best order is for his/her writing. We
can mention 03 among others:
- Main Ideas and Supporting Details: some of the details you have gathered
may be reasons, facts, examples, brief stories, actions or events. You can
organize these details by starting with a sentence that expresses a main idea
of the passage and then add the reasons, facts, examples, the stories, the
actions or events that develop and support the main idea.
- Chronological Order: the details you have gathered may be events or
actions that happened in a certain order in time. Other details may be the
steps in which something happens. You can organize these details in
chronological order, or the order in which events or steps occur.
- Spatial Order: it is the order in which details are arranged in space. This
order helps your readers picture scenes, people, or objects. To organize
details in spatial order, start at a specific place and then move on. For
example, you might describe a tree by starting at the bottom and moving
up to the top. You might describe a person from head to toe or even from
toe to head! You could also describe a beach scene from left to right or from
near to far.

Practice: Spatial Order

The following literary model is the inside description of a barn. How are the
details arranged? Study it and follow the example to describe this picture:

They entered through identical barn doors, one of which was open to air and light.
Inside, the barn was a massive, two-story shell. Walls and roof and one great oak
crossbeam spanning the height. Hanging from the beam was an abundance of
drying things, thick as fur. Not vegetables, but thousands of herb weeds and dried
mushrooms. On the walls from top to bottom hung gourds, their range of colors
so bright, they looked painted. There were vertical rows of field corn on lengths
of heavy twine hanging down the walls.

Virginia Hamilton, M. C. Higgins, the Great

18
SESSION FOUR: FICTION
In this session, we are going to define some basic but useful concepts in the fields
of creative writing and also present the elements of a story.
1- Some Useful Concepts
1.1- Fiction

In an inclusive sense, fiction is any literary narrative whether in prose or in verse

which is invented/imagined instead of being an account of events that actually
happened. In this respect, a poem, a play, a short story and a novel are all fiction.
In a narrower sense however, fiction denotes only narratives that are written in
prose. It is fiction as a genre of literature. This includes only short stories and
novels. Sometimes, the terms fiction is used simply as synonym for novel.
Examples: Praise Song for the Land by Kofi Anyidoho (collection of poems); The
Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (a play); 101 Mystery Stories edited
by Pronzini and Greenberg (a collection of short stories); Brave New World by
Aldous Huxley (a novel) are all fictional works.
1.2- Novel

The term novel is now applied to a great variety of writings that have in common
only the attribute of being extended works of fiction written in prose. As an
extended narrative the novel is distinguished from the short story and from the
work of middle length called novelette. The novel’s magnitude permits a greater
variety of characters, greater complication of plot or plots, ampler development
of milieu, and more sustained exploration of character and motives than do the
shorter, more concentrated modes of narrative.
Examples of novels: Arrow of God by Chinua Achebe; The Last Duty by Isidore
Okpewho; Changes: A Love Story by Ama Ata Aidoo; Faceless by Amma
Darko.
1.3- Novelette

A novelette is a narrative of middle length, between the concentrated short story

and the extended or expanded novel. A novelette is also called novella.
Examples of novelette: Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad; The Great Ponds
by Elichi Amadi.

19
1.4- Short Story

A short story is a brief work of prose fiction, and most of the terms used to analyse
the component elements, the types, and the narrative techniques of the novel are
applicable to the short story as well.
The plot form in the short story (just as in the novel) may be comic, tragic,
romantic or satiric. The story is presented to us from one of many available points
of view. It may be written in a mode of fantasy, realism or naturalism.
1.5- Drama

It is the form of composition designed for performance in the theatre, in which

actors take the roles of characters, perform the indicated actions and say the
written dialogue. The common alternative name for dramatic composition is play.
A sketch is a short play with simple plot, limited number of characters which are
one dimensional most often.
2- Elements of a Story

Traditionally, the elements of a story include the plot, the characters, the setting,
the theme(s) and the language and style.
It is very easy to develop a story when one is aware of the different practical
elements that make up a story. In general, there are four (04) practical elements
making up a story: the people, the place, the activity, and the conflict. In stories
there are people or creatures that do some activity from which a conflict occurs.
The location or place could be home, market, campus, lecture halls, restaurant,
another country, the moon, etc.
The main activity may be an issue or a problem within a family, a disagreement
among friends or a band/gang, a picnic or night party, the beginning of friendship
or marriage, etc.
The conflict is the main problem in the story. It is what keeps the readers with the
story because they want to know how things turn out; or how the conflict is settled.
Practice: Imagine a story about (the people) in (the place) involved in (an activity)
during/out of which (a conflict) occurs.

20
SESSION FIVE: CREATING A PLOT
In a literary genre, the story usually revolves around a single idea and is short
enough to be read at one sitting as in a short story or a sketch (short play); or is
much longer and more complex as in a novel or a full length play. Among the
elements that contribute to the simplicity or complexity of the story, one can
identify the plot. This chapter shall introduce us to the elements that constitute a
plot, and in the process enable us to create a plot for our own story.
The plot is the sequence of events in a story. It is the writer’s report of what
happens, when it happens, and to whom it happens. The plot moves around a
conflict, which is a problem or struggle involving two or more opposing forces;
(or crisis) which is a problem faced by the main character or characters. The
conflict is the source of the story’s energy, or its driving force. There are two basic
types of conflict: external conflict and internal conflict. An external conflict is a
problem or struggle between a character and an outside force. An internal conflict
is a problem or struggle between opposing desires or feelings or emotions or
thoughts inside a person.
The progress of the plot depends on the occurrence of one event which causes
another, which causes another, and so on until the end of the story when solutions
are found to the problems. It is these series of events that is referred to as the
action of the story or plot.
Although the development of each plot is different, traditional works of fiction
generally follow a pattern known as the plot line, represented in the diagram
below:

The plot line shows the action or events in a story. It is made up of six stages (or
five, depending on the source): the opening, the problem(s), the obstacles, the
climax, the fall, and the resolution.

