African Journal of Applied Linguistic

(AJAL N°10)

Special issue in honour of

Professor Étienne SADEMBOUO

Numéro spécial en hommage au Professeur

Étienne SADEMBOUO
DESCRIPTION, DEVELOPMENT AND
SUSTAINABLE TEACHING AND
LEARNING OF CAMEROONIAN
LANGUAGES

DESCRIPTION, DÉVELOPPEMENT,
APPRENTISSAGE ET
ENSEIGNEMENT DURABLE DES
LANGUES CAMEROUNAISES
Editorial Manager
Etienne Sadembouo, University of Yaounde 1, Cameroun
Editor in Chief
Gabriel MBA, University of Yaounde 1, Cameroon,
Assistant Editor / Editorial Secretary
Laurence NGOUMAMBA, University of Yaounde 1, Cameroun
Publisher: NACALCO Centre for Applied Linguistics
adresses :
Editorial Secretary
P.O. Box 2561 Yaounde, Cameroon
E.Mail: [email protected] / [email protected]
Teléphone et Whatsapp: (+237) 699610767 / (+237) 698434195
ISSN 1729-8695
African Journal of Applied Linguistics (AJAL)
Editorial board
Beban Sammy Chumbow, Science Academy, CNE, Cameroon
Frank Idiata, GRELAGO, CENEREST, Gabon
Maxime Da Cruz, National Centre for Applied Linguistics, Benin
Florence Tabe, University of Yaounde 1, Cameroon
Ayu’nwi Neba, University of Buea, Cameroon
Jeff Good, University of Buffalo, USA
Gratien Atindogbe, University of Buea, Cameroon
Pierpaolo Dicardo, University of Buffalo, USA
Innocent Fozing, ENS-University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
Jules Assoumou, University of Maroua, Cameroon
Julia Ndibnu – Messina Ethe, ENS-University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
Jean Romain Kouesso, University of Dschang, Cameroon
Blasius Agha-ah Chiatoh, University of Buea, Cameroon
Clédor Nseme, University of Yaounde 1, Cameroun
Prasidis Waïnkem Nain, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
Ndamsah Gratiana Linyor, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
James Tasah Ngoin, University of Maroua, Cameroon,
Maxime Manifi Abouh, ENS-University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
Gabriel Djomeni, University of Dschang, Cameroon
Adriel Josias Bébiné, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
Revue publiée par le Centre ANACLAC
de Linguistique Appliquée (CLA)
Juillet 2024
ISSN 1729-8695
 CONTENTS/CONTENU

CONTENTS/CONTENU ......................................................................................................... 9
PRÉLUDE ............................................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION GÉNÉRALE .......................................................................................... 14
Introduction générale....................................................................................................................
Gabriel MBA .......................................................................................................................... 15
I-ÉVALUATION ET ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES ............................................... 18
Évaluation des acquis d’apprentissage en langues nationales aux examens officiels en
contexte camerounais : Quel dispositif ? Pour quels apprentissages durables ? ..........................
Joseph Roger NDJONMBOG ............................................................................................... 19
Innovation pédagogique dans l’enseignement-apprentissage des langues camerounaises: le cas
du jeu pédagogique pour l’apprentissage du ɓatánga ..................................................................
Florus Landry DIBENGUE & Gratiana NDAMSAH LINYOR ...................................... 28
II- LES TICS DANS L’ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES ............................................ 40
Intégration des TIC à l’école : technique d’une expérimentation en zones rurales
camerounaises ..............................................................................................................................
Laurence NGOUMAMBA ..................................................................................................... 41
Transmission des savoirs en Langues et Cultures Nationales au secondaire : la place de la
digitalisation des enseignements ..................................................................................................
Constantine KOUANKEM & Béatrice DJIDJI DOUDOU................................................ 49
Vers un ludiciel intelligent pour l’enseignement-apprentissage formel des langues nationales
au Cameroun : enjeux et prémices d’un processus de modélisation ............................................
Maxime Yves Julien MANIFI ABOUH & Rodrigue CHEUMADJEU ............................ 59
III- SOCIOLINGUISTIQUE, ETHNOLINGUISTIQUE ET TERMINOLOGIE .......... 74
Fighting linguistic imperialism: Etienne Sadembouo’s contributions to decolonial linguistics
and decolonial language use in strategic domains in Africa ........................................................
Gabriel D. DJOMENI ............................................................................................................ 75
Évaluation actuelle du niveau de développement de la langue tunen [ALCAM 511] .................
Joseph MBONGUE ................................................................................................................ 90
Les proverbes shǘpǎməm : de la parémiographie à la parémiologie ...........................................
Ismaïla NJUTAPMVOUI .................................................................................................... 101
Contribution à la terminologie juridique en wolof .......................................................................
Oumar SENE ........................................................................................................................ 111
IV- ACQUISITION ET PATHOLOGIES DU LANGAGE ............................................. 124
The Acquisition of Fricatives and Affricates in Weh: A Case Study of Children Aged
Between Twelve and Thirty-Five Months ...................................................................................
9
James N. TASAH and Tem Emmanuel K. TSEDERH .................................................... 125
Les dyslexies-dysorthographies développementales chez des enfants âgés de 6 à 14 ans ..........
Marie Christiane NGUINI NGANDI ................................................................................. 140
Pour une prise en compte des croyances négro-africaines dans la survenue de certaines
pathologies : cas de l’autisme chez les Bətí-faŋ au Cameroun ....................................................
Honoré Blaise EDZOUGOU AFANDA & Mispa DE MOMHA II ................................ 150
V- DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................... 161
Les suffixes du causatif et de l’applicatif en nuasúɛ (A.62A)......................................................
Adriel Josias BÉBINÉ.......................................................................................................... 162
Le symbolisme des numéraux en masa ........................................................................................
OUSMANOU ........................................................................................................................ 184
L’influence du français et de l’anglais, langues officielles, sur la syntaxe de la conjugaison et
la formation des questions en bàsàa .............................................................................................
Madeleine NGO NDJEYIHA .............................................................................................. 202
Segmental post-lexical orthography in Ngwo ..............................................................................
Julius A. EYOH .................................................................................................................... 217
Analyse comparative de la négation dans quelques langues tchadiques : musey, massa et
marba ............................................................................................................................................
BRAHIM ADAM.................................................................................................................. 233
Maɗa (Mada) Verb Extensions and effects of the Prosodic Approach ........................................
Théodore BEBEY ................................................................................................................. 244

