Coudane Fanny
Coudane Fanny
En vue de l'obtention du
JURY
Marek Haftek
Jean-Pierre Molès
Carle Paul
Guy Serre
Michel Simon
J’adresse mes remerciements à Laurent Misery, Jean-Pierre Molès et Marek Haftek de me faire
l’honneur d’évaluer ces travaux. Merci d’avoir accepté la lourde tâche d’êtres rapporteurs de ce
manuscrit.
Merci également au Pr Carle Paul d’avoir accepté de participer au jury de cette thèse malgré un emploi
du temps chargé.
Merci à mon directeur de thèse, Michel Simon d’avoir encadré ce travail et de m’avoir fait confiance
durant ces années.
Je tiens à remercier tout particulièrement mon autre main, Carole Goldfinger Pons, pour sa gentillesse
et son soutien inébranlable, et le fait qu’elle soit la seule personne au monde à être capable de
déchiffrer un protocole sur un post-it.
Je veux adresser tous mes remerciements à Marie-Claire Méchin pour sa collaboration et son
investissement constant concernant mon travail.
Je tiens à exprimer ma profonde gratitude à toutes les «ex- Michelettes » d’avoir toujours été là pour
moi.
Merci à Cécile Caubet, Cissou, pour ton écoute, tes conseils et tes encouragements permanents, avoir
partagé un bureau avec toi était plus qu’un privilège. Merci à Anne-Aurélie Raymond, Taikonmi, pour
tes repas du jeudi soir et ton ouverture d’esprit. Grâce à toi je sais qu’un simple battement d’aile de
papillon peut effectivement…dévier une autoroute. Je remercie de tout cœur Véronique Adoue,
colgate powerful vé, pour toutes nos conversations pleines de sensiblerie et pour ta patience hors du
commun. Merci à Rachida Nachat, Rachichi, pour ton sens de l’humour et ta franchise, je te souhaite
le meilleur pour la suite, et j’espère que ce sera sous la forme d’une jolie petite rouquine.
Un grand merci aux autres membres de l’équipe et tout spécialement à Julie Henry, youyou, mon
deuxième cerveau, pour toutes tes (nombreuses) blagues qui me font encore rire, et pour ton
extraordinaire sérénité lors de ma rédaction. Merci également à Catherine Bouchouata, Cathy, pour
m’avoir toujours aidé quand j’en avais besoin, et à Chiung-Yueh Hsu, Chouchou, pour ta gentillesse et
pour m’avoir fait saliver tous les midis.
Je tiens à exprimer ma reconnaissance à Anne Huchenq-Champagne, pour m’avoir initié et aidé,
toujours avec le sourire, à comprendre le monde merveilleux mais quelque peu compliqué de
l’animalerie.
Merci aux suivantes, qui vont passer, j’en suis sûre, des thèses d’exception. A commencer par Leïla
Gazeilles, merci pour ton franc parlé et ton sourire au quotidien, merci à Laetitia Laurent et son
« ami » Nicolas Mattiuzzo, en continuant d’espérer qu’ils se rejoindront prochainement. J’adresse des
remerciements particuliers à Emilie Leclerc pour ta prévenance et ton soutien sans faille, et pour avoir
toujours pu compter sur toi, y compris dans les moments de panique totale. Maintenant je peux enfin
vous dire à toutes, la phrase préférée de tout doctorant : « courage c’est la dernière ligne droite ! ».
Merci aux membres des autres équipes qui ont participé de près ou de loin à ce travail, en particulier
Mireille Sebbag, pour tes encouragements et tes remarques précieuses.
Je tiens aussi à mentionner le plaisir que j'ai eu à travailler au sein de l’UDEAR, je ne peux hélas pas
citer tous les membres du laboratoire mais merci à tous de m’avoir accompagnée, encouragée, aidée et
soutenue durant ces années.
Je remercie également mes amis qui ont été d’une patience exceptionnelle, et qui ont relativement bien
dissimulé leur incompréhension (« Mais qu’elle idée ! », « Dis donc c’est long une thèse »). Une
pensée particulière pour Céline, Nico, Sophie, les Tarbais et Franchon, Asca et les Youpettes. Merci à
Julia, choup, copine de galère et de bière au Champagne.
Merci au Marin breton gardois Brieuc, pour ton scooter, ton soutien, les mois passés et ceux à venir,
en plus, grâce à toi je peux répondre « oui » à la question « est-il possible de faire une thèse et de
garder un semblant de vie sociale ?»
Merci à tous ceux qui ont bravé les éléments déchaînés pour venir m’écouter
Je dédie cette thèse à toute mon extraordinaire famille, en particulier à mes parents et mon frère. Et je
termine par une pensée pour ma grand-mère.
Résumé
Les peptidyl-arginine désiminases (PADs) catalysent une modification post-traductionnelle appelée désimination
ou citrullination, qui correspond à la transformation des résidus arginyl en résidus citrullyl. Leur rôle
physiologique est encore mal compris mais elles sont associées à de nombreux mécanismes pathologiques. Par
exemple, la citrullination de la fibrine est observée au cours de nombreux processus inflammatoires. Dans
l’épiderme, trois isoformes de PADs sont exprimées, les PAD1, 2 et 3. Leur expression et leur activation
dépendent étroitement de l’état de différenciation des kératinocytes. La désimination de la filaggrine par les PAD1
et 3 est une étape majeure du métabolisme de cette protéine clé pour les fonctions de barrière épidermique, alors
que le rôle de la PAD2 n’est pas connu.
Pour étudier les mécanismes responsables de la régulation des PADs, nous avons utilisé deux modèles d’induction
de la différenciation des kératinocytes en culture. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence une régulation post-
transcriptionnelle. En effet, la stimulation de l’expression des ARNm des PAD1-3 par la Vitamine D n’est pas
suffisante pour induire les protéines correspondantes. Au contraire, l’augmentation de la densité cellulaire induit
l’expression des gènes PADI1 et 3, les PAD1 et 3 et le taux de désimination. De plus, nous avons observé que les
PAD1-3 sont capables d’auto-désimination in vitro et que celle-ci réduit leur activité. Une approche in silico, à
partir de modèles tridimensionnels, nous a permis de montrer que l’auto-désimination de la PAD3 induit des
changements structuraux susceptibles d’expliquer cette réduction d’activité.
Afin de mieux comprendre le rôle des PADs, j’ai analysé leur expression et les protéines désiminées lors de la
cicatrisation cutanée. J’ai pour cela réalisé des blessures excisionnelles sur le flanc de souris adultes et détecté ces
protéines au cours des phases inflammatoire et de ré-épithélialisation de la cicatrisation. J’ai en particulier montré
que Pad3 n’est pas exprimée par les cellules prolifératives de la languette de ré-épithélialisation qui progresse le
long de la plaie, mais seulement dans les kératinocytes en cours de différenciation où elle est colocalisée avec la
filaggrine. La Pad3 pourrait donc être impliquée dans le rétablissement de la barrière épidermique. De façon très
intéressante, j’ai détecté des protéines désiminées dans le caillot fibrino-plaquettaire et identifié l’une d’elles
comme étant la fibrine. Mes résultats montrent que c’est une Pad normalement absente de l’épiderme, la Pad4, qui
est responsable de la désimination de cette protéine.
Finalement, j’ai cherché à comprendre le rôle de la Pad2 dans l’épiderme à l’aide de souris dont le gène Padi2 a
été invalidé. J’ai montré que l’absence de Pad2 ne modifie pas le profil et le taux des protéines épidermiques
citrullinées et n’induit pas une sur-expression des autres isoformes de Pad. Elle ne modifie ni la différenciation
des kératinocytes, ni les fonctions de barrière épidermique et n’influence pas la cicatrisation cutanée et la
désimination de la fibrine.
Mon travail de thèse a permis de mettre en évidence une régulation complexe de la désimination, en particulier
différents niveaux de régulation post-transcriptionnelle des PADs, mais aussi des rôles spécifiques des Pad3 et 4
dans la cicatrisation. Si la présence de fibrine citrullinée avait été montrée dans plusieurs cas d’inflammations
pathologiques, en particulier articulaires, c’est la première fois qu’elle est décrite au cours d’un processus
physiologique comme la cicatrisation cutanée.
3
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminase functions and regulation in the epidermis and during cutaneous wound healing
Deimination or citrullination is a posttranslational modification catalyzed by peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs).
PADs convert protein-bound arginines into citrullines in a calcium dependent manner. The physiological role of
deimination remains to be fully identified but PADs are found to be associated with numerous pathological
mechanisms. For example, fibrin deimination has been observed in various inflammatory [Link] PAD
isoforms, PAD1, 2 and 3, are expressed in the epidermis where their expression and activation depend on the
keratinocyte differentiation state. PAD1 and 3 are involved in the deimination of filaggrin, leading to the
production of the Natural Moisturizing Factor. Filaggrin deimination by PAD 1 and 3 is essential for the skin
hydration and barrier functions, whereas the role of PAD2 remains unknown.
To investigate the mechanisms implicated in PAD regulation we used cultured primary keratinocytes and induced
their differentiation either by increased cell density or by treatment with vitamin D. We evidenced the presence of
a post-transcriptional regulation. Indeed vitamin D increased PAD1-3 mRNA amounts with distinct kinetics but
neither the protein nor the deimination rate. By contrast high cell-density increased PAD1 and 3 but not PAD2 at
the mRNA and protein levels and up-regulated protein deimination. Moreover auto-deimination was shown to
decrease PAD activity by increasing the distance between the four major amino-acids of the active site.
To better understand the roles of PADs in skin differentiation and inflammation, I evaluated the presence of
citrullinated proteins and the expression of Pads during cutaneous wound closure. I performed full-thickness
punches on adult mice back skin and analyzed the protein expression by immunohistology and western blotting
during inflammatory and re-epithelializating phases of wound recovery. Pad3, normally expressed in the stratum
granulosum, was not detected in the hyperproliferative tongue of the neo-epidermis progressing over the wound.
However Pad3 was shown to be coexpressed with (pro)filaggrin in a large number of keratinocyte layers in the
differentiating part of the neo-epidermis. We hypothesized that Pad3 and filaggrin coexpression was the result of
the accelerated differentiation program intended to restore the barrier function and the hydration of the upper
epidermis. Interestingly, at the wound site, citrullinated proteins were also detected in the clot and fibrin was
shown to be one of them. Our data show that the involved enzyme at this site is Pad4, an isotype usually not
expressed in the epidermis in basal conditions but previously described in inflammatory tissues.
Finally I analyzed the cutaneous phenotype of Pad2-deficient mice to discriminate the role of this isotype in the
epidermis. No morphological or histological modifications in the skin of the Padi2 invalidated mice have been
detected so far. The level of citrullinated proteins was not altered and no detectable increase in the expression of
the other Pad isoforms was observed. The absence of Pad2 did not induce any modification in epidermal
differentiation, skin barrier functions, wound healing and fibrin deimination.
My PhD study revealed a complex regulation of deimination in keratinocyte cultures, in particular various post-
transcriptional levels of PADI gene expression, and specific functions of Pad3 and 4 during cutaneous wound
healing. I also described for the first time the presence of deiminated fibrin in physiological conditions as wound
recovery in mice.
4
Liste des abbréviations
5
Liste des abbréviations
IFNγ : interferon γ
IV : Ichtyose Vulgaire
Ig : immunoglobuline
K : kératine
kDa / kD : kilodaltons
KGF : facteur de croissance kératinocytaire (Keratinocyte Growth Factor)
KO: Knockout
NF-κB : nuclear factor-kappa B
MBP : protéine basique de la myéline (Myelin Basic Protein )
MCP-1 : Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein 1
miARN : microARN
MZF1 : Myeloid Zinc Finger 1
NAP-2 : Neutrophil Activating Peptide 2
NETs : Neutrophil Extracellular Traps
PAD/Pad : Peptidyl Arginine Désiminase
pb : paire(s) de bases
PCR : Polymerase Chain Reaction
PEP-1 : Profilaggrin Endoproteinase 1
PIE : Peptidylarginine deiminase Intergenic Enhancer
PIP2 : Phosphatidyl Inositol bis Phosphate
PKC: protéine kinase C
PKG : plakoglobine
PKP: plakophiline
PLC : phospholipase C
PMRT1 : Protein Arginine Methyltransferase 1
PPAR : Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor
PR : Polyarthrite Rhumatoïde
RT : Reverse Transcription
RXR : récepteur X aux rétinoïdes
SCCE : Stratum Corneum Chymotryptic Enzyme
SCTE : Stratum Corneum Tryptic Enzyme
SDS : dodécylsulfate de sodium
SEP : Sclérose En Plaque.