21
 1- The Opening

The opening is also known as the exposition which is usually the beginning of the
story. This stage corresponds to the moment of the story when the writer
introduces the characters in terms of their personal characteristics (physical
appearances, moral and intellectual capacity, etc.), and the relationship existing
among them (friendship, parentage, enmity, love, commercial, political, etc.). In
the opening the setting is also described, and the initial mood or atmosphere
prevailing at the start of the story clarified. Technically, it is at this level that the
conflict takes root and begins to unfold.
2- The Problem(s)

It is the activity that occurs at the beginning of the story. It is the morally
significant action that the character takes which creates tension and breaks the
relatively peaceful atmosphere of the exposition. It has its roots in the exposition
and serves as the fertile grounds for the occurrence of the obstacles.
3- The Obstacles

Between the problem and its resolution, there is a succession of events which
stand in the way. These events constitute the obstacles (or crises, or
complications) which result from the morally significant action or problem in the
previous stages. The problem and the obstacles form the rising action at the
centre of which there is the conflict. Tension is heightened through the obstacles.
4- The Climax

At this stage, the tension generated at the beginning of the story is pushed to the
highest point thanks to the obstacles. This is the climax. Technically, it is the
moment of greatest interest in the plot. At this moment the feelings and the
emotions reach a pick, or a maximal level or a turning point.
5- The Fall

Also referred to as the falling action, it is the stage of the plot which follows the
climax or turning point. The tension gradually subdues as obstacles are defeated
or overcome. The fall contains the actions, or events that lead the story to a
resolution or ending.

22
 6- The Resolution

The resolution is the direct outcome of the falling action; the stage corresponding
to the satisfying end of the story because obstacles have been defeated and
problems solved. The conflict is settled and the misunderstanding cleared away.
A good and exciting plot should have suspense, a lack of certainty on the part of
the reader about the next event or complication, the resolution of a problem, or
what is going to happen to a character with whom he (the reader) has established
a bond of sympathy.
The simplicity or complexity of the plot leads to a particular plot line. In a story
there can be a single plot, or multiple plots. The length of the exposition or
resolution, and the number and intensity of the problems and obstacles vary from
one story line to another. The plot can take different shapes as illustrated in the
diagrams bellow:

Climax

E R

Complex Plot of a Novel or Play

Simple plot with short exposition (E) and resolution (R)

as found in a short story or a sketch

Plot 1 Plot 2
MP

sp

SESSION SIX: CREATING CHARACTERS.

Complex Plot Showing Plot 1 and Plot 2 (an
Complex Plot Showing Main Plot (MP) and Sub-
example of episodic climax)
Plot (sp) 23
SESSION SIX: CREATING CHARACTERS.

6.1.What is a Character?
A character can be defined as an imaginary person, animal or object in a book or
a play. A character is therefore, any of the persons /animals/objects involved in a
story. A character is also one of the actors in a narrative or story. The creation of
characters and their interactions help the writer to carry the plot forward.
6.2 Types of Characters.

In creative writing characters can be classified into two main groups: major
characters and minor characters.
Major Characters: Major characters are vital to the development and resolution
of the conflict. In other words, the plot and the resolution of the conflict revolve
around these characters.
Minor Characters: They serve to complement the major characters and help
move the plot forward.
Other Types of Characters
Dynamic Character: dynamic character is a person or character who changes
over time, usually as a result of resolving a central conflict or facing a major
crisis. Most dynamics characters tend to be central rather than peripheral
characters, because resolving the conflict is the main role of central characters.
Example: Akobi in Amma Darko's Beyond the Horizon is a dynamic
character.
Static Character: a static character is someone who does not change over time,
his /her personality does not transform or evolve.
Round Character: a round character or rounded character is anyone who has a
complex personality, he/she is often portrayed as a conflicted or contradictory
person.
Flat Character: A flat character is the opposite of round character. This literary
personality is notable for one kind of personality trait or characteristic.
Stock character: Stock characters are those types of characters who have become
conventional or stereotypical through repeated use in particular types of stories.
Stock characters are instantly recognizable by readers or audience. They are

24
normally one-dimensional flat characters, but sometimes stock characters are
deeply conflicted, rounded characters (e.g. The "Hamlet" type).
Protagonist: The protagonist is the central character/person in a story, and is often
referred to as the story's main character. He/she (or they) is faced with a conflict
that must be resolved. The protagonist may not always be admirable( anti-hero);
nevertheless s/he must command involvement on the readers' part, or yet better
empathy. Example, Enitan is the protagonist in Sefi Atta's Everything Good
Will Come.
Antagonist: the antagonist is the character(s) (situation) that represents the
opposition against which the protagonist must contend. In other words, the
antagonist constitutes an obstacle that the protagonist must or has to overcome.
Example: Poison in Amma Darko's Faceless is an antagonist.
Anti-hero: She or he is a major character, usually the protagonist, who lacks
conventional nobility of mind, and who struggles for values not deemed
universally admirable.
Foil: is any character (usually the protagonist or an important supporting
character) whose personal qualities contrast with another character.
Symbolic: A symbolic character is any major or minor character whose very
existence represents some major ideas or aspects of a society. In Lord of the Flies
for example, Peggy (a character) is a symbol of both the rationality and physical
weakness of modern civilization, Jack (a character) on the other hand, symbolizes
the violent tendencies that William Golding ( the writer) believes is within human
nature.

N.B: Things to Remember.

1- Literary characters may embody more than one of the above cited character
types at the same time.
A dynamic character may also be the antagonist, and a protagonist can also be,
say a flat or stock character(one-dimensional hero).
2- Here is very common mistakes while characters are often round and dynamic
that does not mean these two terms mean the same thing. The former (round)
refers to a character complexity while the latter (dynamic) refers to a character
development over time. The same mistake is usually made with flat and stock
characters.

25
 6.3. Functions of Characters.
The way characters function depends on how they are depicted by their
writer/creator (novelist, playwright ......) to suit the type of message(s) she/he
intends to pass on to his or her readers. Characters play a paramount role in the
development of the plot. They move the plot forward.
Through their appearance, speeches, actions, reactions, interactions, behaviors
etc, characters reveal the various themes of the story.
6.4. Building a Character.
In order to develop a living, breathing, multi-faceted character, it is important to
know more about the character than you will ever use in the story. Here is a
partial list of character details to help you get started.
• Name • Pets
• Age • Religion
• Job • Hobbies
• Ethnicity • Single or married?
• Appearance • Children?
• Residence • Temperament
• Favorite color • Something hated?

• Friends • Secrets?
• Favorite foods • Strong memories?
• Drinking patterns • Any illnesses?
• Phobias • Nervous gestures?
• Faults • Sleep patterns

Imagining all these details will help you get to know your character, but your
reader probably won’t need to know much more that the most important things
in four areas:
• Appearance. Gives your reader a visual understanding of the character.
• Action. Show the reader what kind of person your character is, by
describing actions rather than simply listing adjectives.
• Speech. Develop the character as a person – don’t merely have your
character announce important plot details.
• Thought; Bring the reader into your character’s mind, to show them your
character’s unexpressed memories, fears, and hopes.