10
PRÉLUDE

11
 Hommage au Professeur Étienne Sadembouo

Aujourd’hui, nous célébrons un Maître bienveillant !

Ce numéro spécial est un mélange en l’honneur du Professeur Étienne Sadembouo,

une figure emblématique des sciences du language dans leurs dimensions théorique et
appliquée, reconnue au Cameroun et à l’international.
Au fil de ses 40 années d’enseignement et de recherche, il a marqué de son empreinte
notre communauté universitaire, tant par la richesse de ses travaux que par la qualité de ses
encadrements. Ce numéro spécial d’AJAL en son honneur est un hommage à son parcours
exceptionnel, à sa grande valeur humaine et à ses qualités de chercheur de haut vol. C’est
donc un mélange de contribution de ses anciens étudiants, collègues et ami(es) scientifiques
qui lui témoignent leur reconnaissance.
Le Professeur Etienne Sadembouo a démarré sa carrière professionnelle au
Département de Linguistique du Centre de Recherche et d’Études anthropologiques (CREA)
en 1975. Le CRÉA dissout, il a continué sa carrière à la Faculté des Arts, Lettres et Sciences
humaines (FALSH) de l’Université de Yaoundé 1. Outre l’enseignement, l’encadrement de
nombreux étudiants en Maîtrise, DEA, Master et Doctorat au Département de Langues
africaines et Linguistique, en collaboration avec ses collègues, il a veillé au bon déroulement
de bon nombre de projets de recherche et particulièrement du Programme de Recherche
opérationnelle pour l’Enseignement des Langues au Cameroun (PROPELCA), plus
précisément à l’exécution du volet secondaire de ce programme dans les écoles. Homme de
terrain chevronné, il a fait le tour du Cameroun lors des enquêtes linguistiques et
sociolinguistiques en vue de l’élaboration de l’Atlas linguistique et de l’inventaire des langues
dépourvues de système d’écriture. Il a assez contribué à l’identification des unité-langues
qu’il maîtrise avec précision la région et l’aire d’extension de plusieurs unités-langues parlées
au Cameroun. C’est à lui d’ailleurs que nous devons la définition de l’expression “unité-
langue” en linguistique.
Troisième Président de l’Association nationale des Comités de Langues
camerounaises (ANACLAC), il est en même temps le Directeur du Centre ANACLAC de
Linguistique appliquée, Centre qui abrite le secrétariat de Linguapax Afrika (Institut
international basé à Barcelone en Espagne), dont il assure la présidence pour l’Afrique
centrale depuis plus d’une décennie. Remarquable a été sa participation au succès de
nombreux projets de linguistique d’envergure continentale. Nous pouvons citer entre autres
les projets BASAL (Basic Standardisation of all unwriten African Languages), COBMOL
(Community-Based mother Tongue Litteracy), CONAL (communication en langues
nationales sur le cyber espace), ERELA (Écoles rurales électroniques en langues africaines),
DTL/DYL (Découvre ta langue/ discover your language).
C’est à cet illustre linguiste que nous devons les critères scientifiques d’identification
d’un dialecte de référence standard, les conseils pratiques pour la constitution des agences
locales de standardisation des langues, l’approche bi-vectorielle dans l’enseignement des
langues en contexte multilingue et de nombreux guides pour la standardisation,
l’alphabétisation et le développement des langues camerounaises.

12
INTRODUCTION GÉNÉRALE

14
 Introduction générale

Gabriel MBA
Université de Yaoundé 1

Pour introduire
Les quatre termes « description, développement, apprentissage et enseignement » sont
au cœur des dix-neuf communications que renferme ce dixième numéro de la revue AJAL.
Mis en boucle, ils symbolisent l’action linguistique complète dans sa réalisation. Il convient
de décrire une langue pour mieux comprendre son fonctionnement interne et lui donner une
forme écrite. Il convient également que ces éléments servent de base pour un
enseignement/apprentissage inclusif, qu’il soit oral ou écrit, et que l’instrumentation de la
langue serve son développement terminologique et la capacite davantage dans l’expression
des réalités nouvelles.
Ce numéro dix d’African Journal of Applied Linguistics se présente en cinq tableaux
intitulés : Évaluation et enseignement des langues (2 articles), Les TIC dans l’enseignement
des langues (3 articles), La sociolinguistique, l’ethnolinguistique et la terminologie (4
articles), Acquisition et pathologies du langage (4 articles), et enfin Description (6 articles).
Bien que les articles ne soient pas rangés dans une successivité qui dessine l’antériorité des
actions ou des activités entre elles, ils résument chacun un moment important de l’activité
générale de l’usage et de l’exploitation des langues.
Les contributions
Les langues camerounaises font aujourd’hui partie intégrante des programmes
scolaires et il est de bon ton qu’un dispositif certificatif communément adopté et partagé
accompagne l’évaluation des acquis d’apprentissage (Joseph Roger Ndjonmbog). Ces
apprentissages sont l’objet des innovations pédagogiques constantes en milieu scolaire (Florus
Landry Dibengue et Gratiana Ndamsah Linyor). L’intégration des TIC en contexte scolaire
constitue des expériences variées de la part des enseignants autant en milieu urbain qu’en
zone rurale et selon les niveaux d’enseignement (Laurence Ngoumamba). La transmission des
savoirs en langues et cultures camerounaises au secondaire à travers un processus de
digitalisation des enseignements s’avère efficace surtout en milieu multilingue où les
apprenants sont sollicités parfois par des langues qu’ils ne maitrisent pas ou que très peu
manipulent (Constantine Kouankem et Béatrice Djidji Doudou). C’est pourquoi dans cette
orientation, il est fortement recommandé la création des ludiciels intelligents pour
accompagner les apprenants. Un modèle en construction est ici présenté (Maxime Yves
Manifi Abouh et Rodrigue Cheumadjeu).
Les politiques linguistiques coloniales font l’objet d’une décolonisation autant par les
contributions scientifiques des différents chercheurs que par les applications qui intéressent le
contexte africain. Etienne Sadembouo dont le présent numéro honore, s’est érigé en maître
dans les études sociolinguistiques de détermination des unités-langues, les critères
d’évaluation des niveaux de développement écrit des langues, la didactique bi-vectorielle. Ces
critères d’évaluation du niveau de développement écrit sont ici appliqués au tunen, langue
parlée dans la région du centre au Cameroun. Mbongue se rend compte après analyse que le
tunen est en dessous du niveau minimal de développement.