6
Liste des abbréviations
7
8
Liste des figures
9
Liste des figures
10
Liste des tableaux
11
12
Table des matières
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………19
I- LA PEAU............................................................................................................................................ 21
A- Généralités...................................................................................................................................................... 21
1- Structure de la peau ...................................................................................................................................... 21
a- L’hypoderme ............................................................................................................................................ 21
b- Le derme .................................................................................................................................................. 21
c- L’épiderme ............................................................................................................................................... 22
d- La jonction dermo-épidermique............................................................................................................... 22
2- Les annexes cutanées : le follicule pileux..................................................................................................... 23
a- Les glandes sudoripares ........................................................................................................................... 23
b- Les glandes sébacées................................................................................................................................ 23
c- Le follicule pileux .................................................................................................................................... 23
3- Particularités de la peau de souris................................................................................................................. 26
B- Structure de l’épiderme................................................................................................................................. 28
1- Les cellules de l’épiderme ............................................................................................................................ 28
a- Les cellules de Langerhans....................................................................................................................... 28
b- Les cellules de Merkel ............................................................................................................................. 28
c- Les mélanocytes ....................................................................................................................................... 28
d- Les kératinocytes ..................................................................................................................................... 28
2- Une organisation stratifiée............................................................................................................................ 29
a- La couche basale, Stratum basale............................................................................................................. 29
b- La couche épineuse, Stratum spinosum ................................................................................................... 30
c- La couche granuleuse, Stratum granulosum............................................................................................. 31
d- La couche cornée, Stratum corneum ........................................................................................................ 31
13
Table des matières
A- Généralités...................................................................................................................................................... 67
B- La phase inflammatoire................................................................................................................................. 68
1- L’hémostase et la phase vasculaire............................................................................................................... 68
2- La matrice de fibrine .................................................................................................................................... 69
3- Les cellules inflammatoires et les cytokines ................................................................................................ 72
a- Les polynucléaires neutrophiles. .............................................................................................................. 72
b- Les macrophages...................................................................................................................................... 73
c- Les mastocytes ......................................................................................................................................... 74
d- Les lymphocytes T ................................................................................................................................... 74
14
Table des matières
F- Cicatrisation pathologique............................................................................................................................. 85
1- Retard de cicatrisation .................................................................................................................................. 85
2- Cicatrisation excessive ................................................................................................................................. 85
3- Les cicatrices rétractiles ............................................................................................................................... 85
4- Le psoriasis : une blessure qui ne cicatrise pas?........................................................................................... 85
A- Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 91
15
Table des matières
a- Généralités.............................................................................................................................................. 107
b- Les ACPAs............................................................................................................................................. 107
c- Génétique de la PR................................................................................................................................. 108
d- Citrullination et inflammation................................................................................................................ 108
2- Les maladies neurodégénératives ............................................................................................................... 109
a- La sclérose en plaque ............................................................................................................................. 109
b- Autres pathologies du système nerveux central ..................................................................................... 111
3- Les cancers ................................................................................................................................................. 112
4- La néphropathie obstructive ....................................................................................................................... 112
5- Le psoriasis et l’érythrodermie ichtyosiforme congénitale......................................................................... 112
OBJECTIFS………………………………………………………………………………...117
RESULTATS EXPERIMENTAUX………………………………………………………...121
DISCUSSION ET PERSPECTIVES………………………...............................................207
16
Table des matières
II- ETUDE DU PHENOTYPE DES SOURIS DONT LE GENE PADI2 A ETE INVALIDE .................. 215
B- Peut-il y avoir une compensation par les autres isotypes ?....................................................................... 215
ANNEXE……………………………………………………………………………………225
BIBLOGRAPHIE…………………………………………………………………………..271
17
18
Introduction
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
I- LA PEAU
A- Généralités
Plus vaste organe du corps humain, avec une surface d’environ 2 m2 pour un poids moyen
représentant 15 % du poids total d’un adulte, la peau assure un rôle essentiel de barrière vitale
vis-à-vis de l’environnement extérieur. La lumière, les produits chimiques, les pathogènes ou
même les contacts mécaniques sont autant d’agressions qui doivent être arrêtées par cette fine
enveloppe. Elle est également en première ligne de défense pour protéger le corps de la
déshydratation et joue un rôle dans la thermorégulation. Grâce à la présence de nombreux
récepteurs sensitifs, la peau est aussi un site important de perception sensorielle, pouvant
réagir à différents stimuli tactiles, thermiques ou douloureux.
1- Structure de la peau
La peau humaine est constituée de trois couches tissulaires principales superposées et
communicantes, de la plus profonde à la plus superficielle : l’hypoderme, le derme et
l’épiderme séparés par la jonction dermo-épidermique.
21
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
peuvent pénétrer la lame basale pour aller innerver l’épiderme ou être reliées à de véritables
corpuscules nerveux dans le derme jouant le rôle de mécanorécepteurs tactiles. Les papilles
dermiques sont également composées de vaisseaux sanguins, qui ne rentrent pas dans
l’épiderme. Les cellules principales du derme sont les fibroblastes qui vont synthétiser deux
types de fibres protéiques : les fibres de collagène et les fibres d’élastine, constituants de la
matrice extracellulaire. La grande majorité des fibres présentes dans le derme sont des fibres
de collagène (>90%) essentiellement de type 1 et 3, responsables de la résistance mécanique
de la peau, alors que les fibres d’élastine, elles, participent à son élasticité. Au niveau du
derme plus profond (derme réticulaire) ces fibres vont s’organiser parallèlement à la surface
de la peau. On retrouve également à ce niveau des corpuscules nerveux, récepteurs des
variations de pression, mais aussi des vaisseaux sanguins et les annexes cutanées : les
follicules pileux, associés étroitement aux glandes sébacées et aux glandes sudoripares (cf.
paragraphe suivant).
22
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
(D’après [Link]
c- Le follicule pileux :
Les follicules pileux sont considérés comme des organes à part entière. Ils sont présents dans
la peau sur toute la surface corporelle, à l’exception de la paume des mains et la plante des
pieds et de certaines parties génitales. Chaque follicule pileux est accompagné d’une glande
23
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
sébacée qui sécrète le sébum, et d’un muscle arrecteur de poil (ou muscle horripilateur) dont
la contraction permet de redresser le poil et d’expulser le sébum.
Cette structure complexe comporte une vingtaine de types cellulaires répartis en six grands
compartiments : les uns d’origine dermique (la gaine conjonctive, la papille dermique) et les
autres de nature épithéliale (la gaine externe, la gaine interne, la tige pilaire et la glande
sébacée). Ces compartiments sont organisés de manière concentrique autour d’un axe de
symétrie qui correspond à celui de la tige pilaire (figure 3).
La gaine épithéliale externe (GEE) est l’enveloppe externe du folicule pileux. Elle est en
continuité avec l’épiderme interfolliculaire alors que la gaine épithéliale interne (GEI) sépare
24
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
la gaine externe de la tige pilaire. La GEI est constituée de 3 couches de cellules distinctes (la
couche de Henlé, de Huxley et la cuticule) qui se différencient de manière asynchrone en un
processus comparable à celui observé dans l’épiderme (cf. paragraphe « différenciation
épidermique »).
Chacun de ces domaines exprime des marqueurs spécifiques, par exemple les cellules de la
GEI, et à plus faible niveau celles de la medulla, synthétisent une protéine, la trichohyaline
(THH), stockée dans des granules spécialisés de 0,1 à 0,3 µm de diamètre (cf. paragraphe
« rôles physiologiques des PADs »).
L'unité de pigmentation est composée de mélanocytes localisés à la périphérie et au sommet
de la papille dermique. Ils produisent des grains de mélanine, présents dans le cortex de la tige
pilaire qui sont responsables de la couleur du cheveu (cf. paragraphe « les cellules de
l’épiderme »).
25
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
26
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Généralités
importantes que la peau de souris présente avec la peau humaine : épaisseur totale de la peau
(400 µm pour les rongeurs contre 1400 µm pour l'Homme), épaisseur de l'épiderme (10 µm
pour les rongeurs contre une centaine de µm pour l'Homme), densité des follicules pileux
(1000 / mm2 pour les rongeurs contre 25 / mm2 pour l'Homme).
27
Chapitre 1 – La peau
L’épiderme
B- Structure de l’épiderme
L’épiderme (du grec epi, dessus et derma, la peau) est un épithélium pavimenteux
pluristratifié et kératinisé qui constitue la structure externe de la peau. En contact avec
l’environnement extérieur, il assure une fonction de protection de l’organisme. Son épaisseur
de l’ordre de quelques centaines de µm varie en fonction des territoires anatomiques.
L’épiderme est constitué à plus de 90% de cellules épithéliales appelées kératinocytes, les
autres cellules épidermiques correspondant à des mélanocytes, des cellules de Langerhans et
des cellules de Merkel.
a- Les cellules de Langerhans sont des cellules dendritiques mobiles représentant 3 à 5% des
cellules épidermiques. Ce sont des cellules présentatrices d’antigènes, véritables sentinelles
immunitaires de l’épiderme.
28
Chapitre 1 – La peau
L’épiderme
D’après : [Link]
Pendant longtemps il a été considéré que les cellules souches de l’épiderme pouvaient
proliférer pour donner naissance 1- à d’autres cellules souches afin d’assurer l’auto-
renouvellement des kératinocytes basaux, 2- à des cellules amplificatrices transitoires qui
génèrent au bout de quelques cycles de multiplication des kératinocytes capables de sortir du
cycle cellulaire et de se différencier. Une publication récente a cependant remis en cause ce
29
Chapitre 1 – La peau
L’épiderme
dogme, et propose un nouveau modèle dans lequel les cellules progénitrices au potentiel
prolifératif non limité seraient responsables de l’homéostasie épidermique en se divisant
principalement de façon symétrique (Clayton et al., 2007).
En effet, deux modèles de divisions cellulaires ont été précédemment observés et pourraient
coexister dans l’épiderme : les divisions symétriques et asymétriques (figure 6). Les divisions
symétriques contribueraient à la différenciation et la stratification en fournissant de nouvelles
cellules adjacentes au niveau de la couche basale, dont des cellules prolifératives et des
cellules capables de migrer dans la couche épineuse supérieure pour se différencier. Les
divisions asymétriques quant à elles, sont basées sur une orientation du fuseau mitotique qui
permet une division perpendiculaire à l’épithélium, de manière à générer à la fois une cellule
proliférative restant dans la couche basale et une cellule directement dans le compartiment
suprabasal (Lechler and Fuchs, 2005 ; Fuchs et al., 2007a).
Différenciation
Prolifération
Figure 6 : modèle de division cellulaire au niveau de la couche basale. D’après (Fuchs, 2007a). Modèle de division
symétrique (a) qui permet de former deux cellules-filles adjacentes sur un plan horizontal dans la couche basale après
division, et asymétrique (b) où l’une des cellules-filles se localise directement dans le compartiment épineux alors que la
première est maintenue dans la couche basale.
30
Chapitre 1 – La peau
L’épiderme
couche épineuse, elle cesse tout cycle de division et commence à se différencier. Les cellules
sont polyédriques avec des noyaux volumineux et vont progressivement s’élargir et s’aplatir
lorsqu’elles progressent vers la couche supérieure.
31
Chapitre 1 – La peau
L’épiderme
connu un essor considérable et son importance cruciale dans le maintien des barrières
hydrique, chimique, immunologique et mécanique de l’épiderme a été démontrée.
32
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
1- Généralités
La fonction principale de l’épiderme est d’assurer une barrière protectrice entre l’organisme et
l’environnement extérieur. Plusieurs types de barrière sont mis en jeu (figure 7) :
- une barrière chimique et biochimique permet de lutter contre les allergènes et les irritants et
possède un rôle antibactérien grâce au pH acide de la couche cornée et à la présence
d’enzymes hydrolytiques et de peptides antimicrobiens.
- une barrière immunologique grâce aux constituants du système immunitaire inné et acquis.
- une barrière physique assurée grâce à la forte cohésion inter-cellulaire dont sont
responsables les nombreux desmosomes et qui permet à l’épiderme de résister aux agressions
extérieures. La mélanine absorbe comme nous l’avons vu le rayonnement ultraviolet. La
couche cornée absorbe aussi une partie du rayonnement ultraviolet grâce à la présence en
quantité importante d’acide urocanique, un dérivé de l’histidine.
- une barrière hydrique grâce à la présence de jonctions serrées dans la couche granuleuse,
des lipides intercornéocytaires et du facteur naturel d’hydratation (FNH) présent dans le
stratum disjunctum.
Ce sont plus particulièrement ces fonctions de protection physique et hydrique que nous
détaillerons dans ce manuscrit.
33
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Figure 7 : représentation schématique des différentes fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme vis-à-vis de l’environnement
extérieur. Les fonctions de protection hydrique et physique représentées en rouge sont détaillées dans ce document.
34
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Extrusion lipidique
Expression des derniers marqueurs de la
différenciation
différenciées
Couches
Renforcement du cytosquelette
prolifératives
Figure 8 : représentation schématique des principales étapes de la différenciation épidermique. D’après (Denecker et
al., 2008)
35
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
36
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Tableau 2 : kératines de la peau et affections cutanées associées. D’après (Arin and Mueller, 2007).
37
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
- Généralités
Lors de la différenciation terminale, la membrane plasmique des kératinocytes est remplacée
par une structure mince et insoluble, imperméable et résistante, constituée de précurseurs
protéiques liés entre eux par des ponts disulfures et d’autres liens covalents. Cette structure
appelée enveloppe cornée est indispensable aux fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme. Elle est
observable en microscopie électronique sous la forme d’une couche dense aux électrons
d’environ 15 nm d’épaisseur, entourant les cornéocytes, et associée à une monocouche de
lipides d’environ 5 nm (Hirotani et al., 1982; Swartzendruber et al., 1989).
C’est une structure hautement insoluble, même en présence d’agents réducteurs comme le β-
mercaptoéthanol et le dithiothréitol ; cette insolubilité est due à la présence de liens covalents
isodipeptides Nε−(γ-glutamyl)-lysine formés entre des précurseurs protéiques par les
transglutaminases.
- Les transglutaminases
Les transglutaminases (TGases) appartiennent à la famille des protéases à cystéine « papain
like », elles catalysent la transamidation de résidus peptidyl glutamines en présence de
calcium (figure 9). Chez l’Homme, 8 isoformes ont été identifiées et sont impliquées dans de
nombreux processus biologiques, comme par exemple dans la conversion du fibrinogène en
fibrine lors de la coagulation par le facteur XIII.
protéine 1 protéine 2
protéine 1 protéine 2
Lien Nε-(γ-glutamyl)-lysine
38
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Seules les TGases 1, 2, 3 et 5 sont présentes dans la peau. Les TGases 1, 3 et 5 sont exprimées
uniquement dans l’épiderme et participent à la formation de l’enveloppe cornée tandis que la
TGase 2 est également présente dans le derme et participe à la formation d’une matrice
extracellulaire lors du processus de cicatrisation (Lorand and Graham, 2003).
Les TGases 1 et 3 sont synthétisées sous forme de précurseurs et activées par protéolyse
partielle lors de la cornification. Les protéines candidates à cette activation sont la calpaïne 1
et la cathépsine D (Egberts et al., 2004; Kim and Bae, 1998) ainsi que la dispase et les
cathépsines L et S (Zeeuwen, 2004).
La TGase 1 est une protéine membranaire qui joue un rôle essentiel dans l’assemblage des
composants de l’enveloppe cornée. Les souris dont le gène Tgm1 a été invalidé meurent à la
naissance suite à un défaut de barrière cutanée induit par des anomalies de formation de
l’enveloppe cornée (Matsuki et al., 1998). Chez l’Homme, des mutations dans le même gène
sont responsables d’une ichtyose sévère, l’ichtyose lamellaire de type 1 (OMIM #242300)
(Huber et al., 1995). D’autre part, la TGase 1 est capable, in vitro, de participer à la formation
de l’enveloppe lipidique en catalysant l’estérification des ω-hydroxycéramides avec un
précurseur de l’enveloppe, l’involucrine (Nemes, 1999).
Les TGases 3 et 5 sont cytosoliques. La TGase 3 permet d’oligomériser des précurseurs
protéiques qui seront ensuite liés entre eux par la TGase 1 membranaire. La TGase 5 peut
former des liaisons avec de nombreux précurseurs protéiques et pourrait également jouer un
rôle dans les stades précoces de formation des enveloppes cornées au niveau des plaques
desmosomales pour maintenir l’adhésion inter-cellulaire (Candi et al., 2002; Cassidy, 2005).