26
For example, let’s say I want to develop a college student persona for a short story
that I am writing. What do I know about her?
Her name is Jen, short for Jennifer Mary Johnson. She is 21 years old. She is a
fair-skinned Norwegian with blue eyes, long, curly red hair, 5 feet 6 inches tall.
Contrary to typical redheads, she actually easygoing and rather shy. She loves
cats and has two of them named Bailey and Allie. She is a technical writing
major with a minor in biology. Jen plays the piano and is an amateur
photographer. She lives in the dorms at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.
She eats pizza every day for lunch and loves Red rose tea. She cracks her
knuckles when she is nervous. Her mother just committed suicide.

27
CHAPTER 7: CREATING SETTING
7.1. What is setting?
The setting of a story refers to the time, place and culture in which the action
occurs. The setting is extremely significant in every fiction to make the
background. Besides time and place, setting may also include weather. The
makeup and behavior of fictional characters often depend not only on their
personal characteristics but also on their environment. Setting can be general,
specific or very detailed. A place as well as the period in which the character grew
up can profoundly affect his/her behaviour. The issue of setting is so important
that in some cases, the entire action of a novel or play is determined by the locale
in which it is set. Sometimes the main locale of an action plays an important role
in the readers’ or audiences’ imagination.
The setting in which a literary piece is put can influence the action, it may also
determine the type of characters and how they should behave. In addition to this,
the setting helps us to understand the mood of both the author and the characters.
A setting can help us to define, understand and analyse the psychological, cultural
and economic states of the characters as well as their social status. The way a
character manages and copes with the environment and with the period of time
may depict the type of person s/he is. For example: A character that is able to go
through a dense forest full of wild animals and is able to tame some could be said
to be a courageous person. So will be a character that is able to criticize a
tyrannical and autocratic government without fear. More importantly, the
understanding and analysis of an action can best be done if the analyst is familiar
with the setting.

7.2. Space in a Story

Space is also the place where events or actions happen in a story. Space is very
important in the story because without space, we cannot have a story. In this line,
Elizabeth Bowen has this to say: “Nothing happens nowhere” 1. For Jerome Stern
“a scene that seems to happen nowhere often seems not to happen at all”2. Then,
space is a prerequisite for any action in a story. In narrative, space has to be
presented verbally. It thus exists, ultimately, only in the reader’s imagination.
Space in narrative tends to be more detailed. Readers create their notions of
fictional space from their own experience in the real world. That is to say, a
person’s ideas of how houses, gardens, parks, streets, etc. look, is dependent on
that person’s ideas of houses, gardens, parks and streets. In turn, accurate and
convincing descriptions of spatial dimensions in a narrative serve to increase the
narrative’s authenticity; it provides a link to the reader’s reality. Readers tend to
imagine the characters moving through ‘real’ space, as they do themselves.
1
Janet Burroway, Writing Fiction. A Guide to Narrative Craft (USA : Pearson Education, Inc, 2015), p.156
2
Ibidem

28
Using Space in story settings:
‘Space’ in a story has multiple purposes and effects:

• The places you set your scenes contribute mood and tone (a dark, eerie
wood creates a very different sense of danger or mystery compared to a
bright, open plain)
• Places restrict (or open) possibilities for your characters’ lives and
actions (a character living in a small mining town might have very different
perceptions and options compared to a character who lives in a large city)

7.3. Time in a Story

Here, we can consider four kinds of time that may carry particular associations
with them: clock time, calendar time, seasonal time and historical time. Some
examples:

Calendar time (day, month, year…) The time of year is richly evocative and
influential in fiction. Time of year includes the seasons, but also encompasses
holidays, such as Christmas, New Year’s Eve, and easter etc. Significant dates
can also be used, such as the anniversary of a death of a character or real person,
or the anniversary of a battle, such as the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Example: It is that time of the year again. The season when our village, Oshaantu,
camouflages itself in a rich green carpet and provides a breathtaking sight,
especially from our homestead, which is built on an incline. I wish time would
stand still. We had good rains this year and are promised plenty to eat. My heart
is full of gratitude as I look at all the omahangu, sorghum, spinach, beans,
pumpkins, watermelons, nuts, corn and cabbage. Those of us who worked the
extra mile will not have to buy tomatoes, onions, sweet potatoes and guavas for a
good while. I gently stroke the rough surface of the omahangu millet in
appreciation of the abundance of Mother Nature. God is good, I think. 3

Time of day. Scenes need to play out during various times or periods during a
day or night, such as dawn or dusk. Readers have clear associations with different
periods of the day, making an easy way to create a visual orientation in a scene.

Example: At midday, the heat intensified as did the flies that were buzzing all
over the place. Vendors used pieces of cardboard to frighten them away; some
only did so when they saw customers approaching. Kauna sat there observing the
commotion of vendors, customers and passing vehicles.4

3
Neshani Andreas, The Purple Violet of Oshaantu (England: Pearson Education Limited, 2001), p.1
4
Ibidem, p.91

29
Using time in setting
It would be incomplete to answer ‘what is story setting?’ without including time.
Time in a story, for example the historical period or epoch the story spans, is
equally vital:

• Like place, time for example restricts or rather determines, to some extent,
possibilities for your characters. The time setting of your novel impacts
what types of lives your characters can lead and what choices they can
make. Characters living in contemporary Africa will have very different
choices and lifestyles available to them compared to characters living in
pre-colonial Africa (women, for example, are pressured to marry and be
homemakers)
• Time in your novel’s setting determines what kind of technology is
available (historical fiction often describes old-fashioned tools such as
manual clothes washers that most modern city-dwelling readers wouldn’t
know)
• Time in your story setting is equally useful for showing and underscoring
changes that contribute to character and plot development (e.g. changes of
government, scientific discovery, social beliefs and customs)

7.4. Creating Atmosphere in a Story

What is Atmosphere?

