SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Module 4
Enzymes

• Introduction to Enzymology and Catalysis:

In the complex world of life, all living things share something truly special—a web of thousands of
chemical reactions, each happening at mild temperatures. What's even more amazing is how precise
and fast these reactions are, following a well-organized plan. At the heart of this incredible show, there
are organic compounds called enzymes.

Even though enzymes are chemically proteins, in the world of

living things, they are like master builders. They give direction
and control to the body's processes, as Beadle pointed out in
1948. Enzymes are incredibly important, and any change in
their presence or how they work inside a cell quickly affects
all the chemical reactions that keep life going.

This field of study is called enzymology. It's like a guide that helps us uncover the secrets of these
amazing biocatalysts. Enzymology dives into the details of enzymes, how they work, what they look
like, and how they fit into the big picture. As we explore the world of enzymology, we'll learn how
these molecular craftsmen shape the life we know.

Catalysis as a Crucial Element for Life:

Catalysis, an essential idea in chemistry, is just as important for life. At its core, catalysis means
speeding up or making chemical reactions easier with a helper called a catalyst. What makes catalysis
special is that the catalyst itself doesn't change during the reaction, so it can be used over and over
again. One of the most amazing examples of catalysis in biology is what enzymes do.

Enzymes are like tiny, specialized machines in the body that make vital jobs happen. They help with
everything from breaking down food to copying DNA. Enzymes are incredibly important in these
activities; they're like the engine that drives the body's chemistry and keeps life going.

• Exploring Enzymes:

Let's dive into the fascinating world of enzymes, a field known as enzymology. Enzymology covers a
wide range of scientific studies, from figuring out what enzymes look like and what they do to
understanding how they're controlled, measuring how fast they work, and finding practical uses for
them.

One of the key things we focus on in enzymology is the "active site" of enzymes. This is like the special
spot where enzymes and other molecules meet, and where all the chemical action happens. Scientists
in this field work hard to uncover the tiny details of these active sites to understand how enzymes do
their magical chemistry tricks with incredible precision.

Module 4- Enzymes 1
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Enzymes aren't just passive participants in the body's chemical reactions; they can also be controlled.
This means organisms can adjust when and where these reactions take place. This adds another layer
of complexity to enzymology.

In real life, enzymology is incredibly useful. Biotechnologists use enzymes for tasks like DNA
amplification in techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Medical researchers study
enzymes to create therapies and medicines. Enzymes are valuable in various industries too, like food
processing, where they make production smoother, and in brewing, where they help turn starches into
beer during fermentation.

But there are still challenges in enzymology. Figuring out the details of newly discovered enzymes,
understanding their complicated controls, and making the most of enzymes in different situations are
all ongoing areas of research. As scientists discover new things about enzymes and put them to work
in various ways, enzymology stays both an exciting frontier in science and an essential part of our daily
lives.

• Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes:

Enzymes, the remarkable catalysts of life, come in a staggering variety, each with its specific role in
biological processes. To make sense of this diversity, scientists have established a system of
nomenclature and classification for enzymes. Let's explore how enzymes are named and grouped
based on their functions and actions.

Naming Enzymes:

- Enzymes typically have names that reflect their function, often ending in "ase." For instance, "lipase"
acts on lipids, "amylase" works on starches, and "protease" breaks down proteins.

- The name usually includes the substrate they act upon. For example, "DNA polymerase" is involved
in DNA synthesis, and "RNA polymerase" synthesizes RNA.

Enzyme Commission (EC) Numbers:

- To provide a systematic classification, the Enzyme Commission (EC) assigns a unique number to each
known enzyme based on its catalyzed reaction.

Module 4- Enzymes 2
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

- The EC number consists of four parts, indicating the enzyme's class, subclass, sub-subclass, and serial
number.

- Class: Describes the type of reaction catalyzed.

- Subclass: Provides more specific details about the reaction.

- Sub-subclass: Further refines the classification.

- Serial number: Offers a unique identifier.