15
 Si la richesse des langues africaines en général et des langues camerounaises en
particulier est reconnue, elle l’est le plus dans la sémiotique des proverbes, véritables sources
de la sagesse et du raffinement de l’expression orale. La langue shupamem, parlée à l’Ouest
Cameroun sert ici d’exemple comme le démontre si bien Njutapmvoui. La terminologie est un
aspect central dans l’équipement des langues. Toutes les langues ont un mécanisme interne de
création de mots que l’on active au moment où un terme relevant d’un domaine quelque peu
étranger à la largesse en mots d’une langue est signalé. L’expérience de la terminologie
juridique en wolof, langue du Sénégal en rapport avec la terminologie juridique en français est
largement mise à contribution. Les mots wolofs en la matière sont sémantiquement étendus ou
subissent des mécanismes d’adaptation ou de réexpression. Oumar Sene se rend compte de la
fluidification du langage juridique une fois les termes simples ou complexes rendus en wolof.
L’acquisition des langues s’avère être un phénomène complexe qui allie
développement langagier et l’âge des sujets parlants. Les fricatives et les affriquées sont
généralement maîtrisées par les enfants Weh de 12 à 35 mois et sont utilisés dans leurs
entretiens verbaux. James Tasah et Emmanuel Tem en ont fait l’expérience pratique. D’autre
part, les dyslexies-dysorthographies ont un lien étroit. Marie Christine Nguini Ngandi indique
qu’en situation d’enseignement/apprentissage, surtout pour les sujets de 6 à 14 ans, la lecture
syllabique reste une stratégie majeure de remédiation. De même, Honoré Blaise Edzougou
Afanda et Mispa de Momha II estiment que les théories explicatives de l’autisme sont
insuffisantes pour la survenue de cette maladie en contexte Beti-fang au Cameroun. Il est
question de prendre en compte les croyances endogènes dans le processus explicatif de cette
maladie. La médecine occidentale assise sur la culture occidentale devra, en contexte africain,
s’armer des éléments propres de la pathogenèse de la maladie à l’Afrique. Les réalités
culturelles africaines possèdent une puissante explication des liens entre sciences sociales et
sciences psychologiques et s’invitent dans la compréhension de certaines pathologies. Le
dispositif descriptif des langues est d’une exigence particulière pour la découverte de leur
richesse comme de leur implication dans le développement des canaux de distribution, de
sécurisation et de sécularisation. A ce sujet, Adriel Josias Bébiné démontre que les suffixes
causatifs et applicatifs en nuasúɛ fonctionnent, d’un point de vue morphologique, comme des
extensions verbales et des verbalisateurs. D’un point de vue syntaxicosémantique, le suffixe
applicatif est polyfonctionnel et les deux formes du causatif, -i et -isi, dont l'emploi varie
selon le nombre verbal, apparaissent avec les thèmes verbaux dénotant des procès singuliers
ou pluriel respectivement. Par ailleurs, les systèmes numéraux des langues livrent des
capacités cognitives qui codifient bien d’expériences humaines. Les numéraux déterminent
très souvent la vision du monde des locuteurs des langues particulières et assoient une grande
partie des connaissances et habiletés ethnolinguistiques, anthropologiques et mathématiques,
C’est le cas du masa, langue tchadique, décrite par Ousmanou. De même, la sécularisation du
français et de l’anglais dans les pratiques quotidiennes de la langue basaa s’est fortement
installée. Au-delà juste des emprunts en situation de communication, observe Madeleine Ngo
Ndjeyiha, la syntaxe de la question et la conjugaison en basaa se sont « hybridisées ». Pour
produire un système d’écriture et développer des orthographes en les langues, une saine
analyse de l’oral est recommandée pour la construction des règles d’orthographe et de lecture.
Les processus postlexicaux avec focus sur la frontière des mots sont un des aspects les plus
difficiles à gérer. C’est le cas, indique Eyoh, en ngwo avec l’insertion des voyelles, des
effacements de voyelles et des mots composés. Brahim Adam révèle, suite à une étude
comparative de la négation en musey, masa et marba, que les marqueurs sont généralement en
fin de phrase même si parfois on peut les trouver devant le verbe et pas en fin d’énoncé.
16
Quant à l’extension verbale en mada étudiée par Théodore Bebey, elle ne se limite pas
seulement aux convenances sémantiques qui font la richesse de la langue mais aussi, elle
s’incline devant les règles phonologiques liées à la prosodie, la labialisation et la
palatalisation attestées dans la plupart des langues tchadiques.

