Index

A 272, 278, 281, 282, 285, 288, 289,

Activity network, 114–117 314, 315, 323, 332, 335–339, 344,
Aggregate, 15, 26, 45, 58, 102, 104, 105, 345, 363, 377, 410, 411, 414, 416,
109, 169, 211–213, 216, 219, 230, 417, 420, 429, 439, 441–443,
297, 307, 311, 315, 316, 323, 324, 446–448, 450–456
331, 340, 347, 410, 443, 451, 452, By-product, 97, 311, 317, 323, 345, 449,
456 451, 454
Alkali activated, 295–298, 302
Artwork, 331, 334
Ash modified soil, 70 C
Aspect ratio, 359, 402–404 C&D waste, 303, 315
Atterberg limit, 63, 65, 76 Capacity reduction, 261, 270, 289, 291,
415, 420, 422
Carbon emission, 47, 431, 443, 444, 446,
B 449, 450
Basic compressive stress, 258, 268, 269, CEB masonry, 27, 41, 48, 101, 132, 161,
279, 281, 289 197, 200–202, 211, 214, 229,
Beam, 261, 273–275, 377, 379–382, 242–245, 247, 250, 252, 253, 258,
418–420 259, 261, 262, 271, 281, 289, 443
Bentonite, 64 CEB Veneer, 201
Black cotton soil, 26, 68, 70, 98, 99, 320 Cement
Blue methyl test, 62 masonry, 212, 214, 215, 226
Bond development, 212, 221, 223, 230, portland, 26, 47, 70, 71, 78, 79, 119,
231, 237, 240, 241, 302, 380 134, 144, 149, 151, 154, 155, 161,
Bond force-slip, 385 191, 212, 216, 240, 243, 256, 263,
Bond strength, 214, 223, 224, 226, 227, 295, 296, 319, 323, 358, 359, 429,
230, 231, 233, 236, 237, 240–243, 430, 444, 448
245–247, 380, 382–385 Cement stabilisation, 77, 78, 99, 134, 141,
Building product, 15, 46, 73, 182, 441, 452, 320, 430, 431, 438, 439
454 Cement stabilised
Buildings, 3–5, 8, 9, 11, 13–17, 19–21, CEB, 30, 31, 33, 35–42, 78, 136, 141,
24–32, 35, 37–39, 41–44, 46–48, 70, 145, 146, 148, 151, 153, 165, 166,
73, 74, 76, 97, 132, 153, 161, 162, 169–171, 176–182, 185, 188,
166, 173, 180, 182, 187, 191–193, 190–193, 195–199, 223, 231–237,
197, 202, 204, 226, 244, 252, 271, 240–244, 246, 248–250, 253, 254,
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 459
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
B. V. V. Reddy, Compressed Earth Block & Rammed Earth Structures,
Springer Transactions in Civil and Environmental Engineering,
[Link]
460 Index

261–263, 267, 271, 278, 279, 281, 320, 323, 325, 326, 347, 363, 373,
288, 291, 306, 307, 313–315, 350, 430–439, 444, 445
417, 446, 447 Compressed Earth Block (CEB), 15, 26, 30,
compressed earth block, 26, 28, 174, 45, 47, 65, 70, 74, 75, 83–86, 111,
177, 179, 186, 223, 231, 232, 314, 120, 121, 125, 129, 158, 323, 443
320, 350, 371 production, 76, 78, 105, 111–118, 120,
rammed earth, 26–32, 34, 163, 126, 127, 133, 134, 136, 148, 176,
334–336, 338, 339, 344, 348–350, 180, 191, 303
352, 353, 356–358, 362, 365, 369, Compressibility, 62, 64, 67–69, 73, 145
370, 380, 381, 387, 389, 390, 394, Compression ratio, 84
402, 410, 411, 413–415, 443, 445 Compressive strength
Cement Stabilised Rammed Earth (CSRE), dry, 133, 162, 306, 316, 317, 326, 374
26–28, 30, 342–344, 350, 352–365, wet, 133, 136, 139, 142, 146, 154, 155,