- For instance, EC [Link] represents an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a phosphoric ester
bond.

Classification Based on Reaction Type:

Enzymes are categorized into six main classes according to the type of reaction they catalyze:

1. Oxidoreductases (EC 1): These enzymes are involved in oxidation-reduction reactions, where
electrons are transferred between molecules. Examples include dehydrogenases (e.g., alcohol
dehydrogenase) that remove hydrogen atoms from substrates and transfer them to coenzymes like
NAD+

2. Transferases (EC 2): Transferases facilitate the transfer of functional groups (e.g., methyl, phosphate,
amino) from one molecule to another. Kinases, which transfer phosphate groups, are notable
examples.

3. Hydrolases (EC 3): Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions, breaking down molecules by adding
water. Lipases (break down lipids), proteases (digest proteins), and amylases (hydrolyze starches) are
common hydrolases.

4. Lyases (EC 4): Lyases promote the elimination or addition of groups to substrates, often resulting in
the formation of double bonds or the breaking of existing bonds. Examples include decarboxylases
(remove carboxyl groups) and dehydratases.

5. Isomerases (EC 5): Isomerases rearrange molecular structures by transferring functional groups
within a molecule. An example is glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, which converts glucose-6-
phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.

6. Ligases (EC 6): Ligases join two molecules, often using energy from ATP, to create a new, larger
molecule. DNA ligase, involved in DNA replication and repair, is a well-known ligase.

Module 4- Enzymes 3
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Cofactors and Coenzymes: Enzymes often require helper molecules known as cofactors or coenzymes.
These are non-protein components that assist in catalytic reactions. For example, the enzyme
"catalase" requires the heme group as a cofactor to break down hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen.

Enzyme nomenclature and classification provide a systematic way to name, categorize, and understand
the immense diversity of enzymes in living organisms. By revealing their functions and relationships,
this system aids scientists in deciphering the intricate biochemical processes that sustain life.

• General Mechanism of Enzyme Action:

Enzymes, nature's molecular maestros, are the catalysts behind the thousands of chemical reactions
that occur within living organisms. To comprehend their remarkable abilities, let's explore the
fundamental mechanism of how enzymes work and interact with their substrates—the molecules they
act upon.

Enzyme-Substrate Interaction:

- Enzymes create a unique connection with their substrates, the molecules they modify or transform,
through a process called enzyme-substrate interaction.

- Enzymes have specific sites, often compared to locks, where they can bind with specific substrates,
often likened to keys. This binding is highly precise.

Enzymes and Activation Energy:

To understand enzymes in relation to activation energy, let's think of chemical reactions as hurdles that
substances need to cross. The height of these hurdles represents the energy barrier, or activation
energy, that must be overcome for the reaction to occur. In this context, enzymes act as remarkable
helpers that make it easier for substances to surmount these hurdles. Here's how it works:

1. Activation Energy Barrier: In any chemical reaction, reactant molecules need to acquire a certain
amount of energy to kick-start the process. This initial energy requirement is called activation energy.
Think of it as the energy needed to push a boulder up a hill before it can roll down the other side.

Module 4- Enzymes 4
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

2. Enzymes as Catalysts: Enzymes are like catalysts, which means they speed up chemical reactions
without being consumed in the process. Picture them as skilled athletes who can effortlessly jump
over the energy hurdle, thanks to their unique abilities.

3. Enzyme-Substrate Interaction: Enzymes have specific binding sites where reactant molecules, called
substrates, attach themselves. This interaction is highly specific, like a puzzle piece fitting perfectly into
its place.

4. Lowering the Activation Energy: Here's the magic: When substrates bind to an enzyme's active site,
the enzyme changes the substrates' shape, making it easier for them to react. It's as if the enzyme
carves a shorter, less steep path over the energy hill. This reduces the activation energy required for
the reaction to proceed.

5. Reaction Acceleration: With the lower activation energy, the reaction can happen much faster and
more efficiently than it would without the enzyme. It's like the boulder is effortlessly rolling down the
hill once given that initial push.