39
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
- Etape de renforcement
Lors d’une étape suivante, après que les corps lamellaires aient déversé leur contenu dans les
espaces interkératinocytaires à la transition couche granuleuse/couche cornée, les
phospholipides de la membrane plasmique sont remplacés par des ω-hydroxycéramides qui
sont liés par la TGase 1 à l’involucrine (Candi et al., 2005; Jackson et al., 1993).
Parallèlement, de nouveaux précurseurs protéiques s’accumulent dans le cytoplasme des
kératinocytes. La loricrine est le composant principal de l’enveloppe cornée (jusqu’à 80% de
sa masse protéique). Elle est exprimée au niveau de la couche granuleuse (Steinert and
Marekov, 1997) et est liée à d’autres protéines, principalement aux SPRs (une famille de
petites protéines riches en proline) grâce à l’action de la TGase 3 cytosolique (Steinert et al.,
1998). Ces complexes sont ensuite transloqués à la périphérie des kératinocytes et incorporés
à l’échafaudage protéique préexistant. D’abondantes liaisons peptidiques sont formées au
niveau des desmosomes où de nombreux substrats des TGases sont présents.
D’autres protéines sont finalement ajoutées à l’enveloppe cornée comme les kératines, la
filaggrine, des protéines de la famille S100, la cornéodesmosine, etc. (figure 10).
40
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Granule
Corps Cytoplasme
Lamellaire de loricrine
3- Différenciation et apoptose
L’épiderme étant constamment soumis à des agressions extérieures, son intégrité est assurée
grâce à un équilibre entre différenciation, prolifération/desquamation.
L’apoptose est un processus de mort cellulaire programmée, sous contrôle génétique, par
lequel les cellules surnuméraires ou dysfonctionnelles de l’organisme sont éliminées,
généralement par phagocytose. L’apoptose touche des cellules isolées ou de petits îlots
cellulaires. Elle se caractérise par un remaniement du cytosquelette et une convolution des
membranes cytoplasmiques et nucléaires, une condensation de la chromatine, une
fragmentation de l’ADN dans les régions inter-nucléosomales et la formation de corps
apoptotiques. Afin de faciliter la reconnaissance des corps apoptotiques par les phagocytes, la
cellule va signaler son état apoptotique à son environnement en particulier grâce au
changement de localisation des molécules de phosphatidylsérine, du feuillet interne au feuillet
externe de la bi-couche lipidique qui forme la membrane plasmique.
Certains auteurs ont qualifié la cornification, qui aboutit à la mort programmée des
keratinocytes, d’apoptose à but fonctionnel (Gandarillas, 2000; Lippens et al., 2000).
41
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
42
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
les couches suprabasales, notamment par les UVs, ce qui entraîne la formation des « sun-burn
cells ». Ces cellules possèdent des caractéristiques communes avec les cellules apoptotiques
comme la présence de photolésions, d’un noyau pyknotique marqué en TUNEL et d’un
cytoplasme éosinophile. Leur formation est induite par un programme multifactoriel
complexe associant l’activation de signaux causés par les dommages à l’ADN et de récepteurs
de surface, et le stress oxydatif (Laethem et al., 2005).
Etape Cornification Apoptose
Tableau 3 : différences physiologiques entre le processus de cornification et l’apoptose. D’après (Melino et al, 2005).
43
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
b- Les céramides
Les céramides représentent 50% des lipides et sont les plus divers de la couche cornée. Il
existe neuf sous-classes de céramides (CER1-9) présentant des chaînes carbonées d’acide gras
plus ou moins longues (queue) et des groupements sphingosine différents (tête). Ils sont issus
de l’hydrolyse des glucocéramides et des sphingomyélines par, respectivement, la β-
glucocérébrosidase et la sphingomyélinase acide (Holleran et al., 1993; Jensen et al., 1999;
Schmuth et al., 2000).
44
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
d- Le cholestérol
Le cholestérol est synthétisé dans les couches les plus profondes de l’épiderme avant d’être
converti en sulfate de cholestérol par la sulfotransférase présente dans la couche granuleuse.
Le sulfate de cholestérol est à nouveau métabolisé en cholestérol dans la couche cornée grâce
à la stéroïde sulfatase. Cette enzyme joue un rôle essentiel dans la desquamation. En effet, elle
est sécrétée dans l’espace intercornéocytaire et son activité persiste dans les couches basses du
stratum corneum alors qu’elle disparaît dans les couches superficielles (Elias and Menon,
1991; Elias et al., 2004). Il en résulte un gradient négatif de sulfate de cholestérol dans la
couche cornée. Or, le sulfate de cholestérol est un inhibiteur de protéases à sérine qui jouent
un rôle dans la dégradation des cornéodesmosomes (cf. chapitre « desquamation ») (Elias et
al., 2004); pour cette raison il entraîne un retard de la desquamation lorsqu’il est appliqué en
topique sur l’épiderme de souris (Sato et al., 1998).
45
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Lamellae lipidiques
Céramides
Acides gras libres
Phospholipides Cholestérol
Glucosylcéramide Sphingomyéline
Stéroïde Sulfatase
Cholestérol sulfate
Sécretion
Corps Lamellaire
Cholestérol sulfate
ABCA12
Acides gras
modifiés
Elongases
Désaturases
Acides gras Cholestérol
cellulaire
Espace
extra-
Acides
Acides gras
gras Cholestérol
Figure 11 : mécanismes de formation des lamelles lipidiques extra-cornéocytaires impliquées dans l’imperméabilité de
la couche cornée. D’après (Feingold, 2007). Les enzymes sont représentées en bleu.
46
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Lamellae
lipidique
Sphingo myélinase acide
β-glucocérébrosidase
Phospholipase
Stéroïde sulfatase
Corps Lamellaire
A B
Figure 12 : représentation schématique des corps lamellaires, des lipases et des lipides intercornéocytaires (A) et
image de microscopie électronique montrant les lamellae lipidiques dans l’espace intercellulaire de la couche cornée
de l’épiderme de souris (B). D’après (Ehrhardt et al., 2008; Madison, 2003). Flèches : enveloppe cornée, ICS : espace
intercellulaire, K : kératines de la matrice intracornéocytaire. Grossissement x200 000.
Jonction adhérente
Jonction serrée
Desmosome
Jonction communicante
Figure 13: représentation schématique des différents types de jonctions cellulaires présentes dans l’épiderme.
D’après : [Link]
47
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
48
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
kératines de deux kératinocytes voisins en un même point d’adhésion. Ils sont présents dans
toutes les couches épidermiques, et prennent le nom de cornéodesmosomes dans la couche
cornée.
Les desmosomes sont des structures moléculaires complexes organisées autour de
glycoprotéines transmembranaires, les cadhérines desmosomales. Les domaines
extracellulaires des cadhérines sont situés dans l’espace intercellulaire desmosomal ou
« cœur » pour assurer l’adhésion entre les cellules voisines. La partie intracellulaire de ces
protéines est associée aux plaques desmosomales où sont présentes de nombreuses protéines
cytoplasmiques et où s’insèrent les filaments intermédiaires de kératines (Collin et al., 1992;
Garrod et al., 2002). Les principales protéines de la plaque desmosomale appartiennent à deux
grandes familles : la famille armadillo et la famille des plakines. Les membres de la famille
armadillo sont la plakoglobine (PKG), une molécule adaptatrice liant les cadhérines,
(desmocollines (DSC) et desmogléines (DSG)), à des protéines de plaque, et les plakophilines
(PKP). La famille des plakines est principalement représentée par les desmoplakines (DP),
responsables de la liaison entre les protéines armadillo et les filaments intermédiaires de
kératines, l’envoplakine et la périplakine.
Les constituants des desmosomes vont être exprimés de manière séquentielle lors de la
différenciation épidermique. La DSG2 est retrouvée exclusivement dans la couche basale,
alors que les DSC2, DSC3, et DSG3 sont très fortement exprimées dans la couche basale et
sont progressivement remplacées par DSG1, DSC1, et DSG4 lors du déplacement des
kératinocytes vers les couches supérieures. De façon similaire, pendant que PKP3 reste
constante dans toutes les couches de l’épiderme, PKP2 est graduellement remplacée par PKP1
(Jonca, 2008).
Lors de la transition couche granuleuse/couche cornée les desmosomes vont subir de profonds
changements morphologiques : la plaque desmosomale est progressivement incorporée à
l’enveloppe cornée jusqu’à devenir invisible en microscopie électronique et le cœur
intercellulaire se densifie (figure 14). La cohésion de la couche cornée est dépendante de la
présence de ces desmosomes cornéocytaires ou cornéodesmosomes. Toutes les protéines qui
les composent sont déjà présentes dans les desmosomes de l’épiderme sauf une qui est, à ce
jour, la seule protéine spécifique connue des cornéodesmosomes : la cornéodesmosine
(CDSN). C’est une protéine adhésive sécrétée par les kératinosomes des kératinocytes
49
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
granuleux dans l’espace intercornéocytaire (Haftek et al., 1997; Jonca et al., 2002; Serre et
al., 1991; Simon et al., 1997). Son importance dans la cohésion intercornéocytaire a été
démontrée récemment dans le laboratoire grâce à l’étude de souris déficientes pour le gène
Cdsn. Les souris ont de sévères défauts de barrière et décèdent dans l’heure qui suit la
naissance par suite d’un détachement de la couche cornée causé par des contraintes
mécaniques mineures. Des analyses structurales et ultrastructurales ont montré que la
cohésion inter-cellulaire est rompue à l’interface couche granuleuse/couche cornée (Leclerc et
al., 2009).
DESMOSOME
CORNEODESMOSOME
Figure 14 : représentation schématique et observation en microscopie électronique d’un desmosome (a) et d’un
cornéodesmosome (b). Au moment de la cornification, à partir de la transition entre couche granuleuse et couche cornée la
partie extracellulaire des desmosomes est modifiée par incorporation de la CDSN, visualisée en microcopie électronique par
l’apparition d’une ligne dense entre les deux plaques desmosomales. D’après (Simon et al., 1997).
e- La desquamation
Le maintien de l’homéostasie de l’épiderme et le renouvellement constant de la couche cornée
sont assurés par une balance finement contrôlée entre la prolifération des kératinocytes basaux
et le détachement des cornéocytes à la surface de l’épiderme.
C’est le clivage protéolytique progressif des cornéodesmosomes qui va conduire à leur
exfoliation (Lundstrom et al., 1994; Simon et al., 2001). Les molécules responsables du
50
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
clivage des cornéodesmosomes sont encore mal caractérisées, cependant plusieurs protéases
potentiellement impliquées ont été identifiées dans la couche cornée. Ce sont pour la plupart
des protéases à sérine (kallikréines) et à cystéine (cathépsines). De la même manière, de
nombreux inhibiteurs de protéases sont présents dans les espaces extracellulaires de la couche
cornée et la desquamation passe par un équilibre finement régulé entre ces activités
protéasiques et anti- protéasiques (figure 15).
La protéolyse concerne initialement des protéases à sérine : la SCCE (stratum corneum
chymotryptic enzyme) ou kallikréine 7 et la SCTE (Stratum Corneum Tryptic Enzyme) ou
kallikréine 5. Ces deux protéases sont exprimées dans les kératinocytes granuleux puis
acheminées via les corps lamellaires dans les espaces intercellulaires à la transition couche
granuleuse/couche cornée. In vitro, la kallikréine 7 peut dégrader la DSC1 et la CDSN
(Caubet et al., 2004) tandis que la kallikréine 5, elle, est capable de dégrader la DSC1, la
DSG1 et la CDSN (Ekholm et al., 2000). Depuis, d’autres kallikréines ont été détectées dans
la couche cornée et impliquées dans la dégradation des cadhérines desmosomales et de la
CDSN, en particulier la kallikréine 14 (Brattsand et al., 2005). De plus, l’existence d’une
cascade d’autoactivation de ces protéases entre elles a été proposée (Caubet et al., 2004).
L’inhibiteur de protéases à sérine LEKTI peut inhiber plusieurs kallikréines, en particulier les
types 5 et 7. Il est codé par le gène SPINK5 et est exprimé dans la couche granuleuse.
L’importance de l’équilibre entre protéases et inhibiteurs de protéase peut être illustrée par la
découverte de l’origine du syndrome de Netherton. En effet, ce syndrome, caractérisé par de
sévères défauts de barrière épidermique associés à une desquamation excessive, est du à des
mutations non–sens du gène SPINK5 (Chavanas et al., 2000). Ces mutations entraînent un
défaut d’expression de LEKTI qui se traduit par une activité protéasique augmentée et une
protéolyse prématurée des cornéodesmosomes (Descargues et al., 2005). D’autres inhibiteurs
peuvent aussi être impliqués dans cette régulation des kallikréines, citons l’élafine et l’α2-
macroglobuline like-1 identifiée dans notre laboratoire (Toulza et al., 2007).
La plupart des études portent sur les protéases à sérine, mais de nombreuses autres protéases
ont été identifiées dans la couche cornée, parmi lesquelles des protéases à cystéine
(cathépsines L2/V et cathépsine L-like), ainsi qu’une protéase à acide aspartique (cathépsine
D) qui sont actives à pH acide et sont aussi capables de dégrader des composants du
cornéodesmosome in vitro (Bernard et al., 2003; Egberts et al., 2004; Roth et al., 2000). Leur
51
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
activité est également contrôlée in situ par des inhibiteurs spécifiques comme la cystatine M/E
(Zeeuwen et al., 2009).
Les kallikréines 7 (SCCE) et 5 (SCTE) sont impliquées dans la desquamation en dégradant les composants extracellulaires
des cornéodesmosomes (cornéodesmosine, desmogléine 1 et desmocolline 1). Ces enzymes produites sous forme inactive
sont activées par le clivage trypsique d’un court domaine amino-terminal. Alors que l’activateur de la proKLK5 n’est pas
connu de façon certaine, cette enzyme semble être un activateur de la pro-KLK7. D’autres protéases, essentiellement des
cathépsines, sont détectées dans la couche cornée et sont proposées comme participant à la dégradation des composants du
cornéodesmosome. L’élafine, le SLPI, LEKTI et les cystatines, inhibiteurs des protéases à sérine ou cystéine, sont
probablement impliqués dans la régulation de la desquamation. Quand l’effet direct d’une protéase n’a pas été montré il est
indiqué avec une flèche ouverte. SCCE, stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme; SCTE, stratum corneum tryptic enzyme;
CDSN, cornéodesmosine; DSG1, desmogléine 1; DSC1, desmocolline 1.