369–375, 377–380, 382–387, 390, 157, 158, 160–162, 237, 240, 244,
392–396, 398, 402–418, 420, 422, 245, 249, 254–256, 258, 261, 278,
423, 443, 445, 446 279, 281, 288, 289, 291, 292, 298,
Characteristic compressive strength, 252, 306, 313, 314, 316, 317, 319, 323,
258, 267, 270, 271, 290, 384, 401, 325, 326, 349, 404, 423
402, 404, 417 Construction joint, 401, 410, 414, 416
Construction material, 3, 47, 441, 446, 447,
Clay
449–452, 454–456
Illite, 61, 348
Correction factor, 253, 257, 401, 404
kaolinite, 61, 82, 136, 144, 146, 157, Crushing test, 100
158, 166, 169, 172, 192, 348, 359, Curing
433–435 moist, 118, 154–156, 158, 319, 320, 322
mineral, 15, 25, 44, 45, 47, 48, 58–64, steam, 118, 119, 154, 156–161, 320, 322
68, 70, 71, 78–80, 82, 88, 98, Cyclic wetting and drying, 70, 131, 182,
100–102, 106, 118, 132–134, 136, 186, 187, 191, 192, 197, 200, 300
141–144, 146, 151, 155, 157–160,
162, 165–169, 175, 182, 183, 186,
192, 195, 200, 221, 222, 233, 243, D
297, 298, 313, 317, 320, 347, 348, Deflection, 404, 406, 408, 409
350, 360, 361, 363, 371, 383, 410, Density
411, 429–435, 437–439, 452, 454 dry, 64, 76, 81, 82, 84–86, 89–92,
montmorillonite, 58, 61, 64, 144, 146, 125–127, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142,
157, 158, 160, 165, 168, 173 146, 148, 149, 151–154, 157, 165,
panel, 44, 45 169–174, 178–180, 191, 192, 195,
Cob wall, 12, 17, 20, 45 220, 232, 235, 237, 250, 259, 297,
Compaction 298, 306, 307, 314, 317, 321, 322,
characteristics, 76, 82, 83, 92, 133, 134, 325, 326, 342, 347, 349, 350,
350, 352, 356 352–355, 357, 358, 361–365, 369,
371–374, 381, 384, 391, 396, 398,
curve, 81–84, 87, 89–92
403, 404, 406, 412
dynamic, 76, 81, 83, 92, 148, 350
standard Proctor, 76, 85, 86, 92, 350
force, 84, 86, 87, 105, 127 Design, 30, 32, 43, 48, 125, 153, 180, 226,
process, 26, 65, 76, 81, 85, 87, 91, 148, 229, 258, 261, 267–271, 273–277,
343, 344, 350, 356, 357, 386 279, 281, 282, 284–286, 289–292,
static, 76, 83, 84, 86, 87, 89–92, 111, 331, 332, 344, 347, 369, 384, 401,
120, 146, 148 402, 409, 414, 415, 417, 419–423,
test, 83, 90, 92, 350, 356 452, 453
Compressed earth, 44, 98, 136–139, Diagonal tension, 245, 246, 387, 388,
141–145, 147–151, 153–158, 160, 396–398
162–168, 171, 172, 186, 222–224, Dimensional stability, 74, 131, 182, 193,
229, 297–302, 304, 305, 316, 317, 198, 302
Index 461

Drip test, 187, 190, 200 G

Drying shrinkage, 220, 222, 223, 410–414 Geopolymer, 47, 48, 295–307, 444–447
Durability, 15, 43, 46, 74, 101, 131, 132, Geopolymer stabilised CEB (GCEB), 47,
136, 137, 141, 151, 182, 187–191, 302–304, 306, 307
198–200, 302, 304, 306, 307, 316, Gold mine tailing, 312, 317–319
317, 335, 344, 348, 350, 410, 447 Grain size distribution, 65, 97, 101, 104,
133, 134, 304, 313–315, 324, 349
Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GBS),
E 323–325