Les rapports entre contributions et hommage

Les différentes contributions se rangent pour la plupart dans les « batailles »
scientifiques engagées par le professeur Etienne Sadembouo. Les préalables descriptifs et
sociolinguistiques qui alimentent la standardisation des langues et leur instrumentation pour
l’enseignement/apprentissage continuent et renforcent la vision heuristique qu’il s’est bâtie
tout au long de sa carrière pour le développement des langues africaines et spécifiquement
celui des langues camerounaises. Les langues camerounaises sont des véhicules et des
témoins de l’identité des peuples qui doivent être articulées pour le développement durable.
Cette durabilité doit se lire dans les secteurs de la vie et des connaissances humaines.
L’humanité n’est pas muette et toutes les transactions sont rendues en mots. Les mots
appartiennent à des langues spécifiques qui structurent les espaces de vie et peuvent engendrer
des conflits par rapport aux statuts octroyés aux unes et aux autres et parfois dans des
contextes où elles n’ont pas ou ne devraient pas avoir droit de cité.
En conclusion…
Les diverses réflexions scientifiques livrées dans ce volume démontrent si besoin était,
que la linguistique africaine s’est résolument orientée vers une linguistique de développement.
Il y a tout naturellement une bonne semence des ouvriers des langues qui entretiennent cette
vision. Aussi, y a-t-il une invite sérieuse à parcourir les différentes interventions pour
apprécier à sa juste valeur l’humus scientifique qui s’y dégage.

17
V- DESCRIPTION

161
 Maɗa (Mada) Verb Extensions and effects of the Prosodic Approach
Théodore BEBEY
The University of Maroua, Cameroon
[email protected]

Abstract
The present article departs from various works on effects of prosodies on Chadic
languages and word extensions to describe the structure of verbs in Maɗa. It determines
the significance of the vocalic harmony in sound’s melody and analyses how the vocalic
system interfers in the formation and the interpretation of lexical and syntactic units in
this central Chadic language. This paper also aims to identify possible morphemes that
constitute verb extensions. Analyses of data reveal that Maɗa language exhibits a
somehow productive verb extension made up of a number of affixes which convey
semantic and grammatical interpretations. Once put together, the resulting verb form is
subjected to phonological rules that apply in the language. Amongst those rules, there are
prosodies, notably, labialization (LAB) and palatalization (PAL) attested almost in all
central Chadic languages.

Key words: Maɗa, verb extensions, prosodies, palatalization, labialization.

Introduction
Literatures on the effect of prosodies in Cameroonian languages indicate that they constitute
significant rules that permit the formation and the inflections of almost all the lexical
categories: verbs, nouns, pronouns, determiners, adverbs, etc. According to Newman (1977),
it is the prosody of Palatalization that creates nouns and verbs in a variety of inflected forms
in Ga’anda. For Mohrland (1963), Wolff (1983a), Barreteau (1988), Bow (1997), Smith
(1999), James Roberts (2001), Ndokobai (2003), Gravina (2014), etc., prosodies obtain ranges
of vowels and some consonants in Chadic languages. They can apply beyond phonemes to
account for the morphology of morphemes, phrases and even sentences in many Chadic
languages such as Muyang, Gemzek, Moloko, Mandara, Mafa, Mofu-Gudur, Cuvuk, etc. In
this research work, I consider prosodies both as phonological and morphological processes.
Its objectives are to identify the nature, the forms and functions of verb extensions in Mada. It
demonstrates how this Chadic language exhibits larger verb extensions and their co-
occurrence within the same syntactic structures. This article also intends to look at the verb
extensions order and the way prosodies of PAL and LAB affect the Mada verb morphology. It
comprises three main sections. The first one deals with the typology and number of marking
affixes that attach to the verb stem. The second section shows how the verb morphology
accounts for semantic and syntactic interpretation of the different enclitics. Section three
describes the distribution of these extensions; it consists of the positions of the different
affixes and their possible incompatibility. The paper also demonstrates that prosodic approach
obtains vowel harmony which characterizes the Maɗa verb morphology.
1. Typology and number of extensions
Various affixes are attested in Maɗa, but only some of them can attach to the verb
stem at the same time.
1.1. Typology of verb extensions
Many types of affixes cliticize to the verb stem in Maɗa. Those enclitics can be case
markers, TAM’s markers, reciprocal markers (RCM), reflexive markers (RFM), locatives
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 MADA VERB EXTENSIONS AND EFFECTS OF THE PROSODIC APPROACH