Atmosphere is the mood created through the deliberate description of

setting. Depending on the emotion you wish to evoke in your reader during a
scene, the description can be slanted to reinforce what you want to project.
Let’s say your scene involves a character exercising violence on women. The
description you show regarding the violence should affect what emotion your
audience feels as they read.
How do you feel after reading the following example:
Kauna and her basket full of water landed on the ground. Kauna tried to escape
Shange’s rage, but he was too fast for her. He caught her. She screamed. I have
never heard her screaming like that. … Kauna was lying on the ground covered
in a blanket of sand. She moved like an old cloth as Shange’s shoes struck her
mercilessly all over her tiny body. The heavy mine shoes sounded as if they were
breaking every bone. She had covered her face and part of her head with both her
arms and hands. … Kauna, supporting herself on all fours, bravely tried to stand
up, … Shange, freed from Michael’s grip, rushed to Kauna who was crawling like

30
a newborn calf and kicked her hard in the stomach. She flew into the air and fell
on the ground. 5
Indeed your reader will feel anger, melancholy and sadness that a husband should
behave this way. This type of description is closer to creating the right atmosphere
for this emotion in the reader.

Function of Atmosphere

The purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It makes a

literary work lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping the audience more
engaged. It appeals to the readers’ senses by making the story more real, allowing
them to comprehend the idea easily. Writers control the impact of prevailing
atmosphere by changing the description of settings and objects.

To be successful, a short story or novel needs to develop a strong sense of

atmosphere. This draws your readers into your story so they can imagine this
world you are creating. It also sets up expectations for them and gives them
information about the characters they’re likely to meet in your story.
7.5. Creating Setting
When starting to create and describe your setting, start with the 6 W’s. On a sheet
of paper, jot down the answer to each of these questions to help develop a
convincing and effective setting.
1- Where did the story take place?
2- When did the story happen?
3- What’s the weather or climate like?
4- What are the social or community conditions?
5- What is the landscape like?
6- What special details make it clear to understand?
Decide on a broad or narrow description. How do you describe your setting?
Do you use a wide angle camera lens or do you zoom in? Decide what your story
needs. Do you need to describe the entire town? Or do you just need to describe
the house? Determine which description gives your story the life it needs.
- Try to describe the character in a wider setting and gradually narrow to a
specific location. Go from a description of the country/state/region, then
move to the town, then neighborhood of the town.
- You may also want to go from physical setting to the population by
describing the type of people who live in the town. This is a common way

5
Ibidem, pp. 58-59

31
 to transition from inanimate objects to living beings that think, feel, and
care. This starts to give the story meaning.
Use the five senses. Use the five senses: touch, sight, smell, sound, and taste.
Many writers only use sight, but this is a mistake. Of course you have to describe
the way something looks, but you also need to include descriptions from the other
senses as well.
- Think about what the room smells like. What does the sand feel like under
the characters feet? Is the edge of mountain cutting into the character’s
hands? Describe the way the character’s favorite meal tastes.
Don’t let the setting description get in the way of the story. The setting should
enhance the story, not block it. This can happen if you stop in the middle of the
scene to provide a lengthy description of the world around the characters. Instead
of providing separate setting description in the middle of a scene, describe the
setting through the characters’ actions. The setting should be integrated along with
what the characters are doing.
- For example, if the character is running from a vampire in the woods, don’t
stop and describe how scary the woods are. Have the character notice how
dark it is and the lack of sound. Have the character trip over an exposed
root and get a cut on her cheek from a branch. Focus on how the character
can’t see anything, but can hear the footsteps behind her. This incorporates
the setting with the action so it doesn’t block the story.
Show, don’t tell. Show the setting instead of telling. Don’t say, “The desert was
hot.” Instead, show that the desert was hot by describing the sun burning the
character’s skin, the heat rising from the sand in waves, and the thick air that is
hard to breathe.
- To do this, use vivid language. Choose nouns and descriptive adjectives to
describe the setting. Use concrete action verbs.
- Telling: Mary was an old woman.
- Showing: Mary moved slowly across the room, her hunched form
supported by a polished wooden cane gripped in a gnarled, swollen-jointed
hand that was covered by translucent liver-spotted skin.
Focus only on the important setting details. There is such a thing as too much
setting description. Refrain from describing things that have no importance to the
story and its themes. Instead, make a conscious choice about everything you
describe. Each setting description should have a reason for being in the story.

32
CHAPTER 8: THEME
8.1. What is Theme ?
The theme is the major, dominant or central idea of a work of literature including
that of the stories, novels, plays and poems. The theme may be the most difficult
of a short story to identify. The theme of a story is normally implicit and therefore
gives room for many interpretations. A story without a theme seems trivial. It is
the theme that offers insight into human behavior. In the view of Gordon and
Kuehner therefore “theme is an opinion statement suggesting the author’s central
insight or general comment about human nature or the human conditions as
conveyed through the character, action and imagery” 6. Whatever it says to readers
and however they respond, the theme is the heart of the story.
A theme in writing is the underlying idea behind an article or story that unifies its
words into a coherent whole. The theme has been called the “muscle” or the
"vehicle" of a story. It can be made explicitly or implicitly, usually in short
stories, novels, etc. In this case, the theme often emerges as the moral of the story.
A strong, well-defined theme enables the reader to see the deeper meaning in your
story and the intention behind your own motivation for writing it.
Function and presentation of Theme

Theme is an element of a story that binds together various essential elements of a

narrative. It is often a truth that exhibits universality, and stands true for people of
all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of the main character’s
conflicts, experiences, discoveries, and emotions as they are derived from them.
Through themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world
works, or how he or she views human life.

A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may
express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he
has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and
conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main
character in the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally,
the actions and events taking place in a narrative are consequential in determining
its theme.

6
Kofi Agyekum, Intoduction to Literature. 2nd Edition (Ghana : MediaDesign, 1999), p.74

33
8.2. Developing Theme in Creative Writing
The techniques of developing a theme in fiction writing:
- Preparing to Develop Your Theme

1- Understand the difference between "subject" and "theme." "Subject"

is a more general term than "theme." In fiction, the subject is some aspect
of the human condition explored within the work. A theme is an explicit or
implicit statement about the subject.
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2- Identify the purpose of your writing. The purpose behind your writing
will shape how you develop your theme in the piece. There are numerous
purposes as to why someone writes. Example: Corruption, entertainment,
injustice etc.

3- Identify your audience. Understanding who your audience is lets you

determine which themes are appropriate to your audience. This will also
help you identify how best to present those themes to your audience. You
can determine what themes are appropriate to your audience by realistically
assessing how much knowledge and experience the audience has.