Earth block, 15, 26, 35, 44, 45, 68, 70, 80, Green building, 47, 452, 453, 455, 456
87, 89, 114, 120, 125, 132, 154, 160, Grinding duration, 435–437
173, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 186,
188–193, 198, 200, 219, 226, 227,
230, 245, 247, 290, 297, 315, 317, H
320, 323, 342, 443 History, 3, 9, 13, 335, 336
Earthen house, 3 Human effort, 125–127
Earthen materials, 15–17, 44, 46
Earthen structures, 3, 11, 15, 17, 20, 26, 44,
46, 47
I
Earth mortar, 9, 44, 229
Indian standard classification, 67
Eccentricity, 252, 261, 267–270, 278, 279,
Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA), 131, 168,
281, 288–291, 377, 401, 406–410,
176, 177, 306, 314
414, 415, 417, 420, 422
Iron Ore Tailings (IOT), 312–315
EDS, 431, 435
Efflorescence, 297, 300–302
Embodied Energy (EE), 161, 441, 443, 445,
448, 453, 455 J
Emission, 47, 441, 447, 450 Joint thickness, 213, 259, 260, 365
Energy, 3, 41, 46, 47, 76, 81–83, 86, 87,
89–92, 127, 149, 161, 352, 354, 356,
441, 443, 446–453, 455, 456 L
Environment, 47, 166, 180, 198, 331, 335, Laboratory test, 98, 101, 126, 187, 189,
410, 447, 449, 450, 452–454, 456 200, 222
Lateral, 224, 226, 236, 243, 244, 248, 249,
257, 259, 260, 285, 335, 370, 377,
F 385, 386, 391, 404, 406, 408, 409,
Failure envelope, 387, 389–394 416, 417
Failure pattern, 247, 248, 250, 267, 359, Layer, 34, 45, 58–60, 62, 76, 81, 102,
360, 364–366, 379, 392, 398, 404, 105–107, 118, 120, 155, 183, 184,
409 186, 199, 201, 269, 273, 282, 331,
Field test, 98 332, 341–344, 354–356, 379–381,
Flexural tension, 223, 236, 242, 409 387, 390, 392, 395, 396, 398, 404,
Flexure bond strength, 175, 222, 223, 236, 409, 411, 418
242, 243 Leaching, 297, 300, 301
Flexure strength, 242, 244, 245, 377–381 Length comparator, 193, 194
Flowable earth mix, 44, 45 Lime, 9, 11, 15, 26, 35, 44, 45, 68, 70, 71,
Fly ash, 154, 155, 158–161, 182, 212, 231, 77–79, 97, 99, 102, 104, 105, 118,
296, 298, 299, 301, 302, 304, 305, 119, 132, 134, 142–144, 146, 151,
311, 312, 317, 319–323, 327, 154–158, 160, 161, 163–166, 168,
444–446 171, 173, 358, 448
Formwork, 15, 16, 21, 45, 331, 332, 340, Lime clay, 79, 119, 142–144, 155, 156, 166,
341, 343, 344, 354, 411 167, 186, 320, 431, 435, 437–440
Freeze thaw, 57, 187, 198, 199, 296 Lime-pozzolana, 26, 119, 132, 155–157,
Frost resistance, 226 212, 214, 320, 444, 447, 448
462 Index

Lime stabilisation, 26, 79, 80, 154, 320, content, 63, 64, 76, 81–83, 86, 87,
430, 431, 437–439 89–92, 97, 132, 137, 139, 146, 148,
Lime stabilised 149, 154, 156, 162–164, 168, 172,
compressed earth, 26, 142–144, 146, 175, 177, 178, 180, 221, 223, 229,
147, 154–159, 165, 166, 173, 175, 230, 235, 237–241, 250, 252, 314,
320, 429, 431, 437, 438 342, 347, 350, 352, 354, 359,
rammed earth, 26, 358 363–366, 369, 371, 378, 381–384,
Limit state method, 268, 289, 417 389, 390, 396, 398, 402, 404, 406,
Linear expansion, 187, 193–197, 200, 306, 410, 412