6- Formation du FNH
La compaction des filaments intermédiaires de kératines est assurée par la présence d’une
protéine associée aux filaments intermédiaires : la filaggrine. Mais cette protéine participe
également à l’hydratation cutanée grâce à sa protéolyse en acides aminés hygroscopiques,
constituants du Facteur Naturel d’Hydratation (FNH).
52
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
53
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
exprimée dans la plupart des tissus épithéliaux. Les souris dont le gène de la matriptase a été
inactivé dans l’épiderme présentent des défauts de barrière cutanée, une désorganisation des
lipides et une formation anormale de l’enveloppe cornéocytaire conduisant à la mort
postnatale par déshydratation (List et al., 2003). Un défaut d’expression des monomères de
filaggrine et une accumulation de profilaggrine ont également été observés. Cependant, un
clivage direct de la profilaggrine par la matriptase doit être écarté étant donné que la
profilaggrine est cytoplasmique alors que le site catalytique de la matriptase est
extracellulaire. La matriptase dont l’un des partenaires supposés est la prostasine pourrait
donc appartenir à une cascade protéolytique qui aboutirait secondairement à la protéolyse de
la profilaggrine.
La caspase 14 est un membre isolé de la famille des caspases (protéases à cystéine spécifiques
des résidus aspartate), protéines habituellement impliquées dans l’inflammation et l’apoptose.
Elle est exprimée uniquement dans les couches les plus différenciées de l’épiderme et c’est la
seule caspase à y être présente sous sa forme activée (Lippens, 2000; Raymond et al., 2007).
Les souris KO pour la caspase 14 présentent un défaut de barrière et une déshydratation. Des
études biochimiques ont montré que ces souris expriment les monomères de filaggrine, mais
aussi de nombreux fragments de plus faible poids moléculaire qui s’accumulent dans la
couche cornée (Denecker et al., 2007). Ces résultats, appuyés par le fait que la caspase 14 soit
capable de cliver la profilaggrine in vitro, démontrent un rôle essentiel de cette protéine dans
le métabolisme de la filaggrine. Deux mécanismes de clivage ont été envisagés : soit une
coupure directe de la filaggrine qui permettrait d’exposer des sites de clivage pour d’autres
endo- ou exo-peptidases, soit un mécanisme indirect où la caspase 14 activerait une endo- ou
exo-peptidase qui cliverait ensuite la filaggrine (Denecker et al., 2007; Denecker et al., 2008).
Les enzymes responsables du clivage spécifique de la filaggrine n’ont pas encore été
clairement identifiées. Une étude in vitro a montré que la calpaïne 1 clive préférentiellement
la filaggrine désiminée en peptides de faible poids moléculaire, et que la dégradation finale en
composants du FNH serait réalisée par une autre protéase à cystéine, au rôle physiologique
encore inconnu, l’hydrolase de la bléomycine (Kamata et al., 2009).
Même si les protéases catalysant le clivage de la filaggrine n’ont pas été formellement
identifiées, le “signal ” initiant cette protéolyse pourrait être le degré d’hydratation de la
couche cornée lui-même, qui assurerait une sorte de rétro-contrôle de la production du FNH et
donc de l’hydratation (Katagiri et al., 2003; Scott and Harding, 1986).
54
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Calpaïne 1
Hydrolase de la bléomycine
Calpaïne
PEP1
Matriptase
Caspase 14
Figure 16 : métabolisme de la filaggrine humaine. Schématisation de la partie supérieure de l’épiderme et des étapes de
production des acides aminés libres qui forment le facteur naturel d’hydratation. Les protéases potentiellement impliquées
dans la régulation du métabolisme sont également indiquées en bleu.
55
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
La dermatite atopique (ou eczéma constitutionnel) est une affection inflammatoire chronique
fréquente chez l’enfant dont la prévalence n’a cessé d’augmenter ces dernières années,
passant de 5-10% à 10-25%, elle est devenue un véritable enjeu en matière de santé publique.
La pathogénie de la maladie intègre de nombreux facteurs en particulier génétiques,
immunologiques et environnementaux. C’est une pathologie parfois associée à l’apparition
d’asthme. Elle a été longtemps considérée comme une pathologie allergique ou
inflammatoire, après la découverte d’IgE à la surface des cellules dendritiques, le défaut
d’expression de filaggrine étant considéré comme résultant alors de l’inflammation cutanée.
Mais la découverte de mutations de la filaggrine comme étant un fort facteur deprédisposition
à la pathologie a remis en cause cette hypothèse (Smith et al., 2006). Aujourd’hui il est plus
largement considéré que l’anomalie de la fonction de barrière, due à la perte d’expression de
la filaggrine, est un préalable à l’apparition de la pathologie, permettant le passage
d’allergènes à travers la couche cornée et l’apparition des réactions inflammatoires qui en
découlent. Cependant une mutation dans le gène de la filaggrine n'entraîne pas forcément un
développement de la pathologie, les taux de pénétrance sont d’environ 60% pour les
hétérozygotes et 90% pour les homozygotes. Il doit donc exister d’autres gènes pouvant eux
aussi avoir un impact sur l’expression de cette maladie.
56
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Figure 17 : expression clinique et diminution de l’expression de profilaggrine chez les patients atteints d’ichtyose
vulgaire (IV) et de dermatite atopique (DA). (A) Sécheresse cutanée sur le bras d’un patient atteint d’IV. (B) La DA se
manifeste par un érythème, des érosions et des papules inflammatoires, et une lichénification sur la fosse antécubitale. (C)
Histopathologie d’un épiderme normal. La couche granuleuse contient de nombreux granules de kératohyaline (flèches) qui
sont absents lors de l’IV (D) (flèches). (E) Immunomarquage avec un anticorps anti profilaggrine dans la peau normale
montrant un marquage des granules de kératohyaline (flèches). Dans le cas d’une IV due à une mutation non sens du gène de
la profilaggrine, il y a une complète absence d’immunoréactivité de cet anticorps (F) dans l’épiderme. D’après (McGrath and
Uitto, 2008).
Depuis ces travaux, l’existence d’une association entre les mutations du gène de la filaggrine
et la susceptibilité à d’autres pathologies cutanées a été recherchée (figure 18). Il a notamment
été montré que ces mutations ne sont pas associées avec le psoriasis, autre pathologie
inflammatoire chronique qui touche 1 à 3% de la population et se caractérise par une forte
diminution de la synthèse de la filaggrine (Irvine, 2007; Smith et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2007).
57
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Figure 18 : signification clinique des mutations perte de fonction du gène de la profilaggrine (FLG). Les mutations de
FLG sont directement associées à la cause/susceptibilité d’un certain nombre de d’affections dermatologiques ou peuvent en
modifier l’expression clinique. D’après (McGrath, 2008a).
58
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
sucres et le lactate pourraient provenir en partie des glandes sudoripares (Rawlings, 2005;
Rawlings and Harding, 2004).
Tableau 4 : composition chimique du facteur naturel d’hydratation. D’après (Rawlings and Harding, 2004).
Composants Composition (%
du FNH)
59
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Figure 19 : composition et rôles du Facteur Naturel d’Hydratation. Sur cette figure sont représentés la composition du
FNH en acides aminés et ses principaux rôles connus. Trans-UCA : acide trans-urocanique. PCA : acide pyrrolidone
carboxylique.
60
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
contrairement à celles possédant une barrière normale qui ne laisse pas passer le colorant.
Cette technique est aussi applicable en histologie, et permet d’apprécier la pénétration du
Lucifer Yellow à l’aide d’un microscope à fluorescence.
a- Le pH
Il existe un gradient de pH dans l’épiderme qui diminue des couches les plus profondes vers
la surface de la couche cornée. Le pH de la couche cornée est effectivement acide, entre 4 et 6
et pourrait réguler nombre de phénomènes biologiques (Ohman, 1994).
Cette acidification de l’épiderme provient d’au moins trois origines distinctes : de la
production d’acides gras libres issus des phospholipides membranaires grâce à la
61
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
b- Le calcium
De la même manière que pour le pH, il existe un gradient calcique au niveau de l’épiderme,
croissant des couches prolifératives vers les couches les plus différenciées, puis décroissant à
nouveau dans la couche cornée (Lee et al., 1992).
Ce gradient est essentiel à la différenciation épidermique, il permet de déclencher la sécrétion
des corps lamellaires et de réguler la transcription de nombreux gènes impliqués dans la
cornification comme les TGases, les protéines S100, l’involucrine, la loricrine, la filaggrine,
les PADs, etc. (Elias et al., 2002).
Des récepteurs et des canaux calciques ont été identifiés à la surface du kératinocyte. Les
canaux calciques permettraient de générer l’influx calcique intracellulaire à partir du calcium
extracellulaire, tandis que les récepteurs calciques (CaR), dont l’expression diminue lors de la
différenciation, permettraient le recrutement des stocks de calcium contenus dans le réticulum
endoplasmique et l’appareil de Golgi. Ce recrutement se fait grâce à l’hydrolyse du
62
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
c- La vitamine D
La peau est le seul organe capable de produire le cholécalciférol ou vitamine D3 (Vit D3). Le
7, déhydrocholesterol (7-DHC) est converti en Vit D3 sous l’influence des rayonnements UVs
grâce à un mécanisme en deux étapes (figure 21). La Vit D3 est ensuite métabolisée en
1,25(OH)2 Vit D3 qui correspond à la forme biologiquement active de la Vit D. La 1,25(OH)2
Vit D3 est surtout connue pour jouer un rôle dans le métabolisme osseux, mais elle est aussi
impliquée dans d’autres mécanismes comme la croissance cellulaire, l’apoptose et la
différenciation cellulaire.
63
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
La Vit D agit selon une voie d’action génomique : elle se lie à son récepteur nucléaire VDR,
permettant l’association du VDR avec son partenaire hétérodimérique le récepteur X aux
rétinoïdes ainsi qu’avec un certain nombre de co-activateurs. Ceci permet de réguler la
transcription de gènes cibles via des éléments de réponse à la Vit D (VDRE) situés en général
en amont des promoteurs de ces gènes. L’expression du VDR lui-même est activée par c-Jun
(membre de la famille des facteurs de transcription AP-1). La Vit D permet ainsi d’augmenter
l’expression de gènes de différenciation épidermique comme ceux de l’involucrine et de la
TGase 1, mais aussi l’expression des Pad1 et 3 (Gibson et al., 1996; Palmer et al., 2008). Le
profil transcriptionnel de kératinocytes primaires humains en culture traités par la Vit D,
établi en utilisant des micropuces Affimetrix, a révélé la surexpression de 98 gènes, parmi
lesquels ceux codant pour les PADs, la cystatine M/E et de nombreux facteurs de
transcription et de marqueurs de la différenciation (Lu et al., 2005). L’invalidation du
récepteur de la Vit D chez la souris entraîne une alopécie, le rachitisme des animaux, une
disparition des granules de kératohyaline et une diminution d’expression de la filaggrine, de
l’involucrine et de la loricrine (Xie et al., 2002).
La Vit D peut également agir selon une voie non génomique, via des récepteurs
membranaires, et a été impliquée dans de nombreuses voies de signalisation communes avec
celles du calcium (Bikle and Pillai, 1993) (figure 22). En effet, la Vit D peut activer les
récepteurs calciques CaR et potentialiser ainsi la différenciation des kératinocytes in vitro
(Ratnam et al., 1999), ainsi que l’expression de nombreux membres de la famille des
phospholipases C. En outre elle agit en synergie avec le calcium pour activer l’expression de
l’involucrine et de la loricrine, certainement grâce à la proximité physique des éléments de
réponse au calcium et des VDRE que l’on retrouve notamment dans le promoteur du gène de
l’involucrine. Des mutations du site AP-1 d’un élément de réponse au calcium du gène de
l’involucrine bloquent à la fois l’action du calcium et de la 1,25-(OH)2D3 alors qu’une
mutation du VDRE bloque uniquement l’action de la 1,25-(OH)2D3 (Bikle et al., 2002; Ng et
al., 2000; Su et al., 1994). Cette interaction calcium /1,25-(OH)2D3 a été observée in vivo : les
souris dont le gène codant pour la 1-α−OHase, une enzyme impliquée dans la conversion de
la Vit D3 en métabolite actif (figure 21), a été invalidé, présentent une diminution non
réversible des marqueurs de différenciation et un gradient de calcium épidermique anormal,
ce qui provoque des défauts des fonctions de barrière (Bikle et al., 2004).
64
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Ces résultats montrent que la Vit D peut induire la différenciation épidermique en synergie
avec le calcium. Au niveau thérapeutique, la 1,25-dihydroxyvitamine D3 et ses analogues sont
utilisés dans le traitement du psoriasis.
Figure 22 : régulation de la différenciation par le calcium et la vitamine D3. L’activation des récepteurs calciques (CaR)
et des phospholipases C (PLC) est induite par la 1,25 (OH)2D3, entraînant une augmentation de la concentration
intracellulaire d’inositol tri-phosphate (IP3) et de diacylglycérol (DAG). Cette augmentation induit l’activation de la protéine
kinase C (PKC) à la membrane plasmique et l’ouverture des canaux calciques membranaires. L’influx calcique intracellulaire
et l’activation de la PKC induisent la translocation nucléaire des facteurs AP-1 et l’expression des protéines de la
différenciation épidermique (involucrine et loricrine) permettant la formation de l’enveloppe cornée. La vitamine D peut
induire l’expression de CaR et de PLC.
d- Régulation génique
65
Chapitre 1 – La peau
Fonctions de barrière de l’épiderme
Figure 23 : représentation schématique de l’expression des protéines AP-1 dans l’épiderme humain et de souris.
D’après (Angel et al., 2001).
66
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Généralités
A- Généralités
La cicatrisation cutanée est un phénomène biologique très complexe, dynamique, qui se
met en place après une blessure de manière à rétablir le plus rapidement possible
l’intégrité et l’homéostasie de la peau. La fermeture correcte d’une lésion est possible
grâce à la coopération entre de nombreux médiateurs solubles (facteurs de croissance et
cytokines), la mise en jeu de différents types cellulaires (cellules inflammatoires,
endothéliales, sanguines, épithéliales et immunitaires) et les interactions avec la matrice
extracellulaire. La cicatrisation d’une plaie profonde (qui atteint également le derme) est
classiquement divisée en trois étapes principales qui se recoupent spatialement et
temporellement : la phase inflammatoire, la phase épithéliale et la phase de remodelage
tissulaire (figure 24) (Martin, 1997; Singer and Clark, 1999).