6. Product Formation: Once the reaction is complete, the enzyme releases the product, which is the
result of the chemical transformation. Importantly, the enzyme remains unchanged and ready to assist
in another reaction.

#An Everyday Example:

Consider the digestion of food in your stomach. Enzymes like pepsin and lipase break down complex
food molecules into simpler ones that your body can absorb. Without these enzymes, the activation
energy required for these reactions would be too high, and digestion would be extremely slow or might
not occur at all.

In summary, enzymes act as molecular facilitators, lowering the activation energy barrier for chemical
reactions. They enable these reactions to happen efficiently and at the right pace, which is essential
for various biological processes, from digestion to DNA replication.

Lock and Key Model:

- Imagine enzymes and substrates as a lock and

key pair. This concept, called the "Lock and Key"
model, was first proposed by Fischer in 1894.

- In this model, enzymes and substrates have

complementary, pre-fitted shapes. The
enzyme's active site serves as a rigid template
that only accommodates the correctly shaped
substrate, much like a specific key fits a
particular lock.

- For example, the enzyme lactase has an active

site designed to fit the lactose molecule
perfectly, breaking it down into simpler sugars
for digestion. This specificity ensures that
enzymes act only on their designated substrates.

Module 4- Enzymes 5
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Induced Fit Model:

- The "Induced Fit" model, introduced by D. Koshland in 1966, offers a more flexible perspective on
enzyme-substrate interactions.

- In this model, the enzyme's active site is not rigid but adaptable. When a substrate binds, the active
site undergoes conformational changes to accommodate the substrate's unique shape.

- Picture it like a glove that can adjust its shape to fit different hands. Enzymes modify their structure
to fit the specific substrate they are working on.

- For instance, during DNA replication, DNA polymerase—an enzyme—adjusts its active site to match
the shape of the DNA strand, allowing for accurate replication.

Enzymatic Reaction Steps:

- Enzyme-substrate interaction progresses through several stages. The substrate and enzyme initially
bind at the active site, forming the enzyme-substrate complex (ES).

- Within this complex, the enzyme induces changes in the substrate's bonds, promoting the chemical
reaction. These changes favor the formation of the product.

- The enzyme does not directly participate in the reaction but instead accelerates it. Once the reaction
is complete, the product is released, and the enzyme returns to its original form, ready for another
cycle.

Importance of Specificity:

- The specificity of enzyme-substrate interaction arises primarily from hydrogen bonding and the shape
of the active site. These factors reject molecules that do not have a sufficiently complementary shape.

- For instance, amylase enzymes in our saliva break down starch into simpler sugars. Amylase is highly
specific to starch molecules, ensuring it does not act on other substances present in the mouth.

Understanding the general mechanism of enzyme action reveals their precision in catalyzing
biochemical reactions. Whether following the lock and key model or the induced fit model, enzymes
play a vital role in facilitating reactions necessary for life. Their adaptability ensures they can work on
various substrates, making them versatile molecular catalysts in the biological world.

Module 4- Enzymes 6
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

• Unveiling the Inner Workings of Enzyme Kinetics:

Enzyme kinetics, akin to studying the intricate dance steps of a ballet, delves deep into the realm of
chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes. It involves:

1. Rate Measurement: Enzyme kinetics entails measuring the speed of reactions catalyzed by enzymes
and exploring how various reaction conditions influence this speed. It's like dissecting the
choreography of a dance to understand its nuances.

2. Vmax - the Maximum Speed: Picture a car accelerating on a highway. Initially, it speeds up, but
eventually, it reaches its top speed. Similarly, enzymes have a maximum speed referred to as Vmax. It
signifies the highest rate at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction under specific conditions.

3. KM - the Affinity: Think of KM as an enzyme's affinity or attraction toward its substrate—the molecule
it's working on. A high KM value implies that the enzyme needs a substantial substrate concentration
to achieve half of its maximum speed (Vmax). Conversely, a low KM indicates that the enzyme is highly
selective, requiring only a minimal substrate amount to reach that point.