4- Consider the length of what you're writing. Longer works, such as

novels or memoirs, permit the inclusion of other themes subordinate to the
primary theme of your work. In contrast, shorter works, such as short stories
or editorials, usually have room to address only a single theme, although
they may give passing reference to supporting ideas.

- Defining Your Theme

1- Make an outline of your story. Most stories start with a kernel of an idea.
This may hint at the theme of your story, or the theme may emerge through
the development of the story. If you have an idea for a story, it will be
helpful to sketch out the story. Then you can start to determine the different
directions it can take. This then points to potential themes that you can
focus on. Outline your story, listing the characters and setting out the order
of events that will happen in the story.

2- Brainstorm ideas that can represent your theme. Once you’ve identified
a theme for your story, you can start to think about ways in which to

34
 represent that theme. Start with a free association exercise. In this exercise,
focus on your theme – either the word or phrase (such as “family” or
“environment” or “corporate greed”). Let your mind wander and observe
the thoughts, people, images and so on that enter into your mind. Write
down these thoughts and images.
- Try out the technique of ‘mind-mapping’. In this technique, you start with
a central idea and begin to map out the ways in which the story develops.
This way, you can also start to identify how the theme weaves through the
story.
3- Look into your character’s motivations. Your story’s characters are
tasked with goals and aspirations. These motivations drive your character
to act certain ways. These actions often feed into your theme.
- For example, if your character is passionate about becoming a vegan, you
might start to examine themes of whether humans have the right to take
control over the natural world.
4- Think about your story’s conflict. The characters in your story are faced
with a conflict that drives the plot. This may be an event or an antagonist.
When you figure out the central conflict of your story, you may start to
uncover your theme.
- For example, your character’s parent committed a crime. Your character, a
police officer, is faced with a moral dilemma of whether to arrest the parent
or not. Your theme could start to emerge from this conflict.

5- Research to support your theme. In fiction, research also feeds into

making your characters and the environment in which they interact as
realistic as possible.

6- Realize that you can have more than one theme. There isn’t any rule that
says you can only have one theme. You may have a dominant theme with
sub-themes that strengthen and deepen your thematic dimension. For
example, perhaps your dominant theme is the human impact on the
environment, and you have sub-themes of corporate greed and the
breakdown of community in modern society.

35
- Weaving Your Theme into Your Writing

1- Choose ways to present your theme to your reader. A solidly presented

theme will emerge through many different facets of your story. Start
thinking about how your theme will become apparent to your readers. Some
of these ways include:

• Through characters’ actions, thoughts and speech

• Through symbolic use of the environment
• Through repeating ideas
• Through highlighting symbols or landmarks
• Through contrasting values

2- Use narration to present facts and details. Narration means to present

facts and details in an organized, usually chronological fashion to tell what
happened and who it happened to.

3- Use description to build an image in the reader’s mind. Description is

the use of words that invoke the senses to build an image in the reader's
mind of the item being described. Description is particularly powerful in
fiction as a substitute for narration. Instead of writing that a character was
angry, you describe the character as having bulging eyes, flared nostrils,
and use "thundered," "shouted," or "screamed" in place of "said" to describe
the character's voice.

4- Use the tool of comparison and contrast. Comparison is showing the

similarities of two or more things. Contrast is showing the differences
between two or more things. Comparison and contrast can be used in
fiction.
5- Try an analogy. An analogy is comparison in which an idea or a thing is
compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at
explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar.
Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy.
Example : A Hanging by George Orwell
The lines below exhibit an analogy between a prisoner and a fish.

“They crowded very close about him, with their hands always on him in a
careful, caressing grip, as though all the while feeling him to make sure he
was there. It was like men handling a fish which is still alive and may
jump back into the water.”

36
 The people are taking a prisoner to the gallows to be hanged. They are
holding him firmly, as if he were a fish which might slip away and escape.

6- Incorporate symbolism into your story. Symbolism is using something

to represent something else. Symbolism is common in fiction and requires
the reader to be familiar with the symbols you use and their intended
meaning.

- Finalizing Your Theme

1- Get feedback. Allow lots of people read your writing. It is helpful to get
other eyes on a piece of writing so that you know whether your ideas are
conveyed clearly. Ask these readers about their impressions. See if they can
identify your theme without prompting.
- Be open to the ways that other people respond to your writing. They might
be able to point out errors that you regularly make, which can help clarify
and improve your writing. They might also ask thought-provoking
questions that help you consider an angle you hadn’t previously considered.
- Remember that this feedback is not intended to be personal; they are
responding to the writing, not to you.

2- Put away your writing for a few days. Get some distance from your
writing by putting it away for a bit. Sometimes when we write, we’re so
invested in the story and shaping the words that we lose sight of the bigger
picture. Take a break from your writing by turning your focus to a different
project for a few days. Then come back to your writing and reread it.

3- Make changes to your theme. Based on your own evaluation of the piece,
as well as the feedback you’ve solicited from others, make alterations to
your theme. You may recognize that, while you thought your theme was
one aspect, your readers interpreted it very differently.

- For example, perhaps you have been focusing your theme on a firefighter’s
triumph over her parents’ disapproval. But then you realize that your story
is really about the firefighter’s struggle in a male-dominated profession.
- A change to your theme might necessitate adding or deleting some passages
that do not strengthen your theme.

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Short Examples of Theme

1. The space travelers were travelling to the moon, when their spaceship
suddenly ran out of fuel. They were all frightened to learn that they
wouldn’t be able to return to Earth, and could only land on the moon.
(Theme of fear)
2. The bus was travelling at a great speed when it was stopped by a gang of
robbers. The passengers were ordered to get out, leaving their precious
belongings in the bus.
(Theme of fear)
3. Their marriage ceremony was taking place in a grand hotel. All the eminent
people of the city were invited, the reason that the celebration was
excellent.
(Theme of happiness)
4. All the family members were dressed in black, with somber faces. They
were participating in the funeral ceremony of their deceased relative.
(Theme of gloom)
5. The cricket match was reaching a highpoint, the fans of both teams
screaming their support. It was an excellent game.
(Theme of cheerfulness)
6. The teacher said that she hoped all of her students would pass with good
grades. (Theme of optimism)
7. The immigrant looked around to talk to somebody, but could find no one
who spoke his language. He felt claustrophobic and desolate.
(Theme of hopelessness)
8. Only the laborers were working on Labor Day.
(Theme of irony)
9. The conference was in full swing, with scholars delivering knowledgeable
lectures on varying subjects. The audience enjoyed it immensely.
(Theme of learning)
10. The general commanded his troops to open fire at the enemy, and to kill
each and every soldier of the combatants.
(Theme of war)

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SESSION NINE: POINT OF VIEW
Point of view is the angle from which the story is told. It refers to the focus and
perspective from which the story is presented or told to a reader or listener. In the
view of Holman (1980:343-344) ‘point of view is the vantage point from which
the author presents or tells the actions of the story’. Point of view is a crucial
element for it determines what we know about the characters and the action. We
have:
- First person point of view;
- Second person point of view;
- Third person omniscient point of view;
- Third person limited point of view;
- Dramatic point of view.