Haemostase et inflammation
Ré-épithélialisation et formation
du tissu de granulation
Remodelage
Haemostase
Neutrophiles
Cicatrisation
Macrophages
mastocytes mastocytes
Migration
Prolifération
Fibroplasie
Angiogénèse
Apoptose
Dépôt de collagène
Crosslink du collagène
Dégradation du collagène
contraction
67
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
Follicule pileux
Epiderme
Bactérie
Oxygène
Caillot de fibrine
Cellule
épithéliale
Derme
Glande
Hypoderme sudoripare
Plaquette
Fibroblaste
Glande
Neutrophile Collagène Capillaire
sébacée
Figure 25 : représentation schématique de la phase inflammatoire. La blessure est caractérisée par la formation d’un
caillot de fibrine dans un environnement hypoxique (ischémie). Les bactéries, plaquettes et neutrophiles sont nombreux à
cette étape. Les annexes cutanées (follicule pileux, glandes sébacées et sudoripares) sont toujours présentes dans la peau non
lésée à l’extérieur de la plaie. D’après (Gurtner et al., 2008).
68
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
Lors d’une atteinte vasculaire, les plaquettes sont libérées et activées par des protéines de la
matrice extracellulaire comme le collagène ou la fibronectine. L’activation plaquettaire
entraîne à la fois leur adhésion et leur agrégation, ainsi que le relargage de nombreux
médiateurs et protéines adhésives (le fibrinogène, la fibronectine, la thrombospondine et le
facteur VIII). Tout ceci va entraîner la formation d’un clou plaquettaire qui permettra de
stopper l’hémorragie. De plus, l’activation des plaquettes entraîne le recrutement de cellules
inflammatoires sur le site de la blessure qui vont non seulement pouvoir combattre les
pathogènes, mais aussi jouer un rôle dans la dégradation et la formation du tissu cicatriciel.
En parallèle, la cascade de coagulation est initiée, permettant la conversion par la thrombine
du fibrinogène soluble en fibrine insoluble qui polymérise de manière à former un réseau
dense aboutissant à la formation d’un caillot fibrino-plaquettaire. Ce caillot est composé de
plaquettes incluses dans un réseau formé en majorité de fibrine ainsi que de fibronectine
plasmatiques, de vitronectine et de thrombospondine. Il permet la stabilisation du clou
plaquettaire, grâce à la liaison de la fibrine aux plaquettes, et donc l’obturation de la blessure
et sa protection vis-à-vis de l’environnement extérieur.
2- La matrice de fibrine
Cette matrice provisoire de fibrine possède également de nombreux rôles essentiels à la
cicatrisation. En effet, elle est impliquée dans la réparation tissulaire, l’adhésion leucocytaire
et l’angiogénèse. La rétractation du caillot est également essentielle à une bonne fermeture de
la blessure.
Le fibrinogène est une glycoprotéine plasmatique constituée de deux sous-unités liées entre
elles par des ponts disulfures (figure 26). Chaque sous-unité est formée de trois chaînes
peptidiques différentes, Aα, Bβ et γ. Le centre de la molécule comprend également deux
fibrinopeptides, FPA et FPB, correspondant à l’extrémité N-terminale des chaînes Aα et Bβ.
Lors de la dernière étape de la coagulation, la thrombine coupe les polypeptides et convertit le
fibrinogène soluble en fibrine insoluble qui va alors s’organiser en réseau solide stabilisé par
le facteur XIII (qui appartient à la famille des TGases). La dégradation du caillot de fibrine est
assurée par le processus de fibrinolyse sous l’action de la plasmine (pour revue, (Clark,
2003)).
La structure de la matrice de fibrine joue un rôle dans ses fonctions biologiques ; elle dépend
de nombreuses variables comme l’épaisseur des fibres, le nombre de branchements, la
porosité et la perméabilité du réseau. Elle peut être modifiée par différents paramètres comme
69
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
70
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
Figure 26 : représentation schématique du fibrinogène et de la fibrine montrant les principaux domaines structuraux, les
sites d’interactions qui participent à la polymérisation de la fibrine et quelques sites d’interactions cellulaires et moléculaires.
Fibrinopeptide A (FPA), Fibrinopeptide B (FPB). Des inhibiteurs de plasmine (PI) et des inhibiteurs d’activateurs du
plasminogène (PAI) sont présents également dans le plasma. Ils limitent une activation non spécifique de la plasmine à
distance du caillot à éliminer. L’activateur du plasminogène (tPA) se lie uniquement à la fibrine (Clark, 2003).
71
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
vitro comprenant à la fois des kératinocytes et des fibroblastes, peuvent servir à améliorer la
cicatrisation d’une plaie étendue (pour revue (Janmey et al., 2009)).
72
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
b- Les macrophages
Après quelques jours, l’infiltration des neutrophiles s’arrête, et une partie de ces cellules entre
en apoptose avant d’être remplacée par des macrophages.
Les monocytes migrent dans le tissu où ils sont activés en macrophages qui deviennent alors
les cellules prédominantes pendant tout le reste de l’inflammation. Les monocytes sont attirés
sur le site de la lésion par certains des chémoattractants qui attirent les neutrophiles, comme
les facteurs libérés lors de la coagulation, des facteurs de croissance, l’hypoxie, des cytokines
inflammatoires et par la protéine inflammatoire du macrophage MCP-1 ou RANTES
(DiPietro et al., 1998; Frank et al., 2000; Werner and Grose, 2003). Ces molécules sont
produites par les plaquettes piégées dans le caillot de fibrine, les leucocytes dont les
macrophages eux-mêmes, les fibroblastes et les kératinocytes hyperprolifératifs présents en
bordure de la plaie qui contribuent ainsi à l’inflammation en sécrétant notamment MCP-1.
Les macrophages sont des cellules essentielles lors de la cicatrisation. Ils possèdent des
fonctions immunologiques de phagocytose et de cellule présentatrice d’antigène et sont une
source majeure de cytokines (comme les interleukines IL-1et 6 et le TNF-α) et de facteurs de
croissance. Ils digèrent et tuent les pathogènes, nettoient les débris tissulaires et phagocytent
les neutrophiles encore présents. Après la phagocytose, ces cellules relarguent des facteurs
chimiotactiques (comme la fibronectine) qui attirent les fibroblastes sur la zone lésée. Ils
73
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
jouent aussi un rôle dans l’angiogenèse et les facteurs de croissance qu’ils produisent sont
impliqués dans la migration cellulaire, la prolifération et la production de matrice afin de
former le tissu de granulation (Eming et al., 2007a).
c- Les mastocytes
Les dernières cellules présentes lors de la phase inflammatoire sont les mastocytes qui sont
aussi une source importante de cytokines et médiateurs pro-inflammatoires. Ces cellules, déjà
présentes dans la peau non lésée, vont dégranuler dans les heures qui suivent la blessure.
Des expériences de déplétion de ces cellules ont montré qu’elles pourraient jouer un rôle dans
l’inflammation, notamment en modulant l’infiltration des neutrophiles (Egozi et al., 2003),
mais pas sur la cicatrisation globale (Iba et al., 2004), alors qu’une étude plus récente a décrit
un impact sur la perméabilité vasculaire et le taux de fermeture de la plaie (Weller et al.,
2006).
d- Les lymphocytes T
Ils interviennent plus tard, lorsque la blessure est rebouchée, lors de la phase de remodelage
où ils constituent le type cellulaire le plus fréquent. Ils sont attirés sur le site de la plaie par
des chémokines comme le MCP-1 ou des cytokines comme l’IFNγ principalement secrétés
par les macrophages.
74
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
La phase inflammatoire
Tableau 5 : conséquences de l’inhibition des médiateurs de la phase inflammatoire de la cicatrisation cutanée. D’après
(Martin and Leibovich, 2005).
Mauvais
Antisera anti-macrophages absents débridement, retard
de la réparation
Normal, ré-
Antisera anti-neutrophiles absents épithélialisation plus
rapide
Macrophages plus
Antisera anti-plaquettes nombreux mais
cicatrisation normale
Réparation accélérée
PU.1 KO absents absents absents
et cicatrice diminuée
Neutrophiles plus
Kit W KO absents nombreux mais
cicatrisation normale
75
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
Nouveau vaisseau
sanguin
Croûte
Monocyte Tissu de
Macrophage granulation
Figure 27 : représentation schématique de la phase de ré-épithélialisation. Cette phase est caractérisée par la formation
d’un nouveau tissu au niveau de la plaie. La plupart des types cellulaires présents lors de la phase inflammatoire ont migré
hors de la blessure et de nouveaux vaisseaux sanguins envahissent la zone lésée. D’après (Gurtner et al., 2008).
76
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
a- Migration
Dans les premières 24 heures après blessure, la migration et la prolifération sont stimulées par
des facteurs de croissance libérés par les cellules endothéliales et les macrophages. Les
kératinocytes dis « activés » arrêtent de se différencier et commencent à migrer à partir des
bords de la plaie. Ils subissent pour cela de nombreux remaniements morphologiques (Singer
and Clark, 1999). Les kératinocytes s’aplatissent et s’allongent, et développent des projections
ressemblant à des pseudopodes et des lamellipodes grâce à un remaniement du cytosquelette
d’actine (figure 28). Ces structures adhèrent aux tissus environnants grâce aux intégrines,
notamment en se liant au collagène présent dans la matrice extracellulaire nouvellement
formée, mais aussi à différentes protéines de la matrice (comme la fibrine, la fibronectine ou
la vitronectine) et permettent le déplacement cellulaire. Pour pouvoir migrer, les kératinocytes
perdent le contact cellulaire et matriciel, notamment grâce à une altération des desmosomes et
hémidesmosomes, et se rétractent, provoquant un élargissement des espaces intercellulaires.
Enfin, ils produisent des métalloprotéases et l’activateur de plasminogène afin de dégrader,
respectivement, les composants de la matrice et la fibrine du caillot ; de plus, ils sont capables
de phagocyter les débris présents sur leur passage, cette phagocytose étant visible sous forme
de larges vacuoles dans leur cytoplasme (Coulombe, 2003; Odland and Ross, 1968). Ces
kératinocytes proviennent des couches basales et suprabasales de l’épiderme proche de la
blessure. Ces changements morphologiques visibles au cours de leur transformation sont
induits par des remaniements moléculaires incluant des modifications d’expression génique et
de régulation des protéines (Santoro and Gaudino, 2005).
Ainsi, les kératines du cytosquelette subissent des modifications : K6, K16 et K17, marqueurs
des cellules hyperolifératives, apparaissent très rapidement dans les cellules en bordure de la
plaie et dans la languette de ré-épithélialisation alors que les kératines K1 et K10, spécifiques
des cellules différenciées voient leur expression fortement diminuée (Mansbridge and Knapp,
1987). Il existe des études contradictoires quant au site exact d’expression de K6/K16 : elles
seraient exprimées soit uniquement dans les couches suprabasales du néo-épiderme (Patel et
al., 2005) soit également dans les cellules basales en migration (Usui et al., 2005). Le rôle
fonctionnel de ce changement d’expression des kératines en réponse à une blessure n’est
toujours pas clair. Par exemple, la délétion du gène codant pour la kératine K6a n’induit pas
77
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
.
Figure 28 : Histologie de la réparation cutanée. (A) Coupe en résine de kératinocytes en avant de la languette de ré-
épithélialisation (flèche) migrant sous le caillot (C). (B) image de microscopie électronique à transmission d’une cellule en
migration avec une morphologie en lamellipode (flèche). Barre d’échelle : 100 µm (A) et 1 µm (B). D’après des images de
M. Turmaine (Martin, 1997).
b- Prolifération
Pendant la ré-épithélialisation, de nouveaux kératinocytes doivent être produits pour pouvoir à
leur tour migrer afin de former la languette du néo-épiderme qui progresse le long de la
blessure pour reboucher la plaie. Quelques heures après le début de la migration, le taux de
prolifération est augmenté en position distale par rapport à la languette de migration. Les
kératinocytes qui migrent sur la plaie sont issus de deux types différents de cellules souches
épithéliales : celles de la couche basale de l’épiderme interfolliculaire et celles provenant du
« bulge » des follicules pileux proches de la plaie (Ito, 2005). Cependant, les cellules
provenant du « bulge » ne semblent pas indispensables à la cicatrisation, même si elles y
contribuent, les cellules présentes dans l’épiderme interfolliculaire non lésé pouvant à elles
seules permettre la fermeture de la plaie (Gurtner et al., 2008; Langton et al., 2007).
Enfin, en 2007 une équipe a mis en évidence un phénomène intéressant : lors d’une blessure
excisionnelle de grande taille non suturée faite sur le dos de souris, de nouveaux follicules
pileux sont entièrement reconstitués lors du processus de cicatrisation à partir de cellules
dérivées de l’épiderme interfolliculaire et non du « bulge » d’autres follicules pileux (Ito,
2007).
78
Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
d- La maturation du néo-épiderme
Elle se fait simultanément avec la fermeture de la plaie et correspond à une reprise de la
fonction et de la morphologie normale des kératinocytes. Les cellules se différencient à partir
des bords de la languette de ré-épithélialisation proliférative vers le centre jusqu’à reformer un
épiderme différencié et fonctionnel. La réapparition des kératinosomes et l’expression des
marqueurs de différenciation comme la filaggrine ou les kératines suprabasales
permettentd’évaluer la progression de la différenciation. La filaggrine normalement exprimée
dans la couche granuleuse est détectée dans les couches les plus superficielles de la languette
du néo-épiderme (Kurokawa et al., 2006; Mansbridge and Knapp, 1987).
2- Angiogénèse
Simultanément, lors de la ré-épithélialisation, de nouveaux capillaires se forment à partir des
vaisseaux adjacents à la blessure afin de pourvoir les cellules qui migrent en nutriments : c’est
l’angiogenèse. Les principaux activateurs de l’angiogenèse sont deux facteurs de croissance,
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Ré-épithélialisation.
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Remodelage
Figure 29: représentation schématique de la phase de remodelage. Cette étape peut parfois durer plusieurs années. La
blessure est refermée et la plupart des cellules ont migré hors du site de blessure ou sont entrées en apoptose en laissant une
masse tissulaire composée de collagène et de protéines de la matrice. D’après (Gurtner et al., 2008).