Significance in the Real World:

Enzyme kinetics goes beyond theoretical concepts. It's a practical tool that unravels the intricacies of
biochemical reactions. Specifically:

-Michaelis and Menten Equation: Developed by Michaelis and Menten in 1913, this equation is a
cornerstone of enzyme kinetics. It quantifies how the initial reaction rate (V0) depends on substrate
concentration ([S]), providing a mathematical framework for understanding enzyme behavior.

-KM - Michaelis' Constant: This value is numerically equal to the substrate concentration when the
reaction proceeds at half its maximum rate. It's expressed in moles per liter (M). A high Km indicates a
low substrate affinity, while a low Km signifies a high substrate affinity.

- Predicting Enzyme Behavior: The kinetic parameters, KM and Vmax, aren't just numbers; they hold
immense practical value. They help us comprehend how enzymes collaborate in metabolic pathways
and predict how enzymes will behave within living organisms. It's like having the choreography notes
to ensure a flawless ballet performance. Understanding enzyme kinetics is essential for advancing
fields like biotechnology and drug development.

Module 4- Enzymes 7
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

• Enzyme Inhibition:

Enzyme inhibition, a vital player in biology and industry, controls essential processes. It falls into two
categories: reversible and irreversible, each with unique subtypes. Imagine a bustling kitchen where
the head chef is an enzyme, and ingredients are substrates. A cheeky imposter chef (competitive
inhibitor) briefly takes over the stove, slowing down cooking. Alternatively, a quirky oven (non-
competitive inhibitor) disrupts the chef's work. In both cases, the final dish is affected, similar to
biological and industrial outcomes influenced by inhibition.

A. Reversible Inhibition:

1. Competitive Inhibition:

- How it Works: Competitive inhibitors are molecules that closely resemble the substrate and
compete for binding to the enzyme's active site. Imagine a library where you're competing for a book.
A rival borrower (competitive inhibitor) grabs the book before you can, delaying your reading.

- Example: Statins, which compete with cholesterol for an enzyme's attention, slowing down
cholesterol production.

2. Non-Competitive Inhibition:

- How it Works: Non-competitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme at a location other than the active
site, causing a conformational change that reduces the enzyme's activity. Think of a TV remote with a
sticky button. Pressing any button (substrate binding) becomes sluggish because of the sticky remote
(non-competitive inhibitor).

- Example: Heavy metals like lead sticking to enzymes, making them work slower.

Module 4- Enzymes 8
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

3. Uncompetitive Inhibition

- How it Works: Uncompetitive inhibitors only bind to the enzyme-substrate complex, preventing the
release of the product. Picture a ride where you can't get off until someone else joins. You're stuck in
the ride (enzyme-substrate complex) until another rider (uncompetitive inhibitor) shows up.

- Example: Methotrexate trapping an enzyme-substrate duo in a never-ending ride, stopping the fun.

B. Irreversible Inhibition:

4. Covalent Modification:

- Irreversible inhibition is a profound concept in enzymology, characterized by the formation of a

permanent and often covalent bond between an inhibitor molecule and the enzyme. Unlike reversible
inhibition, irreversible inhibition leads to a lasting loss of enzyme activity and is typically non-
competitive in nature. Here, we explore the mechanisms and implications of irreversible enzyme
inhibition.

- In irreversible inhibition, the inhibitor molecule forms a covalent bond with specific amino acid
residues within the enzyme's active site or at other critical locations. This covalent linkage results in
permanent enzyme inactivation. Several factors contribute to this process:

- Functional Groups: Irreversible inhibitors often possess reactive functional groups that readily form
covalent bonds with nucleophilic amino acid side chains. Common reactive groups include acyl groups,
alkylation agents, and diazonium ions.