(Loc), statives (Sat.), instrumental (Instr.), positional (Pos.), etc. Examples in the paradigm
that follows provide illustration in favor of this assumption:
1) Graba à-wide-à Mary
Graba SM.3sg-speak-TNS.P2 Mary
Graba è-widà Mary
Graba spoke to Mary.
2) Graba à-wide-ka-l-à ke va genga-à
Graba SM.3sg-speak-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2 on body POSS.PRN.3rd-Asp.Perf
Graba è-widakalà ke va gengà
Graba spoke about himself.
The above examples indicate that a variety of affixes can attach in the left and right
peripheries of the verb stem. In the left position, there is the subject marker (SM), also called
agreement marker (AgrM), whereas the right position host as many clitics as possible.
1.1.1. The subject marker and infixes
Infixes are seldom in Chadic languages. The case of kaba in Maɗa is even exceptional,
whereas subject markers are compulsory in all finite constructions. Let us consider the
following examples:
3) Madva á-ngúv-va
Madva SM.3sg-like-RCM.
Madva ó-nguvevá
Madva likes himself.
4) Magla á-yah-kaba-ngár
Magla SM.3sg-worry-Com.-worry
Magla á-yah-kaba-ngár
Magla worries herself.
The verb in (4), for instance, is yahngar “to worry”. The infix “kaba” which occurs
with some verbs marks reflexivity. It can appear in the verb final position as can be seen in
the paradigm that follows:
5) Magla á-rawá
Magla SM.3sg-walk
Magla walks.
6) Magla á-rawá-kaba
Magla SM.3sg-walk-Com.
Magla á-rawkabá
Magla walks herself.
It is common for Maɗa speakers to resort to the affix –kaba- for expressing a sort of
reciprocal comitative, i.e a given action is done by someone with himself. This analysis is
indicative that the Maɗa affix -KABA or -KABA- is a comitative anaphor; the referent Magla
in sentences (4) and (6) has performed the action himself. This means that the Verb-kaba or
Verb-Kaba-Verb strategy conveys reciprocal readings in Maɗa as it is the case in other
Chadic languages such as Muyang (Bebey in progress) and Goemai (Hellwig, 2011). The
morpheme kaba cannot stand alone within a sentence. Its form and meaning depends on the
verb stem: it constitutes an extension of the verb all like the subject marker.
As far the subject marker is concerned, its occurrence is obligatory. It is marked by a
vowel that is placed between the subject and the verb. I demonstrated in my previous works
245
 DESCRIPTION

(Bebey 2010, 2015, 2021 and 2022) that, given the fact that it bears the inflections features in
Muyang and many other Chadic languages where it appears as a clitic, the subject marker
indicates agreement that exists between the NP subject and the verb.
According to Schuh (2017): “The typical Chadic method of showing verbal subject
agreement is clitic pronoun.” In other words, the subject marker is not an independent
variable in Chadic languages. As shown in the illustration above (1-6), the subject marker
always cliticizes to the verb left hand position in Maɗa. Its multiple interpretations (pronoun,
agreement marker, etc) allows us venturing in the sense of Schuh (2017) the analysis that the
subject marker belongs to the category of affixes whose forms and functions are highly
related to the verb conjugations in Chadic languages. In Maɗa in particular, it can be
interpreted as pronoun, it bears the verb agreement features of number, person, tense, aspect,
etc.
1.1.2. Case markers
Many verbs are casemarked in Maɗa. Some verbs such as “wash” are naturally
casemarked, they don’t take a case marker but have case interpretation. The sentences below
give more illustrations:

7) Wagaway à-bala-afeng-à
Wagaway SM.3sg-wash-Benef-TNS.P2
Wagaway à-balafengà
Wawagay washed (dirty from something).
8) Asta à-widè-lo-ka-l-à aka mendjé genga a Mary-à
Asta SM.3sg-talk-APP-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2 on behaviour POSS.Adj to Mary-Asp
Asta è-widelkalà aka mendjé genga a Maryà
Asta talked to Mary about himself.

Even if verbs in sentences (7) and (8) seem to be naturally casemarked, they attach
some morphemes which have grammatical functions. Except the obligatory subject marker,
one realises that the verb in (7) selections the benefactive marker whereas the one in sentence
(8) selections up to two morphemes: the applicative and the locative markers.

9) Nà-vla-tala-à zlam-mazuma
SM.1sg-give-Dat-TNS.P2 thing-eat
Nà-vlatalà zlam-mozuma
I gave them something to eat.
10) Assan à-ngan-al-ka-l-à
Assan SM.3sg-reply-APP-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2
Assan à-nganalkalà
Assan replied him about it.
In (9) and (10), one notices that verb arguments such as datives, locatives,
benefactives and applicatives are materialised by morphemes that affix to the verb stem.
11) Ma-zum-a
Inf-eat-FV
Zlomozuma
To eat.

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12) Mary à-ding-(a)fa-tala-à afa beza gula mendjé gatala

Mary SM.3sg-ask-Ass-Dat-TNS.P2 with children male behaviour POSS.Adj
Mary è-dingfatalà afa beza gula mendjé gatala
Mary asked the boys about themselves.
13) Bezagam tá-ká-rawá-kaba
Children SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-walk-Com
Children are walking.
14) Keleher á-ká-zleba-va-rá ara kima genga
Keleher SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-RCM-Dir. with shoes Poss
Keleher á-kázlebavará ara kima genga
Keleher is celebrating her shoes.
In examples that precede show that a variety of extensions can be used in Maɗa. Those
include applicatives, datives, subjectives, locatives, benefactives, comitatives, reciprocals,
directionals and associatives. These constituents generally replace prepositional phrases that
indicate genitive, location, indirect objects, etc. Their affixation, added to the subject marker,
extend the verb morphology.
1.2. Number of extensions
Meeusen (1967) and Schadeberg (2003) postulate that there are about three sets of verb
extensions: productive extensions that comprise causatives-(neuter/statives)-
reciprocal/passive, unproductive extensions made up of impositive-positional, and frozen
extensions constituted of applicative-causative-contactive-passive-reciprocal-reversive-
stative-positional or causative-locative-recipient-benefactive-instrument. Given that the
traditional passive constructions are almost inexistent in Maɗa, the first and second sets seem
to be difficult. The abundance of elements of the third set, the frozen extensions, suggests that
it is the most appropriate and the most recurrent in the language as we can observe in the
sentences that follow:

15) Gigla à-wide-lo-ka-l-à

Gigla SM.3sg-talk-APP-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2
Gigla è-widelkalà
Gigla talked about it.
16) John à-heshing-feng-à afa Mary aɗaba ga kwatar ana tà-ɓaɗa-ka-l-à John
SM.3sg-sin-Benef-TNS.P2 with Mary because of speech that SM.3pl-narrate-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2
John è-heshingfengà afa Mary aɗaba ga kwatar ana tà-ɓaɗakalà
John offended Mary because of an article about himself.
17) A-doni-l-feng-à tam, ama nà-ngayam-ka-l-à
SM.3sg-please-Dat-Benef-TNS.P1 Neg, but SM.1pl-laugh-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2
O-donilfungà tam, ama nà-ngayamkalà
We laughed in spite of ourselves.
Contrary to languages such as Muyang which exhibits a large verb extension, Mada
verb morphology can select up to 5 extensions. As one can see above, 4 to 6 morphemes can
cliticize to the verb root in order to constitute the Maɗa verb morphology. This number
depends on the verb valence.