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Régulation multifactorielle
2- Les PPARs
Curieusement, des acides gras polyinsaturés qui activent les récepteurs PPARα, PPARβ/δ and
PPARγ, plus connus comme étant des régulateurs transcriptionnels du métabolisme
glucidique et lipidique sont également impliqués. Chez la souris, l’expression de PPARα et
PPARβ normalement indétectable dans l’épiderme interfolliculaire est activée au niveau des
bords de la blessure, lors de la phase inflammatoire pour PPARα et jusqu’à la fin de la ré-
épithélialisation pour PPARβ (Michalik, 2001). L’expression de PPARβ est induite via
l’activation du complexe AP-1 grâce à des cytokines pro-inflammatoires comme le TNFα.
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Régulation multifactorielle
Une fois la plaie rebouchée, une autre cytokine, le TGF β-1, permet d’inhiber la liaison de
AP-1 sur le promoteur du gène de PPARβ (Tan et al., 2001). La production de souris KO pour
les gènes de PPARα et PPARβ a permis de confirmer l’importance de ces deux récepteurs
dans la cicatrisation. L’invalidation de PPARα entraîne une diminution du recrutement des
cellules immunitaires sur le site de la blessure alors que l’invalidation de PPARβ entraîne des
retards de cicatrisation (Michalik, 2001).
3- AP-1
De nombreux gènes codant pour des protéines clés de la cicatrisation possèdent des sites de
liaison au facteur de transcription AP-1 sur leurs promoteurs. C’est le cas de facteurs de
croissance (TGFβ), de cytokines, de kératines, de métalloprotéases et de molécules
d’adhésion comme des intégrines. D’un autre côté, l’expression des sous-unités d’AP-1 est
elle-même influencée par de nombreuses cytokines et facteurs de croissance (pour revue,
Angel et al., 2001). Chez l’Homme, une régulation biphasique de ces sous-unités a été
observée dans les kératinocytes après blessure. Tout d’abord il y a une inhibition des sous-
unités c-Jun, Jun D, c-Fos et Fos B qui sont absentes des noyaux des kératinocytes en bordure
de plaie, avant une augmentation d’expression des sous-unités c-Jun , Jun B, Jun D et c-Fos
(Neub et al., 2007). Des souris invalidées pour les gènes de ces sous-unités ont permis de
confirmer l’importance d’AP-1 dans la cicatrisation. L’invalidation de c-Jun induit un retard
dans la cicatrisation, avec une absence de migration des cellules épidermiques sous le caillot
de fibrine durant les premiers jours (Li, 2003). Celle de Jun B provoque également un retard
de cicatrisation associé à une différenciation anormale des kératinocytes et une inflammation
prolongée (Florin et al., 2006). De plus, le déficit de c-Jun peut être compensé par une
surexpression de Jun B (Weitzman et al., 2000).
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Cicatrisation pathologique
F- Cicatrisation pathologique
De nombreux états pathologiques comme le diabète, les infections ou la dénutrition peuvent
engendrer des défauts de cicatrisation (ulcères, escarres ou blessures chroniques) ou une
fibrose excessive (cicatrices hypertrophiques et chéloïdes).
1- Retard de cicatrisation
Lors de blessures chroniques, les trois phases de la cicatrisation perdent leur synchronisation
et le phénotype de certaines cellules est altéré. Par exemple, les kératinocytes en bordure de
plaie perdent leur capacité à proliférer à cause d’une incapacité à répondre aux signaux
d’activation. Cette perte de synchronisation entraîne un retard dans le processus de
cicatrisation. Elle peut être provoquée par de nombreuses causes. Nous pouvons par exemple
mentionner une infection de la plaie par des microorganismes, une carence en vitamine A ou
C, une immunodépression, des troubles de la vascularisation ou de la coagulation, et le
diabète dont l’hyperglycémie altère les fonctions lymphocytaires et entraîne une hypoxie
cutanée.
2- Cicatrisation excessive
Les cicatrices chéloïdes ou hypertrophiques sont définies par une accumulation de collagène
due à une activité fibroblastique excessive au niveau du site de la blessure. Les chéloïdes
présentent d’abord l’aspect de cicatrices hypertrophiques (cicatrice épaissie, érythémateuse) et
elles continuent d’évoluer après le 6ème mois, sans amélioration spontanée. Elles récidivent en
cas d’ablation chirurgicale. On retrouve également dans ces pathologies des défauts de
migration et de prolifération cellulaire, et de remodelage de la matrice.
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Cicatrisation pathologique
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Modèles animaux
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Modèles animaux
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Chapitre 2 – La cicatrisation cutanée
Modèles animaux
Tableau 6 : état des lieux des études sur la cicatrisation menées à l’aide de souris transgéniques et KO en 2004. D’après (Grose and Werner, 2004).
89
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Introduction
A- Introduction
Les peptidyl-arginine désiminases (PADs chez l’Homme et Pads chez la souris) appartiennent
à une famille d’enzymes dont le rôle physiologique est encore mal compris mais qui, du fait
de leur implication dans de nombreux mécanismes physiopathologiques, font l’objet d’un
nombre grandissant de publications ces dernières années.
Les PADs sont les catalyseurs d’une réaction appelée désimination (ou citrullination)
caractérisée pour la première fois en 1977 par Rogers et Taylors dans le follicule pileux
(Rogers, 1977). L’enzyme responsable de cette réaction fut ensuite purifiée et caractérisée à
partir d’un extrait protéique d’épiderme de rat (Fujisaki and Sugawara, 1981).
1- La réaction de désimination
La désimination est une modification post-traductionnelle au cours de laquelle les PADs
transforment un résidu arginyl en résidu citrullyl au sein d’une séquence peptidique, en
présence de calcium (figure 30).
NH2 NH2
I PAD I
C=NH2+ C=O
I I
NH + H20 NH + NH3
I Ca 2+ I
(CH2)3 (CH2)3
I I
– C
HN – – CO – C
– HN – – CO –
I I
H H
Résidu Résidu
ARGINYL CITRULLYL
Figure 30 : la désimination. C’est la transformation, sous l’action d’une PAD, d’un résidu arginyl (chargé positivement) en
résidu citrullyl (neutre), en présence de calcium.
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Caractéristiques des PADs
L’action des PADs sur les arginines libres, non intégrées à une séquence peptidique, est
négligeable. La réaction qui convertit une L-arginine libre en L-citrulline libre est réalisée
indépendamment du calcium par des synthases d’oxyde nitrique. Une citrulline libre peut
aussi provenir de la conversion de l’ornithine en citrulline lors du cycle de l’urée grâce à
l’ornithine carbamoyltransférase.
La citrulline est un acide aminé ubiquiste et non essentiel chez l’Homme. Comme il n’existe
pas de codon spécifique pour cet acide aminé, sa présence dans une séquence peptidique est
toujours le résultat d’une modification post-traductionnelle réalisée par les PADs. Au cours de
la transformation des arginines en citrullines dans une séquence peptidique, la charge positive
de la protéine cible est diminuée, ce qui peut entraîner des changements de sa conformation,
et donc de sa fonction.
Bien qu’elle soit détectée dans la plupart des tissus, les cibles de cette modification et son rôle
physiologique n’ont pas encore été complètement élucidés.
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Caractéristiques des PADs
A B
Figure 31 : organisation génomique du locus des PADs chez l’Homme (1p35-36) et la souris (4E1). Idéogramme du
chromosome 1 humain et du chromosome 4 de souris montrant la localisation et l’orientation des gènes PADI/Padi. A) Le
gène PADI/Padi2 est orienté dans la direction inverse de celle des quatre autres gènes. Hs : Homo sapiens, Mm : Mus
musculus. Les gènes PADI/Padi1, 2, 3, 4 et 6 sont représentés respectivement en rouge, bleu, vert, orange et violet. B) Pour
chaque locus, la taille des gènes (au-dessous) et des régions intergéniques (au-dessus) est indiquée en kb. Les flèches
ouvertes représentent la direction de transcription de chaque gène. D’après Voossenar et al., 2003 (A), Méchin et al., 2005
(B).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Caractéristiques des PADs
A
% PAD1 PAD2 PAD3 PAD4 PAD6 pI kDa
homologie
PAD1 100 65 68 71 59 6.01 74.6
PAD2 100 67 65 59 5.40 75.3
PAD3 100 68 60 5.25 74.6
PAD4 100 61 6.15 74.0
PAD6 100 4.97 77.7
B
Comparaison des séquences
% d’identité
protéiques Homme/souris
PAD1/Pad1 76
PAD2/Pad2 92
PAD3/Pad3 87
PAD4/Pad4 73
PAD6/Pad6 66
Tableau 7 : pourcentage d’identité entre les séquences codantes (A) des paralogues humains des PADs, et (B) des
orthologues de PADs humaines, et de souris (Pads). Ces données proviennent des séquences des PADI1, 2, 3, 4 et 6
humains (GenBank AB033768, AB030176, AB026831, AB017919 et AY422079) et des Padi1-4 de souris (GenBank
AB013848, NM_008812, NM_011060 et AB013850). Le pI et la masse molaire déduits de la séquence en acides aminés des
PADs sont indiqués.
4- Profil d’expression
L’étude des profils d’expression des PADs a révélé une spécificité d’expression pour chaque
isotype aussi bien au niveau de l’ARNm que de la protéine (tableau 8).
a- Au niveau ARNm
Les transcrits de PADI1 sont principalement retrouvés dans l’épiderme, la prostate, les
testicules, le placenta, la rate et le thymus (Guerrin et al., 2003). La PAD2 est l’isoforme
ubiquitaire : ses ARNm ont été détectés dans tous les tissus testés (Nachat et al., 2004). PAD3
est l’isoforme dite « épidermique », car ses transcrits ont été retrouvés dans l’épiderme et le
follicule pileux, mais aussi dans d’autres organes comme le poumon, la prostate ou le rein,
tandis que PAD4 est absente de l’épiderme mais présente dans tout le système
hématopoiétique (Guerrin et al., 2003; Kanno et al., 2000; Nakashima et al., 1999). PAD6 est
exprimée essentiellement dans les ovaires, les testicules et les oocytes, mais aussi dans les
leucocytes du sang périphérique (Zhang et al., 2004).
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Caractéristiques des PADs
b- Au niveau protéique
L’expression protéique des PADs a été décrite dans de nombreux organes et tissus.
L’isoforme de type 1 a été détectée dans toutes les couches de kératinocytes de l’épiderme
humain et de souris, mais également dans le follicule pileux, les muscles arrecteurs du poil et
les glandes sudoripares chez l’Homme (Mechin et al., 2005; Nachat et al., 2005a; Nachat et
al., 2005b).
Chez le rat et la souris des analyses immunohistologiques ont permis de localiser la Pad2 dans
de nombreux tissus ou organes dont le cerveau, l’utérus, les cellules hématopoïétiques,
l’hypophyse, le muscle squelettique et la peau (Akiyama et al., 1989, Mils et al., 1992;
Nachat et al., 2005a; Nagata and Senshu, 1990; Takahara et al., 1989; Watanabe et al., 1988).
Chez l’Homme, la PAD2 a été localisée dans le cytoplasme des cellules sécrétrices et
myoépithéliales des glandes sudoripares eccrines et apocrines (Urano et al., 1990), dans
l’épiderme (Ishigami et al., 2002), dans les muscles arrecteurs du poil (Nachat et al., 2005b)
ainsi que dans les monocytes et les macrophages (Vossenaar et al., 2004b). Elle est également
détectée en grande quantité dans le cerveau (Ishigami et al., 2002).
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Caractéristiques des PADs
L’isoforme de type 3 semble être exprimée dans un nombre de tissus plus restreint. On la
retrouve dans les couches de kératinocytes les plus différenciés de l’épiderme et du follicule
pileux chez l’Homme et la souris (Kanno et al., 2000; Mechin et al., 2005; Nachat et al.,
2005a; Nachat et al., 2005b).
La PAD4 est l’isoforme nucléaire, elle est d’ailleurs la seule isoforme à posséder un signal de
nucléarisation et a été détectée dans le noyau des cellules HL-60 différenciées en granulocytes
ou en monocytes, les éosinophiles et les neutrophiles (Nakashima et al., 2002). La Pad4 est
également présente dans le cerveau de souris (Raijmakers et al., 2005).
Enfin la Pad6 a une expression tissulaire très spécifique des oocytes et blastocytes de souris
(Esposito et al., 2007).
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Caractéristiques des PADs
active. Cette désimination de la filaggrine change ses propriétés de migration sur gel de
polyacrylamide en présence de dodécylsulfate de sodium (SDS) (figure 32).
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Caractéristiques des PADs
confirmant encore que cette isoforme est la plus divergente), sont impliqués dans la formation
du site catalytique. La PAD4 possède également cinq sites de fixation au calcium, deux dans
le domaine C-terminal et trois dans le domaine N-terminal. La fixation des ions calcium dans
le domaine N-terminal provoque une modification de conformation de la molécule dans ce
même domaine qui pourrait être à l’origine du contrôle de l’activité enzymatique par le
calcium ou pourrait réguler l’interaction enzyme–substrat. En présence de calcium, la
structure de la PAD4 est sensiblement la même en l’absence ou en présence de substrat,
indiquant que la fixation du substrat n’influe pas sur la formation du site actif. En revanche la
liaison de deux ions calcium en C-terminal est essentielle à l’activation de l’enzyme.
L’analyse cristallographique suggère également que la PAD4 pourrait former des dimères
grâce à l’association tête-bêche du domaine N-terminal d’une première molécule avec le
domaine C-terminal d’une deuxième molécule (Arita et al., 2004).
Enfin, l'étude de la PAD4 en présence de son substrat naturel a révélé l’importance pour la
reconnaissance de l’arginine cible, d’une conformation désordonnée (déstructurée) du peptide
portant le résidu arginyl (Arita et al., 2006).
b) Représentation sous forme de dimère complexé avec un substrat synthétique (benzoyl-L-arginine amide). L'axe
cristallographique est orienté verticalement à travers le centre du dimère (Arita et al., 2004).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Rôles physiologiques des PADs
1- La peau
Trois PADs sont exprimées dans la peau humaine et de souris : ce sont les PAD1, 2 et 3 (cf.
chapitre « profil d’expression »). Des analyses par RT-PCR ont également montré une
expression du gène Padi4 dans la peau de rat, mais l’expression n’a pas été étudiée au niveau
protéique (Yamakoshi et al., 1998).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Rôles physiologiques des PADs
Figure 34: localisation des PAD1, 2 et 3 dans l’épiderme humain (A) et murin (B). Les PADs ont été localisées par
immunofluorescence indirecte avec des anticorps anti-peptide spécifiques et observées en microscopie confocale. SC stratum
corneum, SG stratum granulosum, SS stratum spinosum, SB stratum basale (d’après Nachat et al., 2005b).
b- Substrats épidermiques
Les protéines citrullinées de l’épiderme sont essentiellement présentes dans la couche cornée.