1- First person point of view

In the first person narrative, the story is told by “I”: me; mine, my, or “We”: us,
our, ours. One of the characters involved in the story’s action. The first person
point of view allows readers to see the action through the eyes of one character
and to know only that character’s thought. The character may be the main or a
minor character and tells the story as a witness who experienced it, saw it, heard
it, and understood it.
Example from A. Tutuola’s The Palm-wine Drinkard, p.7
I was a palm-wine drunkard since I was a boy of ten years of age. I had no other
work more than to drink palm-wine in my life. I was drinking palm-wine from
morning till night and from night till morning. By that time I could not drink
ordinary water at all except palm-wine.

2- Second person point of view

Second person point of view is used when the narrator tells the story to another
character using the word “you”. The author could be talking to the audience,
which we could tell by the use of ‘you’, ‘you’re’, or ‘your’. In fiction, second
person point of view is used as a narrative voice, a term used for the method in
which a narrator describes the story. An author may use second person point of
view when he/she wants to make the audience more active in the story or process.
The author may use it to talk to the audience, or, when used in fiction, the author
wants to make the audience feel as if they are a part of the story and action.

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Example from Frank Ogodo Ogbeche’s Harvest of Corruption, p.118
You are a disgrace to the Government that saddled you with a ministerial
responsibility and a very sensitive portfolio of External Relations. Instead of
representing the Government and the people of this country, you were busy
trafficking drugs and amassing ill-gotten wealth, and wallowing in corruption.
Well, this now is the harvest of corruption. You have been given a fair trial and
found guilty. In order to deter others from following your shameless example,
because this is becoming rampant, …. this country must be protected against
unscrupulous public officers of your type, who abuse their positions of trust and
responsibility thereby betraying the confidence reposed in them.

3- Third person omniscient point of view

A third person omniscient narrator is not limited in viewpoint to any one

character, time and space and is thus free to move and can comment at will on
every aspect of the story. The omniscient, all-knowing, point of view allows the
author, writing the story, to tell readers what any or all of the characters think or
do. Such narrators are free to go wherever they wish, to peer inside the minds and
hearts of characters at will and tell us what they are thinking or feeling.
Example1 from Ama Ata Aidoo’s Changes, p.72
…Esi and Ali reserved their love-making for the comfort of Esi’s bed. This nearly
always followed an outing, as well as any time he came just to be with her. He
would shut up Linga HideAways at the end of the working day and drive straight
to her. They would immediately fall into each other’s arms and hold her
welcoming kiss from the front door through the length of the sitting-room, through
her bedroom and on to her bed. Then for the next hour or so it was just grunts and
groans until, quite exhausted, they fell quiet.
Example2 from Aesop’s fable “The Ant and the Grasshopper” is told from the
omniscient point of view. In it, we are told not only what both characters do and
say, but also what they think and feel. (The phrases in which the narrator enters
into the thoughts or feelings of the ant and the grasshopper have been italicized).
Weary in every limb, the ant tugged over the snow a piece of corn he had
stored up last summer. It would taste mighty good at dinner tonight.
A grasshopper, cold and hungry, looked on. Finally he could bear it no
longer. “Please, friend ant, may I have a bite of corn?”
“What were you doing all last summer?” asked the ant. He looked the
grasshopper up and down. He knew its kind.

40
 “I sang from dawn till dark,” replied the grasshopper, happily unaware of
what was coming next.
“Well,” said the ant, hardly bothering to conceal his contempt, “since you
sang all summer, you can dance all winter.” (Story and Structure by Thomas R.
Arp & Greg Johnson, p.170)

4- Third person limited point of view

Third person limited point of view is used when the narrator tells the story from
the viewpoint of one character in the story. It uses “he, she, it, they, etc. This point
of view lets the reader know what one character thinks, sees, knows, hears and
feels. One character is closely followed throughout the story, and it is typically a
main character. Authors know everything about this point view characters often
more than the characters know about themselves. They limit themselves to these
characters’ perceptions and no direct knowledge of what other characters are
thinking or feeling or doing.
Example from Aesop’s fable “The Ant and the Grasshopper” is told, in the third
person, from the point of view of the ant. Notice that this time we are told nothing
of what the grasshopper thinks or feels. We see and hear and know of him only
what the ant sees and hears and knows.
Weary in every limb, the ant tugged over the snow a piece of corn he had
stored up last summer. It would taste mighty good at dinner tonight. It was then
that he noticed the grasshopper, looking cold and pinched.
“Please, friend ant, may I have a bite of corn?” asked the grasshopper.
He looked the grasshopper up and down. “What were you doing all last
summer?” he asked. He knew its kind.
“I sang from dawn till dark,” replied the grasshopper.
“Well,” said the ant, hardly bothering to conceal his contempt, “since you
sang all summer, you can dance all winter.” (Story and Structure by Thomas R.
Arp & Greg Johnson, p.171)
5- Dramatic point of view

In this point of view, the narrator disappears into a kind of roving sound camera.
This camera can go anywhere but can record only what is seen and heard. It cannot
comment, interpret, or enter a character’s mind. With this point of view, readers
are placed in the position of spectators at a movie or play. They see what the
characters do and hear what they say but must infer what they think or feel and
what they are like. Authors are not there to explain. The purest example of a story
told from the dramatic point of view would be entirely written in dialogue.
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Example from Ama Ata Aidoo’s Changes, p.91
‘Opokuya, you don’t sound convinced.’
‘Are you convinced?’
‘Yes, I am’
‘Then I should be. Because what is important is what you feel.’
‘Opokuya, Ali is wonderful. And so understanding of the kind of woman I
am.’…
‘Handsome too. And so obviously generous.’
‘Too, too generous.’