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2. Semantic and syntactic interpretations of verb extensions

Verb extensions lie for the majority of case on grammaticalization and conjugation.
Depending on their nature and order, they can change the verb or the discourse meaning.
These reasons permit to argue that verb extensions play both grammatical and semantic roles.

2.1. The semantic role

Let us consider data which follow:

18) Ali à-plo-lo-rò wakita

Ali SM.3sg-send-APP-Dir. book
Ali ò-plolorù wakita
Ali sent him a book.
19) Ali à-plo-i-l-à wakita
Ali SM.3sg-send-Pos-Dat-TNS.P2 book
Ali è-plilà wakita
Ali sent him a book.
20) Ali à-keshe-ke-l-à naɗ-à
Ali SM.3sg-catch-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2 PRN-Asp
Ali è-keshekelà naɗà
Ali surprised him.
In (18) and (19), it is the semantic interpretation of the sentence which accounts for the
morphology of the verb. In fact, all depends on the position of the speaker. The first form is
used when the book is sent from the direction of the speaker. This role is assigned to the
directional –ro which occurs at the end of the verbal form. And, one resorts to the second
form in (19) when the book is sent in the direction of the latter which is indicated by the inner
positional –i- and the dative –l- which precises the person to whom the book is sent.
In fact, the pronominal dative (DAT) that cliticizes to the verb does not refer to the A
argument, i.e. to the person who performs the action but to the O argument. Thus, there are
morphemes which indicate place, time, directions, instrument, reciprocity, aspect, etc.

2.2. The grammatical role

In the grammatical level, the different verb extensions are not only conjugational forms; they
constitute distinct and complete verb arguments. When the verb is transitive or ditransitive, it
can select many extensions which convey a variety of syntactic interpretations. Sentences
below provide illustrations of these assumptions:

21) Andra à-hemba-(a)ka-l-à Kelif-à a yanganga

Andra SM.3sg-show-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2 Kelif-Asp to RF.PRN
Andra à-hembakalà Kelifà a yanganga
Andra showed Kelif to himself.
22) Mary à-hembèk-tala-à beza-gula amtalanga
Mary SM.3sg-show-Dat-TNS.P2 children male RF.PRN
Mary è-hembektalà beza gula amtalanga
Mary showed the boys to each other.

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An observation of the above paradigm shows that because of the verb extension
strategy, Maɗa can admit up to three or more complements (direct object, indirect object and
various circumstantial complements) of the verb within the same sentence. Thus, when there
is co-occurrence, co-reference is achieved across the tensed clauses as we can observe in (23)
that follows:
23) Doh à-dìng-afeng-enele-à ana tà-hu-ukw-à kà-wide-l-ka-lo-à lele
Doh SM.3sg-ask-Bene-Dat-TNS.P2 that SM.3pl-tell-Dat-TNS.P2 SM.2sg-tell-Dat-Loc-APP-TNS.P2 good
Doh è-dingfenelè ana tò-hukwà kè-widelkalà lele
Doh asked us to tell you to talk nicely about him.
The subjective –à, the locative case –ka- that means “on him” in (23) all like the
applicative –lo- that conveys a direct object interpretation refer to the subjects of the main
verbs respectively. The other constituents such as the benefactive and the dative are used to
replace other discourse constituents.
The tense morpheme –à covers more than this function: it also indicates mood
(indicative) and aspect (perfective). This argument is valid to the case of the subject marker
which marks the subjective case but also the agreement in number and person between the
subject and the verb.
3. Distribution and verb extensions order
This section surveys the order of affixes, i.e the grammatical functors that attach to the
verb in Maɗa. In other Chadic languages such as Muyang and Bura, verbal extensions are
stacked as analyzed by Roger Blench (2010). For him: “Central Chadic has verbal extensions
which can be affixed to verbs in ordered series.”
In fact, there is a fixed range of verb extensions in Maɗa. This range can change when
the sentence undergoes transformations such as focusing, topicalization, interrogation, etc.
Let us look at illustrations that follow:
24) Lohdo á-ká-díng-afeng-enele zum
Lohdo SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-ask-Bene-Dat wine
Lohdo é-kédíngfengenelé zum
Lohdo is asking us some wine.
25) Mblar à-kesa-kaba-à ana Mary à ngov-à naɗ-à
Mblar SM.3sg-accept-Ass-TNS.P2 that Mary SM.3sg like-TNS.P1 him-Asp
Mblar à-kesakabà ana Mary ò ngovà naɗà
Mblar admitted that Mary loved him.
26) Ndele à-ɓakala-va-ra-à a gam-à afana à-cefe-ng-à
Ndele SM.3sg-return-RCM-Dir-TNS.P2 to home-Asp when SM.3sg-be tired-Dat-TNS.P2
Ndele à-ɓakalavarà a gamà afana è-cefengà
Ndele returned home when he became tired.
27) Mariam à-wide-l-ka-lo-à
Mariam SM.3sg-talk-Dat-Loc-APP-TNS.P2
Mariam è-widelkalà
Mariam talked him about it.
28) Mariam á-ká-widé-l-ka-l
Mariam SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-talk-Dat-Loc-APP
Mariam é-kéwidelkál
Mariam is talking him about it.