307, 314, 317, 326 moulding, 87, 132, 136, 137, 139,
Linear Expansion on Saturation (LES), 146–150, 172, 300, 314, 342, 353,
193, 195–200 354, 410
Liquid limit, 46, 63, 64, 67, 70, 76, 88, 133, optimum, 76, 81, 83, 97, 148, 237, 350,
135, 146, 153, 159, 167, 320, 412, 390
431, 432, 438 soil, 81, 83
Loam, 64 Mortar
flow, 217, 225, 239, 243
workability, 45, 211, 212, 214, 216, 252
M Mould, 11, 12, 46, 76, 81, 83, 86, 111, 112,
Machine, 35, 38, 47, 83–86, 97, 103, 115, 120, 121, 148, 313, 340–343,
111–115, 118, 120–122, 125–129, 392
146, 148, 247–251, 302, 370 Murrum, 64
Manual mixing, 104, 106, 114
Masonry, 5, 7–9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 21, 35,
37–44, 47, 70, 73, 131, 132, 142,
N
153, 161, 162, 169, 175, 202,
Non-organic, 47, 311, 449, 454, 455
211–215, 218–227, 229–231, 233,
236–238, 240, 242–254, 257–263,
267, 269–271, 273, 274, 281, 282,
314, 315, 323, 364–366, 373, 379, O
401–404, 409, 416, 417, 420, 443, Operational energy, 441, 455
445–447 Optimum layer thickness, 354, 355
Masonry unit, 45, 132, 169, 175–177, 211, Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), 237,
212, 216, 219, 221–226, 229–231, 350–354, 356, 357
237, 240, 242, 245, 247–253, Optimum soil grading, 16, 133, 134, 136,
258–261, 267–271, 290, 315, 332, 138, 347
364, 379, 444 Organic matter, 57, 58, 68, 70, 88, 102,
Mass loss, 131, 188, 189, 191, 192, 132, 145, 167, 213, 430
195–200, 306, 307, 316, 317, 326 Orthogonal direction, 242–244, 377–379
Maximum Dry Density (MDD), 76, 81–83,
86, 90, 91, 135, 350–352, 354, 357
Mechanical P
advantage, 121–123, 125 Partial safety factor, 270, 289–291, 402,
mixer, 105, 107, 109 416, 417, 420–422
stabilisation, 15, 26, 75, 133 Particle size distribution, 65–67, 132, 233,
Mechanised machine, 83, 111, 113, 120, 315–318, 324, 325, 431, 432, 435
127 Patch plastering, 200, 201
Modulus, 131, 177–179, 214, 224–226, Plasticity chart, 67, 69
229, 250, 259, 260, 263, 290, 291, Plasticity index, 46, 63, 64, 67, 76, 88, 133,
306, 307, 316, 324, 325, 369–375, 135, 146, 153, 159, 167, 320, 412,
378, 397, 398 432, 438, 439
Mohr circle, 391, 392 Plastic limit, 63, 64, 88, 135, 167, 432
Mohr-Coulomb, 387, 389, 391, 393, 394 Poisson’s ratio, 131, 179, 224, 225, 260,
Moisture 306, 307, 369, 375
Index 463

Pore structure, 132, 139, 169–171, 231, Sieving, 101–103, 127, 341
240, 241, 252 Slag, 154, 158, 212, 213, 295, 303, 306,
Porosity, 76, 132, 139, 141, 142, 146, 148, 307, 311, 312, 317, 320, 323, 325,
169, 171, 176, 177, 221, 223, 327, 444, 455
231–233, 240, 306, 307, 353, 357, Slenderness ratio, 252, 261, 268, 269, 278,
360, 361, 373, 383 279, 288, 290, 291, 404–406,
Pozzolanic, 78, 79, 118, 132, 155, 158–160, 414–417, 422
212, 231, 311, 320, 323, 430 Soil
Prefabricated rammed earth, 23, 42, 43, 345 classification, 58, 63, 66, 68
Prism, 349, 352, 358–360, 370, 401–404 coarse grain, 66, 68, 77, 137, 140, 141,
