2.3STUDY AREA Seismic Engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of Structural engineering. Its main objectives therefore are~ -To understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground. -To forest -¢ the consequences of possible earthquakes. -To design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes. ‘The methodologies available so far for the evaluation of existing buildings can be divided into two categories-(i) Qualitative method Analytical method. In the same realm, seismic analysis is a subset of structural analysis and is the calculation of the response of a structure to earthquakes. It is part of the process of structural design, earthquake engineering or structural assessment and retrofit in regions where earthquakes are prevalent. Structural analysis methods can be divided into the following categories- 2.3.1Structural analysis methods Elastic Analysis Lateral Force Method c tional Desi Modal Response spectrum Analysis(Spectral Analysis) Conventional Design Modal Time History Analysis Linear Dynamic Analysis / Inelastic Analysis: i)Non — Linear static Analysis(Push over ) (Advanced Design ii) Non linear Dynamic Analysis 28 [Pave2.3.1.1Equivalent static analysis This approach defines a series of forces acting on a building to represent the effect of earthquake ground motion, typically defined by a seismic design response spectrum, It assumes that the building, responds in its fundamental mode. For this to be true, the building must be low-rise and must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a design response spectrum, given the natural frequency of the building (cither calculated or defined by the building code). The applicability of this method is extended in many building codes by applying factors to account for higher buildings with some higher modes, and for low levels of twisting. To account for effects due to "yielding" of the structure, many codes apply modification factors that reduce the design forces (e.g. force reduction factors). 2.3.1.2Response spectrum analysis This approach permits the multiple modes of response of a building to be taken into account (in the frequency domain). This is required in many building codes for all except for very simple or very complex structures. The response of a structure can be defined as a combination of many special shapes (modes) that in a vibrating string correspond to the "harmonics". Computer analysis can be used to determine these modes for a structure. For each mode, a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal mass, and they are then combined to provide an estimate of the total response of the structure. In this we have to calculate the magnitude of forces in all direetions i.e, X, Y & Z and then see the effects on the building.. Combination methods include the following: Absolute - peak values are added together Square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) complete quadratic combination (CQC) - a method that is an improvement on SRSS for closely spaced modes The result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from a ground motion is typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear dynamic analysis using 29|Pavethat ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the response spectrum, In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex analysis is often required, such as non-linear static analysis or dynamic analysis 2.3.1.3Linear dynamic analysis Static procedures are appropriate when higher mode effects are not significant. This is generally true for short, regular buildings. Therefore, for tall buildings, buildings with torsional irregularit , oF non-orthogonal systems, a dynamic procedure is required. In the linear dynamic procedure, the building is modelled as a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system with a linear elastic stiffness matrix and an equivalent viscous damping matrix The seismic input is modeled using either modal spectral analysis or time history analysis but in both cases, the corresponding intemal forces and displacements are determined using linear elastic analysis. The advantage of these linear dynamic procedures with respect to linear static procedures is that higher modes can be considered. However, they are based on linear elastic response and hence the applicability decreases with increasing nonlinear behavior, which is approximated by global force reduction factors. In linear dynamic analysis, the response of the structure to ground motion is calculated in the time sumed, The domain, and all phase information is therefore maintained. Only linear properties ar analytical method can use modal decomposition as a means of reducing the degrees of freedom in the analysis 2.3.1.4Nonlinear static analysis In general, linear procedures are applicable when the structure is expected to remain nearly clastic for the level of ground motion or when the design results in nearly uniform distribution of nonlinear response throughout the structure. As the performance objective of the structure implies greater inelastic demands, the uncertainty with linear procedures increases to a point that requires high level of conservatism in demand assumptions and acceptability criteria to avoid unintended performance. Therefore, procedures incorporating inelastic analysis can reduce the uncertainty and conservatism This approach is also known as "pushover" analysis. A pattern of forces is applied to a structural model that includes non-linear properties (such as steel yield), and the total force is plotted against a 30/P avereference displacement to define a capacity curve, This can then be combined with a demand curve (typically in the form of an acceleration-displacement response spectrum (ADRS). This essentially reduces the problem to a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system, Nonlinear static procedures use equivalent SDOF structural models and represent seismic ground motion with response spectra. Story drifts and component actions are related s Ibsequently to the global demand parameter by the pushover or capacity curves that are the basis of the non-linear static procedures. 2.3.1.5Nonlinear dynamic analysis Nonlinear dynamic analysis utilizes the combination of ground motion records with a detailed structural model, therefore is capable of producing results with relatively low uncertainty. In nonlinear dynamic analyses, the detailed structural model subjected to a ground-motion record produces estimates of component deformations for each degree of freedom in the model and the modal responses are combined using schemes such as the square-root-sum-of-squares. In non-linear dynamic analysis, the non-linear properties of the structure are considered as part of a time domain analysis. This approach is the most rigorous, and is required by some building codes for buildings of unusual configuration or of special importance. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input; therefore, several analyses are required using different ground motion records to achieve a reliable estimation of the probabilistic distribution of structural response. Since the properties of the seismic response depend on the intensity, or severity, of the seismic shaking, a comprehensive assessment calls for numerous nonlinear dynamic analyses at various levels of intensity to represent different possible earthquake scenarios. This has led to the emergence of methods like the Incremental Dynamic Analysis. In this study we have used “Pushover Analysis” for assessment of the considered four-story RC structure, Pushover Analysis is essentially the extension of the “lateral force procedure” of static analysis into non-linear regime. It is carried out under constant gravity loads and monotonically increasing lateral loading applied on the masses of the structural model, [5]. Assume that the response is governed by single mode of vibration and that is constant during the analysis. Distribution of lateral forces (applied at storey masses). i) Modal-usually first mode i.e, inverted triangle ii) Uniform- lateral forces proportional to story masses. 31]Pace7A] fe ¢ a 6 — - —- ° + fe - ° + bed ~ fe = - —— Fer Fig.2. Distribution of lateral forces in model and uniform Non Linear static analysis applicable to low rise regular buildings, whereas the response is dominated by the fundamental mode of vibration. This method represents a direct evaluation of . Also allows evaluation of inelas overall structural response not only on element by element bi deformations, this is the most relevant response quantity in the case of inelastic response. 32|PageA pattern of forces is applied to a structural model that includes non-linear properties (such as steel yield), and the total force is plotted against a reference displacement to define a capacity curve. This loading is meant to simulate inertia forces due to only the horizontal component of the seismic action, neglecting the vertical component altogether. While the applied lateral forces increase in the course of analysis, the engine: can follow the gradual emergence of plastic hinges, the evolution of plastic mechanism and damage, as a function of the magnitude of the imposed lateral loads and of the resulting displacements. [5] ou LAN Fig 2.2 Step wise increment of lateral forces Unlike linear or non-linear dynamic analysis, which both give directly all peak seismic demands under a given earthquake, a pushover analysis per se gives only the capacity curve. The demand has to be estimated separately. This is normally done in terms of the maximum displacement induced by the earthquake, either to the equivalent SDOF system or at the control node of the full structure. This is called “target displacement”. [5] The demands at the local level (inelastic deformations and forces) due to the horizontal component of the seismic action in the direction of the pushover analysis are those corresponding to the “target displacement”. It is required to carry out the pushover until a terminal point at 1.5 times the “target displacement”. [5]Target displacement can be determined by any of the following methods: (i) Capacity Spectrum Method (ii) Displacement Coefficient Method (iii) N2 Method. 33/Pave