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 DESCRIPTION

Sentences above show that even though extensions to the verb root are limited to 5 or
6 morphemes including TAMS in Mada, they seem to appear in an ordered series ranged as
follows: Subjective-Aspectual-VERB-Benefactive-Dative-Reciprocal-Locative-Applicative-
Directional-Tense.
29) *Ndele à-ɓakala- ra-va-à a gam-à afana à-cefe-ng-à
Ndele SM.3sg-return-Dir-RCM -TNS.P2 to home-Asp when SM.3sg-be tired-Dat-TNS.P2
Ndele à-ɓakalavarà a gamà afana è-cefengà
Ndele returned home when he became tired.
30) *Mariam à-wide-lo-ka-l-à
Mariam SM.3sg-talk-APP-Loc-Dat-TNS.P2
Mariam è-widelokalà
Mariam talked him about it.
Sentences (29) and (30) are unacceptable for two reasons. The first reason is semantic;
the reverse order of affixes makes the different constructions unacceptable. This observation
means that it prevents semantic interpretation of the sentence. The second reason is
grammatical; the variation of word order above can prevent local coreference between the
subject and the non-subject arguments.
Analyses are indicative that there is a one-to-one selection rule that obtains the Maɗa
verb extensions’ elements. Otherwise, extensions’ distribution should respect the language
word order in Maɗa-type languages.
4. The prosodic approach to the Maɗa verb extensions
A prosody approach is operational when sounds produce melody by copying the
phonological features of other sounds. It can concern sounds within the lexical unit, or apply
to sounds across the lexical unit such as prefixes and suffixes which generally constitute the
word extensions. Analyzing the influence of prosodies to verb extensions in Heɗe, a Chadic
language, James Roberts (2007) notices: “…if the root verb has a prosody, the prosody
remains, and extends to affect the suffix as well as any epenthetic vowels, so that the whole
word is covered by that prosody.” This is an indication that the prosodic approach accounts
for the majority of sound melody and the formation of many lexical items. It can originate
from the left and affect sound rightwards or vice versa. The most important sound melody in
African languages in general, and Chadic languages in particular is Vowel Harmony.
4.1. Vowel Harmony as effect of the prosodic approach
Vowel Harmony (VH) is a phonological process attested in a number of African
languages of different phyla and families. It is operational in Bantu languages of Niger-Congo
phylum as revealed by Morgan David (1991), Nilo-Saharian languages as described by
Roderic F. Casali (2008) and Chadic languages of the Afro-Asiatic phylum such as Mafa
(Barreteau (1997), Moloko (Bow 1997), Cuvuk (Ndokobai 2003), Kera, Muyang and Mbuko
(Gravina and Smith 2010), etc. Although the phenomenon seems to concern all Chadic
languages (Schuh Russel, 2017), the type of the assimilated phonological features and the
direction of Vowel Harmony are among the specific Characteristics of each language.
This subsection shows the significance of the vocalic harmony in sounds’ melody of
Maɗa. It demonstrates that the vocalic system interferes in the formation and the
interpretation of lexical units in general and verb extensions in particular. The two major

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prosodies: Palatalization and Labialization affect the majority of the verb morphology from
the right hand to the left.
4.1.1. Types of prosodies
According to James Roberts (2001): “The prosodic approach is compelling in many
Chadic languages….such is the case in Moloko, where LAB and PAL have a harmonizing
effect throughout the whole word.” These two prosodies are also attested in Maɗa. Let us
consider the following data from Kurdi (2017: 47)
31) Á-ká-pla-rá
SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-Throw-Dir
Á-káplará
He is throwing (from top to bottom).
32) Á-ká-pla-ré
SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-Throw-Dir
É-képleré
He is throwing (towards the speaker).
33) Á-ká-pla-ró
SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-Throw-Dir
ó-kóploró
He is throwing (away from the speaker).
As we can observe in the paradigm above, vowels of verbs require copying the
phonological features of the last one. The non-variation of the verb morphology in (29)
reveals that only +round and +high vowels affect the others. Thus, -high vowels of the verb
become +high when it ends with a high vowel; and –round vowels become +round when the
verb ends with a round vowel in Maɗa.
4.1.1.1. The prosody of Labialization (LAB)
As shown in illustrations in the preceding paradigms, the +Lab features are assimilated
by vowels within and across the verb.
34)

Underlying Form Phonetic Form Gloss

• Ma-nguv-a-va • Monguvava
Inf-love-FV-RCM To love each other
• Ma-zum-a • Mozuma
Inf-eat-FV To eat
• Ma-zlak-a-va • Mazlakava
Inf-help-FV-RCM To help each other
• Ma-raw-a • Marawa
Inf-walk-FV To walk
• Ma-pla-ro • Moploro
Inf-throw-Dir To throw away
One notices after a light at table (34) that there is +LAB agreement between vowels
when there a +LAB vowel in the right hand position. In fact, the –LAB vocalic sounds change
into +LAB in order to create a +LAB harmony from right to the left. Let us look the following
data for further analyses:

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 DESCRIPTION

35) Ali à-ka-plà-la-ru wakita

Ali SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-send-APP-Dir. book
Ali òko-plolorù wakita
Ali sent him a book.

36) Madva á-ngúv-va

Madva SM.3sg-like-RCM.
Madva ó-nguvevá
Madva likes himself.
The nucleus of +LAB feature is the suffix –ru that indicates directional. It spreads
from there up to the initial element which is the subject marker. In (35), the +LAB feature
originates in the verb root from which it is licensed to the suffix. This observation permits to
write that the prosody +LAB spreads within and across the verb root to affect its extensions.
4.1.1.2. The prosody of palatalization (+PAL)
For Gravina (2014: 89): “The palatalization prosody causes front vowel harmony”. All
like +LAB features described in the preceding subsection, the feature of palatalization also
spreads from an element to occur in others within or across the root verb in Maɗa. Examples
below provide illustrations to this assumption.