Prism strength, 253, 257, 258, 269 169, 170, 233–235, 350, 371
Processed Granulated Blast furnace Slag colour, 44, 68, 98, 333
(PGBS), 304, 305, 307, 324–326 compaction, 47, 81–83, 85, 86, 120,
Pullout bond, 382, 385 125, 148
composition, 45, 46, 76, 78, 82, 83, 102,
104, 106, 132, 165, 173, 229, 234,
R 341, 348, 350, 370–372, 378, 389,
Raking shear, 387, 389 402, 430
Rammed earth, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15–19, 21, fine grain, 58, 67, 68, 136, 138, 140,
22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 34, 38, 39, 41, 42, 141, 169, 170, 192, 234, 235
44–48, 68, 73, 74, 76, 78, 98,
formation, 57, 429
101–104, 182, 186, 331–333,
laterite, 70, 71
335–338, 340–342, 344, 345,
lump, 99
347–350, 352, 354, 355, 358–360,
processing, 102, 127, 342
362, 364–366, 369, 370, 373, 377,
378, 381–383, 385–387, 389–391, reconstitution, 133
396–398, 401–404, 409–414, 416, red loamy, 68, 70
417, 420, 429, 430, 439, 443, 444 stabilisation, 26, 47, 73, 75, 76, 145, 344
Rate of water absorption, 131, 168, 175, texture, 98
176, 230, 233, 234 Solid waste, 47, 311, 449, 454–456
Recycling, 47, 48, 443, 449, 455, 456 Splitting failure, 386
Reinforced rammed earth, 344, 369, 380 Spray erosion, 187–190, 200
Residual clay, 47, 162, 166, 169, 182, 186, Stabilised CEB, 27, 30, 33, 34, 38, 45, 46,
306, 360, 363, 383, 410, 431, 439 48, 97, 98, 101, 102, 104, 106, 111,
Resource consumption, 447, 450 112, 115, 118–120, 131–134, 136,
Retrofitting, 15, 200, 202–204 141, 144, 146, 148, 151, 154–156,
Reverse toggle, 121, 123, 126 161, 162, 168–170, 173, 175, 176,
178, 180, 183–185, 187–193, 195,
197–204, 211, 214, 224, 229, 230,
S 233, 236, 237, 241–243, 245, 250,
Saturation, 26, 64, 81, 133, 162, 169, 175, 252–256, 259, 261–263, 278, 293,
176, 187, 193–197, 200, 234, 235, 306, 307, 311–315, 319, 320,
306, 307, 314, 316, 317, 326, 362 325–327, 350, 353, 429, 430, 444
Semi-mechanised machine, 127 Stabilised compressed earth block, 45, 47,
Shear, 211, 223, 229, 236, 245, 246, 248, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 83, 97,
250, 262, 344, 347, 359, 365, 369, 102, 103, 105, 111, 114, 118, 120,
377, 378, 385–391, 393, 395–398, 127, 131–133, 136, 148, 151, 159,
401, 406, 407, 414 162, 173, 177, 180, 182, 186, 188,
Shrinkage, 15, 25, 26, 44, 62, 68, 70, 73, 74, 200, 211, 218, 219, 222, 223, 226,
79, 80, 99, 166, 168, 182, 183, 186, 230, 231, 245, 247, 259, 267, 297,
199, 200, 216, 222, 223, 296, 429 302, 311–313, 315, 320, 321, 323
Shrinkage crack, 75, 77, 199, 222, 410, Stabilised earth, 15, 26, 28, 34, 35, 39, 44,
414, 415 46–48, 74, 77, 78, 80, 98, 114, 140,
Shrinkage limit, 63, 64 144, 155, 173, 180, 182, 183, 186,
464 Index

188, 190, 191, 193, 198, 199, 219, 60, 62, 73, 97, 153, 166, 169, 182,
229, 240, 290, 317, 320, 335, 342, 226, 227, 244, 252, 261, 267, 312,
429–431, 439, 440 331, 335, 336, 344, 345, 347, 357,