Trois substrats des PADs y ont été identifiés : la kératine K1, la kératine K10 et la filaggrine
(Senshu et al., 1996).
Comme précédemment discuté, la filaggrine est désiminée avant sa protéolyse en acides
aminés, sa désimination entraînant un changement de charge lui permettant de se détacher de
la matrice fibreuse (figure 36). In vitro, elle peut être désiminée par les PAD1, 2 et 3 avec des
efficacités variables selon l’isoforme. Enfin, des analyses en immunomicroscopie
électronique ont montré une colocalisation de la PAD1 et de la filaggrine dans la partie basse
de la couche cornée, ainsi qu’une colocalisation de la PAD3 avec la profilaggrine dans les
granules de kératohyaline et avec la filaggrine dans les premières couches de cornéocytes
(figure 35) (Méchin et al., 2005). Ces travaux suggèrent fortement que la PAD1 et la PAD3
sont les isoformes qui désiminent la filaggrine in vivo. Le fait que des protéines désiminées
n’aient pas été identifiées dans les couches de kératinocytes vivants suggère que les PADs n’y
sont pas actives, peut-être en raison d’une trop faible concentration de calcium.
La PAD1 étant la seule isoforme présente jusqu’en haut de la couche cornée (figure 35), elle
est également la meilleure candidate pour la désimination de K1 et K10. Le rôle de cette
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Rôles physiologiques des PADs
désimination n’est pas encore connu, mais on peut supposer qu’elle joue un rôle dans des
modifications structurelles de la matrice cornéocytaire.
La fonction et les substrats de la PAD2 dans l’épiderme sont à ce jour encore inconnus.
La figure 36 résume la localisation et les rôles des PADs dans l’épiderme.
Figure 35 : détection en immuno-microscopie électronique des PAD1 (a) et PAD3 (b–c) dans le stratum corneum (SC)
et les granules de kératohyaline (KHG). (a) Les flèches indiquent le marquage de la PAD1 des cornéocytes les plus
profonds (C1) aux plus superficiels (C6). (b) La détection de la PAD3 (marquée par des billes d’or de 5 nm de diamètre
indiquées par les flèches) et de la filaggrine (billes d’or de 10 nm de diamètre) ne persiste pas au-delà de la 3ème couche de
cornéocytes (C3). (c) Zoom de ce même marquage au niveau d un kératinocyte granuleux. Barre d’échelle = 200 nm (a et b)
et 100 nm (c) (Méchin et al., 2005).
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Rôles physiologiques des PADs
Production du FNH
Relachement de la
matrice
Dissociation
filaggrine/matrice
cornéocytaire
Désimination de la
filaggrine
Déphosphorylation
Figure 36 : représentation schématique de la localisation et des rôles des PADs dans l’épiderme. D’après (Méchin et al.,
2007).
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Rôles physiologiques des PADs
La PAD3 colocalise également avec la protéine S100A3 dans le follicule pileux (Kanno et al.,
2000). S100A3 est une protéine fortement exprimée dans les cellules différenciées du cuticule
de la GEI, dont les fonctions dans le follicule pileux sont encore inconnues. La PAD3
désimine l’arginine 51 de cette protéine in vitro, ce qui permet la formation d’homotétramères
(Kizawa et al., 2008).
a- L’apoptose
Plusieurs études se sont intéressées à la désimination lors de l’induction de l’apoptose par un
ionophore du calcium. Dans les kératinocytes de rat, l’apoptose s’accompagne de la
désimination d’une protéine non identifiée à la périphérie des noyaux (Mizoguchi et al.,
1998). Dans les macrophages de souris et les monocytes et macrophages humains, l’influx
calcique induit la désimination de la vimentine, le composant des filaments intermédiaires des
cellules mésenchymateuses. Sa désimination désorganise les filaments intermédiaires, les
auteurs de cette étude suggèrant que ce mécanisme joue un rôle dans les changements
morphologiques associés à l’apoptose (Asaga et al., 1998; Vossenaar et al., 2004b).
Cependant, il n’a pas été déterminé si l’activation des PADs est due à l’induction de
l’apoptose proprement dite ou simplement à l’augmentation de la concentration en calcium.
La surexpression de la PAD4 seule suffit à induire l’apoptose dans des cellules jurkat et HL-
60, via une augmentation des taux de p53, p21 et bax, une protéine impliquée dans la voie
apoptotique mitochondriale (Liu et al., 2006). Le mécanisme mis en jeu passerait par la
désimination des histones induisant une altération de la structure de la chromatine et une
augmentation de la sensibilité de l’ADN à la fragmentation.
b- La régulation génique
L’ADN des eucaryotes est compacté sous forme de chromatine. L’unité de base de ce
compactage est le nucléosome : il est composé d’ADN enroulé autour d’un octamère
d’histones (composé de deux copies de H2A, H2B, H3 et H4). Les nucléosomes sont ensuite
assemblés en structures de plus en plus complexes à l’aide d’une cinquième histone H1. La
compaction de la chromatine joue un rôle majeur dans la régulation de l’activation de la
transcription de l’ADN et de sa réplication. L’activation de la transcription d’un gène est ainsi
conditionnée par la conformation de la chromatine située dans sa région de contrôle : la
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Rôles physiologiques des PADs
chromatine doit être dans un état décondensé afin de rendre cette région accessible aux
différentes protéines régulant la transcription. L’extrémité amino-terminale des histones à la
surface du nucléosome peut être la cible de modifications post-traductionnelles qui
engendrent des variations d’affinité de l’ADN pour les protéines régulatrices. Ces
modifications comme la méthylation, influencent l’état de compaction de la chromatine et
donc modifient les niveaux d’expression des gènes. La méthylation des résidus lysine et
arginine catalysée par des histones méthyltransférases (HMT) permet ainsi de réguler la
transcription. PMRT1 (protein arginine methyltransferase 1) et CARM1 (co activator-
associated arginine methyl transferase 1), en association avec des coactivateurs
transcriptionnels et avec p53, facilitent la transcription en méthylant l’arginine 3 de H4 et
l’arginine 17 de H3.
Le rôle de corégulateur transcriptionnel de l’isoforme nucléaire PAD4 a été confirmé dans
plusieurs études. En effet, le recrutement et l’activité de PAD4 entrent en jeu dans la
répression de la transcription des gènes de réponse aux oestrogènes dans les cellules MCF7
dérivées d’un adénocarcinome des glandes mammaires. De plus la PAD4 peut agir comme un
corépresseur transcriptionnel sur le promoteur du gène du facteur de croissance VEGF-A
(vascular endothelial growth factor-A) (Cuthbert et al., 2004). La désimination des histones
par la PAD4 lui permettrait de jouer un rôle dans la régulation transcriptionnelle en réprimant
l’augmentation de la transcription induite par la méthylation de ces protéines. De façon
intéressante, les mêmes Arg des histones peuvent être désiminées ou méthylées. La PAD4
régulerait aussi cette méthylation au cours d’une réaction de déméthylimination en
convertissant les arginines monométhylées en citrulline (Bannister et al., 2002). A l’inverse,
les arginines diméthylées ne peuvent pas être citrullinées (Cuthbert et al., 2004). Plus
récemment, il a été montré que PAD4 et l’histone déacétylase 1 (HDAC1) s’associent et
collaborent pour générer un environnement chromatinien répressif du promoteur pS2, cible
des oestrogènes, et permettre le désengagement de l’ARN polymérase II (Denis et al., 2009).
Dans la lignée granulocytaire HL-60, la désimination des histones H3 et H4 empêche leur
méthylation par la méthyltransférase CARM1 (Cuthbert et al., 2004; Hagiwara et al., 2002;
Wang et al., 2004). PAD4 contrebalance également l’inactivation par CARM1 du cofacteur
p300 nécessaire à l’activation de la transcription par les récepteurs aux hormones nucléaires
(Lee et al., 2005). Enfin, Li et coll. ont montré le recrutement de PAD4 en association avec
p53 sur le promoteur de p21, une cible de p53 au cours de l’apoptose induite par les UVs, et
montré une corrélation inverse entre l’expression de p21 et la citrullination de la chromatine à
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Rôles physiologiques des PADs
proximité du promoteur du gène de p21. Ils ont suggéré un rôle de la désimination des
histones dans le retour à l’état réprimé des gènes cibles de p53 (Li et al., 2008).
Figure 37 : photographie au microscope électronique à balayage montrant les NETs (neutrophil extracellular traps).
Les Nets entourant les neutrophiles humains après 60 min de stimulation au phorbol 12-myristate 13-acétate (PMA). (Photo :
Dr. Martina Behnen-Härer & Dr. Matthias Klinger).
Le rôle prépondérant de la PAD4 et des histones citrullinées dans la formation des NETs a
ensuite été décrypté. En effet, la décondensation de la chromatine dans les neutrophiles et les
granulocytes HL-60 est associée à l’activité de la PAD4, et la citrullination de H4 est elle-
même associée à une décondensation spectaculaire de la chromatine. La citrullination des
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Rôles physiologiques des PADs
d- Les chimiokines
Les chimiokines forment une famille de protéines solubles capables d’attirer les leukocytes
lors de l’inflammation. Diverses modifications post-traductionnelles peuvent affecter les
propriétés des chimiokines. En particulier, les chimiokines CXCL10 et CXCL11 sont
désiminées in vitro par la PAD2 et CXCL10 est naturellement citrullinée in vivo. La
désimination de ces molécules réduit leur capacité à fixer l’héparine et leur chimiotactisme
notamment envers les lymphocytes T (Loos et al., 2008). La même équipe a également mis en
évidence la citrullination naturelle de l’interleukine 8 et suggéré que cette modification
réalisée par les PAD2 ou 4 pourrait empêcher sa protéolyse par la thrombine, et diminuer sa
capacité à attirer les neutrophiles sur les sites de l’inflammation dans un modèle murin in
vivo. De plus, le fait que les PADs soient incapables de citrulliner l’IL-1β, dont la position des
arginines N-terminales est comparable à celle de CXCL8, montre que la citrullination est
spécifique de la nature des cytokines et pas seulement du site de désimination (Proost et al.,
2008). La désimination de CXCL12 inhibe également les propriétés biologiques de cette
chimiokine, en empêchant notamment sa fixation à son partenaire CXCR4 (Struyf et al.,
2009). Ces résultats suggèrent que les PADs pourraient posséder des propriétés anti-
inflammatoires.
e- La reproduction
Le rôle de Pad6 dans la reproduction a été démontré grâce à l’étude du phénotype des souris
invalidées pour Padi6. Ces souris sont viables et produisent des oocytes qui peuvent être
fécondés. Cependant, elles sont infertiles à cause d’anomalies du développement des zygotes
et des embryons. L’absence de Pad6 entraîne une désorganisation du cytosquelette de l’oocyte
et de l’embryon aux stades précoces. Ce cytosquelette est une structure très dynamique,
formée de kératines, qui subit une suite de réorganisations complexes à partir de la
fécondation pour finalement se dissocier en filaments au stade blastocyste. L’une de ces
kératines pourrait être la cible de Pad6 à l’image de la désimination des kératines
précédemment décrite dans l’épiderme (Esposito et al., 2007).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
D- PADs et pathologies
1- La Polyarthrite Rhumatoïde
a- Généralités
La Polyarthrite Rhumatoïde (PR, OMIM#180300) est une maladie auto-immune qui touche 1
à 3 % de la population française, dont trois fois plus de femmes que d’hommes. La PR est la
pathologie rhumatismale inflammatoire la plus fréquente. Elle touche les articulations
synoviales et entraîne la formation d’un tissu bourgeonnant, le pannus synovial, qui va éroder
l’os et le cartilage sous-jacent. L’inflammation rhumatoïde, comme toutes les inflammations,
est caractérisée par une vasodilatation, la formation d’un œdème et une infiltration cellulaire
des cellules immunitaires (monocytes/macrophages, cellules dendritiques, lymphocytes T et
B, neutrophiles et plasmocytes).
b- Les ACPAs
De nombreux auto-anticorps sont présents dans le sérum des patients atteints de PR, dont une
population très spécifique de la maladie tout d’abord identifiée comme les « auto-anticorps
anti-filaggrine ». Ils ont ensuite été appelés auto-anticorps anti protéines citrullinées (AAPC
ou ACPA pour « anti-citrullinated proteins autoantibodies ») car ils ne sont capables de
reconnaître la filaggrine que lorsque celle-ci est désiminée (Girbal-Neuhauser et al., 1999;
Sebbag et al., 1995; Simon et al., 1993). Dans les articulations où la filaggrine n’est pas
exprimée, ces auto-anticorps reconnaissent spécifiquement et majoritairement des formes
citrullinées des chaînes Aα et Bβ de la fibrine (ou du fibrinogène) (Masson-Bessiere et al.,
2001). Ils apparaissent très précocement dans le sérum des patients, parfois même avant
l’apparition des premiers signes cliniques.
L’inflammation du tissu synovial induite ou entretenue par le conflit antigène/anticorps entre
les dépôts extravasculaires de fibrine citrullinée et les auto-anticorps anti-protéines
citrullinées participe à l’auto-entretien de la maladie (Sebbag et al., 2004) (figure 38). Seules
les PAD2 et 4 sont présentes dans le tissu synovial rhumatoïde et cette expression est corrélée
avec l’intensité de l’inflammation. Ces deux isotypes sont donc probablement impliqués dans
la désimination de la fibrine (Foulquier et al., 2007). Les mécanismes conduisant à
l’activation des PADs et à leur sécretion à l’extérieur de la cellule afin de désiminer la fibrine
n’ont toujours pas été élucidés.
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
Finalement des études récentes décrivent une nouvelle classe d’auto-anticorps spécifiques de
la PR, les anticorps anti-PAD4 (Harris et al., 2008). Leur présence est associée à une
pathologie plus sévère (Halvorsen et al., 2008).
c- Génétique de la PR
Sur la base d’un lien génétique entre la PR et une région chromosomique située en 1p36, une
forte association a été mise en évidence entre un haplotype fonctionnel du gène PADI4 et la
PR dans une population japonaise (Suzuki et al., 2003). L’haplotype de susceptibilité présente
quatre « SNPs » (single nucleotide polymorphisms) dans des régions exoniques qui semblent
conférer une plus grande stabilité à l’ARNm, ce qui pourrait engendrer des taux plus élevés de
PAD4. Des résultats concordants ont été obtenus sur des populations coréennes (Kang et al.,
2006), japonaises (Ikari et al., 2005) et d’Amérique du nord (d’origine européenne).