37) Lohdo á-ká-díng-afeng-enele zum

Lohdo SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-ask-Bene-Dat wine
Lohdo é-kédíngfengenelé zum
Lohdo is asking us some wine.
38) Mary à-hembèk-tala-à beza-gula amtalanga
Mary SM.3sg-show-Dat-TNS.P2 children male RF.PRN
Mary è-hembektalà beza gula amtalanga
Mary showed the boys to each other.
One remarks that there is a spreading of +PAL features that occurs backward both in
the verb roots and affixes. Such an observation of Maɗa data allows us to write following
Schuh Russell (2002) that there is a widespread process of morphological palatalization in
this central Chadic language that affects segments throughout an entire morpheme.
4.1.2. The nucleus of prosodies and direction of vowel harmonization
A light at table (34) reveals that there is a harmonizing effect of +LAB features that
operates within and across the verb. This remark is valid with the +PAL features in sentences
(31), (32) and (33). The question which arises from these observations concerns the nucleus
or origin of the prosodic features. Do they originate from the verb roots or from affixes,
notably suffixes constituted of a number of grammatical functors? Sections below provide
answers to this question.
4.1.2.1. The nucleus of prosodies
A general observation of data in Maɗa leads to the assumption that prosodies
originates from verb roots and suffixes, but not from prefixes.
4.1.2.1.1. The root verb prosodies
Analyzing data of Eastern Chadic, the ones of heɗe in particular, James Roberts
(2007) declares: “…if the root verb has a prosody, the prosody remains, and extends to affect

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the suffix as well as any epenthetic vowels, so that the whole word is covered by that
prosody…”. Let us look at the following Maɗa constructions:
39) Nà-gi-l-vu-à yam-à
SM.1sg-give-Dat-TNS water-Asp.Acc
Nè-gi-l-vu-à yam-à
I gave him some water
40) Mariam à-wide-l-ka-lo-à
Mariam SM.3sg-talk-Dat-Loc-APP-TNS.P2
Mariam è-widelkalà
Mariam talked him about it.
41) Mariam á -aka-shé ozum
Mariam SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-drink wine
Mariam é-ké-shé ozum
Mariam is drinking some wine.
q42) Bezagam tá-ngúv-va
Children SM.3sg-like-RCM.
Bezagam tó-nguvevá
The children love each other.

Prosodies that affect subject markers and other prefixes such as aspect markers
originate from the verb root. In sentence (41) for instance, the +PAL prosody originates from
the root verb shé (drink) and spread leftwards to the other vowels of the verb. It crosses over
the aspect indicator to affect the subject marker. In example (42), one notices that the +LAB
features nucleus is the root verb ngúv (love or like). Once again, we notice that this feature is
licensed leftwards across the verb stem to the prefix which is the subject marker.
4.1.2.1.2. The affixes’ prosodies
Dative, causative, reflexive, directional suffixes, etc. trigger a number of phonological
transformations in the verb morphology in Maɗa. Illustrations of these remarks are given in
the following data.

43) Keleher à-ka-plà-la-ru wakita

Keleher SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-send-APP-Dir. book
Keleher òko-plolorù wakita
Keleher sent him a book.
44) Ma-pla-ro
Inf-throw-Dir
Moploro
To throw away
45) Á-ká-pla-ré (Kurdi, 2017:47)
SM.3sg-Asp.Prog-Throw-Dir
É-képleré
He is throwing (towards the speaker).
One notices from the above sentences that both +LAB and +PAL features can
originate from the suffix, and spread leftwards from the original element to the last vocalic
sound of the word. In other word, when the prosody’s nucleus is a suffix like in examples
(43), (44) and (45), it affects the entire word in order to create a vowel melody.

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4.1.2.1.3. The prosodic effects direction.

Data in the preceding section have shown that when the prosodic effect starts within
the root verb, it applies only to the rest of the verb and the prefix. From these descriptions,
one can write that the prosody effects of palatalization (PAL) and labialization (LAB) in the
Maɗa verb morphology apply from the right hand to the left hand: it is a regressive vowel
harmony called Backward Vowel Harmony. When it starts in the suffix, it occurs backwards
throughout the verb. In fact, only prefixation is entirely affected by prosodies. In short,
prosodies that produce vowel harmony operate from the right hand to the left hand in the
suffix, the verb stem and the prefix.
The above observations permit to write following James Roberts (2007) that the verb
root prosodies remain, and affect the other vowels of the word. The prosodies (+LAB and
+PAL) obtain the morphological structure of the verb. When the suffix is +LAB, it leftwards
affects the whole verb. Directionals in (43) and (44) are for instance illustrative of this
assumption. The +LAB features of /o/ and /u/ are licensed first to the root verb vowels then to
suffixes in order to create the harmonized vocalic melody attested in the language.*
Conclusion
This article tackled two linguistic problems: the typology and morphosyntax of verb
extensions in Maɗa, and the effects of prosodies on these extensions and the whole verb. It
showed that this central Chadic language exhibits a productive verb extension. It has been
demonstrated that, except from tense, aspect and mood indicators that also occur in either side
of the verb as affixes, the most common verb extensions’ pattern in Maɗa which respects a
one-to-one selection is the one which follows: Subjective-VERB-Dative-Reciprocal-Locative-
Applicative-Directional. An examination of a significant number of illustrations have also
revealed that two prosodies, labialization and palatalization, which can originate from the
verb root vowels or suffixes are leftwards licensed to the vowels of the entire verb creating a
harmonized vocalic melody.

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