- Active Site Interaction: Irreversible inhibitors may mimic the enzyme's substrate, allowing them to
access the active site. Once inside, they react with essential amino acid residues, such as cysteine,
serine, or histidine, forming strong covalent bonds.

- Stability of the Bond: The resulting covalent bond is typically stable and not easily reversible, ensuring
that the enzyme remains permanently inactivated.

- How it Works: Think of a toy with parts glued together. Once they're stuck, you can't take them apart.
Irreversible inhibitors "glue" enzymes, making them unusable.

- Example: Cyanide "gluing" an enzyme in our cells' energy factory, causing a shutdown.

Module 4- Enzymes 9
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Real-World Significance:

- Cellular Control: Inhibition fine-tunes cellular functions. Competitive inhibition stops excessive
product formation, like a library ensuring fair book access. Non-competitive inhibition acts as a safety
brake.

- Drug Development: Knowing enzyme inhibition helps create medications. Drugs like antibiotics or
cancer treatments inhibit essential enzymes in disease-causing cells.

- Industry: Enzyme inhibition plays a role in food production and biofuel manufacturing, optimizing
processes like a well-controlled kitchen.

• Industrial Applications of Enzymes:

Enzymes, nature's biocatalysts, have found diverse and invaluable applications in various industries.
Their ability to accelerate chemical reactions under mild conditions has revolutionized industrial
processes, offering sustainability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Let's explore some industrial
applications of enzymes with a focus on a detailed example.

Enzymatic Reaction and Industrial Application

One of the most widely utilized enzyme reactions in industry is the hydrolysis of starch into sugars
using enzymes called amylases. This enzymatic process has a multitude of applications, including:

1. Bioethanol Production:

- Enzymatic Reaction: In the presence of amylases, starch is hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars,
primarily glucose and maltose.

- Industrial Application: These sugars serve as the primary feedstock for the fermentation process,
where yeast converts them into ethanol. This bioethanol is a crucial component of biofuels, providing
a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Module 4- Enzymes 10
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

2. Food and Beverage: Enzymes like proteases are used in cheese production to accelerate milk protein
breakdown. Pectinases enhance fruit juice clarification, and amylases improve bread texture.

3. Textiles: Cellulases are employed to remove fuzz and pills from fabrics, while lipases aid in the
removal of oil and grease stains

4. Detergents: Enzymes like lipases and proteases are essential components of laundry detergents,
effectively breaking down stains and improving cleaning efficiency

5. Pharmaceuticals: Enzymes play a pivotal role in drug manufacturing, facilitating the synthesis of
various pharmaceutical compounds.

6. Paper and Pulp: Xylanases assist in the degradation of hemicellulose, reducing the need for harsh
chemicals in the papermaking process.

7. Agriculture: Enzymatic treatments can improve soil structure and nutrient availability, promoting
healthier plant growth.

8. Bioremediation: Enzymes like dehalogenases aid in the cleanup of environmental pollutants, such
as halogenated hydrocarbons.

Enzymes are the unsung heroes behind many industrial processes, driving efficiency, sustainability, and
innovation. From bioethanol production to food processing and beyond, their versatile applications
continue to shape various industries, contributing to a greener and more sustainable future.

Module 4- Enzymes 11
SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Assignment:

1. What is enzymology, and why is it important in understanding biological processes?

2. Explain the concept of catalysis and its significance in biological systems.
3. What is the active site of an enzyme, and how does it contribute to enzyme-substrate interaction?
4. Differentiate between the lock and key model and the induced fit model in enzyme-substrate
interactions.
5. How do enzymes lower the activation energy of chemical reactions, and why is this important?
6. Provide an example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction and explain its significance in a biological
context.
7. What are KM and Vmax in enzyme kinetics, and how do they help in understanding enzyme
behavior?
8. Describe the three types of reversible enzyme inhibition and provide examples for each.
9. What is irreversible enzyme inhibition, and how does it differ from reversible inhibition? Provide an
example.
10. Explain the industrial application of enzymes using the hydrolysis of starch as an example.

Module 4- Enzymes 12