Stabilised earth construction, 15, 26, 28, 369, 377, 410, 429, 446
30, 35, 45, 47 Surface
Stabilised Earth Mortar (SEM), 44, 139, crack, 98, 99, 186, 200
140, 231, 232, 241, 304, 324, 431, porosity, 232, 307
432, 435 texture, 230, 231
Stabilised rammed earth, 11, 43, 45, 46, 75, Sustainability, 47, 447, 449, 451, 455, 456
133, 331, 335, 341, 344, 348, 349, Sustainable development, 449
390, 412, 429, 447 Swelling, 15, 25, 26, 60, 62, 68, 70, 73, 74,
Stabiliser, 15, 44, 45, 47, 68, 70, 97, 98, 77, 79, 80, 99, 166, 168, 182, 183,
102, 104–106, 113, 120, 132, 134, 186, 195, 410–413
148, 151, 157, 161–163, 165, 166, Swell shrink, 44, 64, 99, 101, 142, 151,
168–171, 186, 189, 190, 195, 199, 154, 168, 182, 186
200, 229, 233, 259, 297, 316, 317,
320–322, 325, 331, 335, 340, 347,
358, 359, 389, 437–439, 443 T
Standard Proctor test, 81, 91, 92, 135, 350, Tension, 223, 236, 242–245, 249–251, 259,
352 260, 289, 347, 365, 379–381, 396,
Status of clay, 429 401, 408, 409
Steam curing, 118, 119 Textural classification, 66–68
Steel reinforcement, 380 Thermal
Strain characteristics, 131, 132, 180
peak stress, 369, 370, 375 conductivity, 131, 180–182
ultimate, 369 performance, 46, 131, 180
Strength Time lag, 356–358
compressive, 70, 133, 136–138, 141, Toggle mechanism, 121–126
146, 148, 149, 151–158, 162, 163, Total Dissolved Salts (TDS), 300, 301, 312,
166, 173, 177, 213–216, 219, 220, 313
226, 246–254, 257–261, 267, Touch sensation test, 98, 100, 101
269–271, 278, 279, 281, 288, 289, Triaxial shear, 387
291, 293, 295, 298, 301, 306, 320, Triplet shear, 387, 388, 395, 396
326, 332, 347, 349, 353, 355–360,
363–366, 373, 374, 378, 382, 401,
402, 404, 406–408, 414–416, 422, 423 U
flexure, 236, 242, 244, 377–379 Unified soil classification, 58, 67, 432
long-term, 70, 131, 166–168, 320 Unreinforced, 227, 242, 267, 269, 377
shear, 247, 385, 387, 389, 390, 393, Unstabilised earth, 15, 17
395, 396, 398
Stress
peak, 83, 177, 178, 224, 262, 263, 306, V
307, 398 Void ratio, 64, 80, 82, 91, 139–141, 146,
ultimate, 177 148, 169–171, 350, 353, 362, 371,
Stress reduction factor, 268, 278, 279, 288, 373
401, 409, 415, 417
Stress-strain, 47, 131, 177–179, 211, 216,
224, 225, 252, 262, 263, 306, 307, W
369, 370, 375 Wallette, 243–245, 247, 252, 253, 258, 261,
Structural design, 8, 46–48, 289, 347, 401, 267, 359, 360, 364–366, 377, 387,
404, 414 401–404
Structure, 3, 5, 7–9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 26, Wash test, 98, 100
28, 30, 35, 38, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 59, Water
Index 465

absorption, 131, 163, 168–175, X

233–236, 240, 241, 306, 307, 314, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), 62, 65, 101,
317, 324–326, 361, 362 431–435
loss, 111, 221, 239
retentivity, 211, 216, 220, 221
Wattle and daub, 8, 11, 45
Weathering
chemical, 58, 59
mechanical, 57 Z
Working stress method, 268, 271, 281 Zero air void, 81, 82