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SESSION TEN: STYLE IN CREATIVE WRITING.

1. What is Style?

Style, to a fiction writer, is basically the way you write, as opposed to what you
write about (though the two things are definitely linked). It results from things
like word choice, tone, and syntax. It's the voice readers "hear" when they read
your work.

1.1. What is style in English language?

An English writing style is a way of using the English language. The style of a
piece of writing is the way in which features of the language are used to convey
meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely accepted
conventions of usage, grammar, and spelling.

1.2. What is the tone and style of writing?

Style means the mechanical or technical aspects of writing and may be specific
to the requirements of the subject or topic. Voice means the unique worldview
and word choices of the author. Tone means the attitude conveyed in
the writing and may encompass formality, objectivity, intimacy, and similar
aspects.

1.3. What are the types of tone?

Definition of Tone
Works of literature can have many different types of tone, such as humorous,
solemn, distant, intimate, ironic, arrogant, condescending, sentimental, and so on.
Any emotion that humans can feel can be an example of tone in literature.

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 1.4. What are examples of tone?
Some other examples of literary tone are: airy, comic, condescending, facetious,
funny, heavy, intimate, ironic, light, playful, sad, serious, sinister, solemn,
somber, and threatening.

1.5. What is tone in writing?

Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an
audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the
viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. ... The tone can be formal, informal,
serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude.

1.6. What is the style of a text?

Style refers to the to a specific author's methods of using tone, word choice,
sentence structure, and voice in the text. Some writers have a very succinct,
straight-forward style. Their sentences are simple, to the point, and not wordy. ...
A science report should be succinct, straight-forward and focused on the text.

2. Elements of Style in Creating Writing.

A metaphor is a literary device writers use to make their writing more

evocative. Without going into wordy explanations, a writer can use the figurative
language of a metaphor for illustrative purposes or to highlight the similarities
between two different ideas, activities, or objects.

2.1. How are metaphors used in creative writing?

Metaphors work best when they're simple, unexpected, and concrete:

1. Create a quick picture rather than a lengthy story. You lose your reader, if you
need to do a lot of explaining.
2. Surprise your readers. Present a fresh angle on an old topic.
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3. Try making your metaphors sensory, so readers can experience your words.

2.1.1. What is a metaphor for writing?

A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes something (an object or an action)
in a way that isn't literally true, but uses comparison or symbolism to describe
something. Metaphors are a great way to add more color to
your writing! Metaphors show up all over the place, especially in poetry and
literature.
2.1.2. Famous metaphors

• “The Big Bang.” ...

• “All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players.
• “Art washes away from the soul the dust of everyday life.”
• “I am the good shepherd, … and I lay down my life for the sheep.”
• “All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree.”
• “Chaos is a friend of mine.”
2.2. Irony

Irony is a multi-faceted literary device that a writer uses to point out the
discrepancy between reality and how things appear or what was expected. When
a writer uses irony in a work, there is incongruity in regards to the behavior of
characters, the words that they say, or the events that take place.

What Is Irony? Different Types of Irony in Literature, Plus Tips on How to

Use Irony in Writing

The definition of irony as a literary device is a situation in which there is a

contrast between expectation and reality. For example, the difference between
what something appears to mean versus its literal meaning. Irony is associated
with both tragedy and humor.

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The term irony entered the English language in the sixteenth century and comes
from the French “ironie” and before that, from the Latin “ironia.” All these
terms originate from the ancient Greek stereotypical character known as Eiron.
An Eiron figure brings down his opponent by understating his abilities, thus
engaging in a type of irony by saying less than what he means.

2.2.1. How is irony used in writing?

ituational irony: When the result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected
effect. ramatic Irony: When words and actions possess a significance that the
listener or udience understands, but the speaker or character does not.

2.2.2. What Are the Main Types of Irony?

There are a number of different types of irony, each meaning something a little
different.

• Dramatic irony. Also known as tragic irony, this is when a writer lets
their reader know something that a character does not. For example, when
the reader knows that the bus roaring down the highway is headed for an
elevated freeway junction that hasn’t been completed yet, it fills the
audience with anticipation and dread for what they know is coming: the
passengers’ horror and shock. In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, each
young lover takes the poison, thinking the other is already dead—the
dramatic irony comes from the audience wanting them to know the whole
story before taking this final action. Similarly, in Shakespeare’s Othello,
Othello trusts Iago—but the audience knows better. Learn more about
dramatic irony in our complete guide.
• Comic irony. This is when irony is used to comedic effect—such as in
satire. Jane Austen was a master of irony and dialogue. Her preoccupation
with social divisions, and the witty and insightful tone with which she

46
 revealed hypocrisy and parodied people contributed heavily to her voice.
Austen opens Pride and Prejudice with a famous line implying that men
are the ones who hunt for a wife; however, she makes it clear throughout
the narrative that it is actually the other way around.
• Situational irony. This is at play when an expected outcome is subverted.
For example, in O. Henry’s classic tale, The Gift of the Magi, a wife cuts
off her long hair to sell it in order to buy her husband a chain for his
prized watch. Meanwhile, the husband has sold his watch in order to buy
his wife a comb for her hair. The situational irony comes from each
person not expecting to have their gift be undercut by the other’s actions.
• Verbal irony. This is a statement in which the speaker means something
very different from what he or she is saying. Think of the knight in Monty
Python and the Holy Grail: with both his arms sliced off, he says,
nonchalantly: “It’s just a flesh wound.” He is ironically (and comically)
underplaying the severity of his injury.

2.2.3. What Is the Difference Between Irony and Sarcasm?

Sarcasm is a conversational device characterized by saying the opposite of what

one means. Sarcasm comes from the Greek “sarkázein,” meaning to “tear flesh”
and indeed, sarcasm is deployed in a mocking, sneering, and often witty tone.
This means it can be self-deprecating, with the speaker mocking themselves; or
aimed at someone else, in a teasing manner.

The key difference between irony and sarcasm is that sarcasm characterizes
someone’s speech. Irony can additionally describe situations or circumstances.
There are some cases in which someone could say something that is considered
both ironic and sarcastic, but sarcasm is not a literary device.

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2.2.4. Five Tips For Writing Irony

• Pay attention. As you read and watch movies, think critically about what
is ironic, and why. For example, in the film The Wizard of Oz, the great
and powerful Oz turns out to be just a regular man, while Dorothy, who
has been desperately seeking his help so that she can get home, has had
the power to return home all along. Think about ways in which you can
incorporate situations like this into your writing, where you subvert the
expectations of your characters, your readers—or both.
• Use an omniscient point of view. Many novels written in the nineteenth
century are told from an omniscient point of view. When a reader knows
more than the character, as in Bram Stoker's Dracula, it generates
suspense, because your reader waits for the character to learn what they
already know. But you might want to invert that balance of knowledge
and make the narrator a character in the story that knows more than the
reader. Agatha Christie used this first-person strategy to create narrative
irony.
• Have a clear point of view strategy. Point of view strategy is deeply
bound up with what story you want to tell and will guide how that story
unspools. No matter where you are in the drafting process, devote some
time to thinking through the risks and rewards of different point-of-view
strategies and consider who in your story may be best suited to hold the
narrative reins.
• Use the “meanwhile” device. If you are using an omniscient narrative
point of view strategy, your narrator may recount a parallel event
happening simultaneously in another place using the “meanwhile” device
(e.g., “Meanwhile, across town...”). Because this device lets the reader in
on happenings that one character has no knowledge of, it is a great tool
for generating dramatic irony.

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 • Use a flashback sequence. When your narrative or characters recall a
long memory from a time before the story began, you may want to pull
the reader back into a past scene. This is called a flashback. It important
to mark the beginning and end of a flashback to make your time jumps
clear to the reader, which you can do using past perfect tense to introduce
the change—e.g. “he had gone to the marina.” Past perfect tense uses the
verb “to have” with the past participle of another verb (in this case
“gone”). After a few lines of this, transition into simple past tense—e.g.
“he climbed onto the boat.” Generally speaking, using past perfect for a
long section of text is jarring for most readers. It’s enough to use it only
at the start of the flashback before switching to simple past tense. At the
flashback’s end, use a reminder that the reader is back in the current scene.

2.3. Humor

2.3.1. How to Write Humor: Funny Essay Writing Tips

Humor brings people together and has the power to transform how we think
about the world. Of course, not everyone is adept at being funny—particularly
in writing. Making people laugh takes some skill and finesse, and, because so
much relies on instinct, is harder to teach than other techniques. However, all
writers can benefit from learning more about how humor functions in writing.

Below, you will find a brief explanation of how humor works in both fiction
and nonfiction writing, as well as some common humor writing techniques.

2.3.2. What Is Humor Writing?

Humor writing is a piece of fiction or nonfiction written with the express

purpose of being funny. How it strikes a humorous chord and the resulting

49
laughs (or groans) it produces depends on the piece. For example, a piece may
be satirical without necessarily being laugh-out-loud funny.

2.3.3. Three Types of Humor Writing

Stand-up comedy and comedic tv shows are two forms of humor writing; humor
can also be used in both fiction and nonfiction writing.

• Humor novels. Humor novels are their own genre. These can be both
fiction and nonfiction. In fiction, satirical novels fall in this category.
Satire fiction uses humor, irony, and exaggeration to critique or expose a
corrupt aspect of society. Two of literature’s most popular satire novels
are George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945) and Joseph Heller’s Catch-
22 (1961).
• Short form. Short humor pieces usually take the form of a short story or
piece of humor fiction. A short humor piece is usually a piece of writing
under 1,000 words whose main purpose is to amuse. These are the kind
typically published by literary journals.
• Humor essay. Humor essays are usually a personal essay whose primary
aim is to amuse rather than inform or persuade. Sometimes, writers mix
fiction with nonfiction in humor essays for comedic effect.

2.3.4. Four Golden Rules for Writing Humor

E. B. White, American writer, editor, and longtime contributor to The New

Yorker, once said this of comedy writing: “Analyzing humor is like dissecting
a frog. Few people are interested and the frog dies of it.”

However, there are certain rules you can use to try your hand at a good joke,
humor essay, or short humor piece.

50
 1. Identify your style of humor

Everyone has a different sense of humor. We all find different things funny for
different reasons. This is why it’s important that before you sit down and try to
write funny things, you think about your own personal sense of humor and how
you want to mine that to produce a piece of humor writing.

Trying to mimic other people’s styles in creative writing won’t work. If you try
and write in a style that is not your own, or if you try and force yourself to be
funny in a way that you are not, the effort behind your writing will show.

There are many kinds of humor. Look at this list of some popular types of humor
and try and analyze where your individual strengths are and what you feel most
comfortable with.

• Observational/situational humor. This involves finding humor in

mundane, everyday situations.
• Anecdotal humor. This involves mining personal stories for humor.
• Dark (or gallows) humor. Finding humor in darker, more unpleasant
circumstances or aspects of life, like death, suffering, and unhappiness.
• Self-deprecating humor. This involves you, the writer, making fun of
yourself for comedic effect. Having a sense of humor about yourself
endears you to others.
• Satirical humor. Looking to the various faults of individuals,
organizations, or society and mining them for comedic purposes.

2. Use the rule of three

The rule of three is a common rule in humor writing and one of the most
common comedy writing secrets. It involves establishing a set pattern with two

51
ideas and then subverting that pattern with a third, incompatible idea. For
example:

“Can I get you anything? Coffee? Doughnut? A better attitude?”

3. Mine humorous anecdotes from your real life

This is especially pertinent for humor essays. If you think about it, most of the
funny things in your own life are things that our friends and family also find
funny. These are the stories we tell over and over. These are the stories we use
to bond or connect with others.

Sometimes, we mine these stories for a more humorous effect. This is exactly
what a humor essay does. Before you start writing, make sure you identify why
a particular story or anecdote is funny. Is it funny to you because of your unique
circumstances or understanding of a wider context? If so, it’s unlikely to be
funny to your readers without that prior context.

4. Leverage cliches

While clichés are something most writers try to avoid, it’s important to
recognize them. Humor relies in part on twisting a cliché—transforming or
undermining it. You do this by setting up an expectation based on the cliché and
then providing a surprise outcome. For example: “What doesn’t kill you makes
you stranger.” In humor writing, this process is called reforming.

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SESSION ELEVEN: CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

11.1. Creative Writing.

11.2. Diction.
11.3. Imagination.
11.4. Plot.
11.5. Character.
11.6. Setting.
11.7. Theme.
11.8. Style.
11.9. Point of View.
11.10. Conflict.
11.11. Obstacle.
11.12 Climax

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SESSION TWELVE: GENERAL REVISION

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