Cependant aucune association n’a pu être mise en évidence dans plusieurs études portant sur
des populations européennes (Barton et al., 2004; Caponi et al., 2004; Farago et al., 2007;
Martinez et al., 2001).
d- Citrullination et inflammation
La présence de dépôts de fibrine citrullinée n’est pas spécifique à la PR mais a été retrouvée
dans le tissu synovial de patients atteints d’autres synovites (Foulquier et al., 2007; Vossenaar
et al., 2004a) et des protéines citrullinées ont été mises en évidence dans de nombreux tissus
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
a- La sclérose en plaque
La Sclérose en Plaque (SEP, OMIM #126200) est une pathologie inflammatoire
démyélinisante du système nerveux central qui entraîne une perte progressive de la mobilité.
La SEP détruit la gaine de myéline, gaine multilamellaire protéo-lipidique entourant certains
groupes d’axones, qui facilite la conduction neuronale.
La protéine basique de la myéline (MBP pour Myelin Basic Protein) est synthétisée par les
oligodendrocytes. C’est la protéine majoritaire des gaines de myéline. Des auto-anticorps
anti-MBP ont été détectés dans le liquide céphalo-rachidien des patients atteints de SEP, mais
ils ne sont pas spécifiques de la pathologie et sont présents dans de nombreuses autres
maladies neuro-dégénératives. La MBP peut subir de nombreuses modifications post-
traductionelles comme la phosphorylation, la méthylation et la désimination. La protéine
acide fibrillaire gliale (GFAP pour glial fibrilliary acidic protein) appartient à la famille des
composants des filaments intermédiaires. C’est une protéine majeure des astrocytes, les
cellules de soutien et de nutrition du système nerveux central. Les cerveaux de patients
atteints de SEP montrent de forts taux de MBP et de GFAP désiminées, le niveau de
désimination étant proportionnel à la sévérité de la maladie. La désimination de la MBP induit
de forts changements conformationnels de la protéine, augmente sa susceptibilité à la
protéolyse et diminue ses interactions avec les lipides de la gaine de myéline qui devient alors
instable.
Dans un modèle murin de sclérose en plaque (l’encéphalomyélite auto-immune
expérimentale), une hypercitrullination de la MBP et de la GFAP a été observée dans la
moelle épinière. Une injection de MBP hypercitrullinée augmente la sévérité de la maladie
expérimentale. Ces données suggèrent une implication de la citrullination dans le processus
de démyélination de la SEP. L’activité de la Pad2 et le niveau d’expression de son ARNm
augmente dans un modèle de souris transgéniques développant une démyélinisation
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
110
Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
hypométhylation
du promoteur de
la PAD2 de la charge
positive
La myéline devient
instable
Libération de MBPcit
Translocation de
PAD4 dans les Apoptose des
noyaux oligodendrocytes Libération d’épitopes :
MBPcit et peptides
immunogènes
Réponse immunitaire
Démyélinisation
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
3- Les cancers
Deux analyses immuno-histologiques ont mis en évidence un lien entre désimination et
cancer. Dans la première, l’expression de PAD4 a été détectée dans des cellules néoplasiques
de tumeurs de Paget extra-mammaires (néoplasme cutané du sujet âgé) (Urano et al., 1990).
Dans la deuxième, c’est l’expression ectopique de PAD4 qui a été détectée, ainsi qu’une
augmentation du taux de protéines désiminées dans les cellules épithéliales de nombreux
adénocarcinomes. Dans ces cellules, PAD4, CD34, un marqueur des cellules progénitrices
hématopoïétiques, et les kératines désiminées K8, K18, et K19 sont co-localisées (Chang and
Han, 2006). Enfin, une dernière étude plus récente a confirmé par différentes techniques la
présence de PAD4 dans le sang et les tissus de patients atteints de tumeurs malignes
d’origines très différentes (Chang et al., 2009).
4- La néphropathie obstructive
Dans le rein de rat, la désimination est principalement observée dans la capsule de Bowman
(ou capsule glomérulaire rénale), qui est constituée de deux feuillets entourant complètement
le glomérule rénal.
Dans des expériences d’obstruction unilatérale de l’uretère réalisées chez le rat, une
augmentation de l’ARNm de la Pad2 et des protéines désiminées a été détectée dans le rein,
cette augmentation étant réversible après la levée de l’obstruction. Des analyses par
électrophorèse 2D et spectrométrie de masse ont pu mettre en évidence la présence d’actine
désiminée (Feng et al., 2005).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
PADs et pathologies
En outre, il est intéressant de noter que la Vit D, qui est utilisée en traitement du psoriasis,
induit une augmentation de l’expression des ARNm des PAD1, 2 et 3 dans les kératinocytes
prolifératifs en culture (Lu et al., 2005) et de Pad1 et 3 in vivo (Palmer et al., 2008).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Régulation de l’expression
facteur MZF1. Sp1 est un facteur de transcription relativement ubiquiste, qui régule
l’expression de nombreux gènes de la différenciation comme l’involucrine, la loricrine et les
TGases. La fonction de MZF1 n’avait encore jamais été explorée dans l’épiderme. Il s’agit
d’un facteur de transcription jouant notamment un rôle dans les étapes précoces de la
différenciation des lignées myéloides (Dong et al., 2007). En ce qui concerne PADI2, le
promoteur minimal correspond à une séquence de 132 pb comprenant quatre sites de fixation
pour le facteur de transcription Sp1, l’activité de ce promoteur étant liée à la présence des
facteurs de transcription Sp1 et Sp3 (Dong et al., 2005). Enfin, pour PADI3 le promoteur
minimal correspond à une séquence de 129 pb capable de fixer également Sp1/Sp3 et le
facteur NF-Y (Dong et al., 2006).
Toutefois, ces promoteurs minimaux sont liés par des facteurs de transcription exprimés dans
de nombreux tissus et ne permettent pas à eux seuls d’expliquer la spécificité d’expression des
PADI1-3 dans les cellules les plus différenciées de l’épiderme.
Complexe transcriptionnel
Expression basale et induction par le Ca2+
Promoteur minimum
Figure 40 : promoteurs minimums des gènes PADI1, 2 et 3 exprimés dans l’épiderme et les facteurs de transcription
liés. D’après (Adoue, 2008).
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Chapitre 3 – Les Peptidyl-Arginine désiminases
Régulation de l’expression
115
116
Objectifs
Objectifs
Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de mon travail de thèse correspondaient à trois axes majeurs :
119
Résultats expérimentaux
Publication n° 1 :
Méchin Marie-Claire, Coudane Fanny, Adoue Véronique, Arnaud Jacques, Duplan Hélène,
Charveron Marie, Schmitt Anne-Marie, Takahara Hidenari, Serre Guy, Simon Michel
123
La désimination est donc largement verrouillée puisqu’elle est contrôlée via la transcription des
124
Research Article
Méchin Marie-Clairea, Coudane Fannya, Adoue Véroniquea, Arnaud Jacquesa, Duplan Hélèneb,
Charveron Marieb, Schmitt Anne-Marieb, Takahara Hidenaric, Serre Guya, Simon Michela,*
a
CNRS-University of Toulouse III, UMR5165, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 150 (INSERM-CNRS-
Ibaraki, Japan.
*
Corresponding author, Michel SIMON UMR5165, CNRS-Université Toulouse III, CHU Purpan,
Tel: +33-561 158 427; Fax: +33-561 499 036; E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
125
Abstract
Only three PAD isotypes are detected in the epidermis where they play a crucial role, targeting
filaggrin, a key actor for the tissue hydration and barrier functions. Their expression and activation
depends on the keratinocyte differentiation state. To investigate this regulation we used primary
High cell-density increased PAD1 and 3 but not PAD2, at the mRNA and protein levels, and up-
regulated protein deimination. By contrast, vitamin D increased PAD1-3 mRNA amounts, with
distinct kinetics, but neither the proteins nor the deimination rate. Furthermore, auto-deimination was
shown to decrease PAD activity, increasing the distances between the four major amino-acids of the
active site. In summary, deimination can be regulated at multiple levels: transcription of the PADI
126
In the epidermis, keratinocytes coexist in several states of differentiation to maintain the homeostasis
of the tissue so as to assure its vital barrier function, i.e. to protect the whole body against physical,
chemical or biological insults. Keratinocytes, characterized by a scarce cytoplasm and a large nucleus,
proliferate in the stratum basale. They differentiate during their migration to the surface of the
stratified tissue and become first spinous cells forming the stratum spinosum, then granular
keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum before finally dying in a unique cell-death program. The
resulting cells, called corneocytes, devoid of nucleus and other organelles, accumulate in the stratum
corneum and are finally eliminated at the skin surface by the desquamation process. This complex
program of differentiation involves structural proteins ((pro)filaggrin, involucrin, keratins, etc.), lipid
deiminases (PADs).
PADs (E.C. [Link]) have been detected in most organs, tissues and cells. They catalyze the
deimination (or citrullination) reaction in the presence of calcium, converting arginyl residues into
citrullyl residues (for a recent review, see (Méchin et al., 2007)). They are suspected to be involved in
the pathological events of several severe human diseases such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid
arthritis (reviewed in (Méchin et al., 2007; Harauz et al., 2007; Sebbag et al., 2004)). In the skin, the
main PAD targets are filaggrin and keratins K1 and K10 in the epidermis (Senshu et al., 1996), and
trichohyalin in the hair follicles (Rogers and Taylor, 1977). Deimination induces charge loss on the
targeted protein and changes its conformation, its interactions (either association or dissociation) and
therefore its function, as it has been well documented for trichohyalin (Tarcsa et al., 1997; Tarcsa et
Filaggrin deimination could induce its dissociation from intermediate filaments and its subsequent
degradation to free amino-acids, producing the so-called natural moisturizing factor, important for the
epidermal barrier functions as it retains water in the stratum corneum and adsorbs part of UV
radiation (Méchin et al., 2007; Rawlings and Harding, 2004). Importantly, a reduced amount of
filaggrin, which is associated with reduced levels of hygroscopic amino-acids and altered barrier
functions, underlies ichtyosis vulgaris (OMIM 146700) and is a major risk factor for atopic dermatitis
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(OMIM 603165), two very common skin diseases often associated to rhinitis and asthma. The known
reasons for filaggrin decrease are profilaggrin-gene null mutations (McGrath, 2008b; Palmer et al.,
2008; Smith et al., 2006) and cytokine-induced down-regulation (Howell et al., 2008; Howell et al.,
2007). Defective PAD activities also can be suspected since in vitro deimination of filaggrin increases
its proteolysis by calpain I and bleomycin-hydrolase, two proteases involved in its processing in the
lower stratum corneum (Kamata et al., 2009). Therefore, a default of PAD activity could disturb
filaggrin metabolism and natural moisturizing factor production, and consequently the epidermal
barrier function efficiency. Moreover, decreased levels of deimination have been observed in patients
with bullous congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (OMIM 113800) and psoriasis (OMIM 177900)
know how PADs and deimination are regulated during keratinocyte differentiation.
There are five PADs (PAD1-4 and 6), encoded by distinct genes (PADI1-4 and 6) clustered in a single
locus at 1p35-36 (Chavanas et al., 2004). In the epidermis, PAD1 has been immunodetected
throughout the tissue, PAD2 in the suprabasal living keratinocytes, and PAD3 in the granular
keratinocytes and in the deeper corneocytes, whereas PADI4 and 6 are not expressed (Dong et al.,
2005; Guerrin et al., 2003; Nachat et al., 2005b; Nachat et al., 2005a). Using cultures of primary
the medium, we have previously shown that this pattern of expression is due in part to regulation of
PADI gene expression at the transcriptional level (Adoue et al., 2008;Chavanas et al., 2008; Dong et
al., 2008; Dong et al., 2006; Dong et al., 2005), and for a recent review (Ying et al., 2009)).
In the present work, to more precisely analyze the regulation of PADs and deimination, we
successively developed two other well known models of in vitro NHK differentiation. In these models
NHK differentiation was induced (i) by addition, in a defined culture medium, of the active form of
vitamin D (Vit D), the 1-α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Bikle et al., 2004; Bikle and Pillai, 1993;
Hosomi et al., 1983; Reichrath, 2007; Reichrath et al., 2007); and (ii) by increasing the cell density
(Nilsson et al., 2004; Poumay et al., 1999; Poumay and Pittelkow, 1995). Since PADs seem to be
regulated not only at the transcriptional but also at the translational and post-translational levels in
other cell types (Suzuki et al., 2003; Vossenaar et al., 2004), we tested the effect of differentiation of
128
NHKs on the steady-state levels of PADI mRNAs, but also on PAD1-3 protein amounts and on PAD
activity. Moreover, we observed that in vitro PADs can auto-deiminate themselves, the enzymes
becoming less active after deimination. Therefore, auto-deimination could be an additional step of
129
Materials and methods
To produce primary NHKs, foreskin biopsies were harvested from young children without any history
of skin diseases after informed consent had been given by their families according to the ethical
guidelines of the University of Toulouse III, the French Ministry of the Research and Technology, and
the Declaration of Helsinki. Epidermal keratinocytes were isolated according to the procedure
described in (Rheinwald and Green, 1975), and cultured in the defined KBM-2 medium (Promocell,
Heidelberg, Germany) supplemented with several growth factors as follows: 0.4% bovine pituitary
extract, 0.125 ng/ml epidermal growth factor, 5 µg/ml human insulin, 0.33 µg/ml hydrocortisone, 10
µg/ml human transferrin, 0.39 µg/ml epinephrine and 0.15 mM CaCl2 in the presence of 100 µg/ml
The medium was changed every 3 days. When NHKs reached confluence, they were transferred, after
a short trypsin incubation, into either 24-well-plates at 104 cells per well (for RNA extractions) or T25
flasks at 2 x 105 cells per flask (for protein extractions). When the subcultures reached about 70%
confluence, NHKs were treated once with either 10-7 M Vit D (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis), 10-7 M Vit
D and 1.5 mM CaCl2 (Vit D + Ca2+), or 0.1% DMSO (vehicle control), for no longer than 3 days.
NHKs were harvested at 6 hours, 24 hours, 7 days and 10 days after the start of the treatment. When
cell density was used as a differentiation procedure, NHKs were harvested at low (cells covering less
than 50% of the surface), intermediate (cells covering 50 to 70% of the surface) and high (cells
covering more than 70% of the surface with a beginning of stratification) cell density, as previously
For protein extractions, NHKs were homogenized by pipetting into TE-NP40 buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl
pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 1% NP-40, 10 mM EDTA and a 1/100 (v/v) cocktail of mammalian protease
inhibitors (Sigma-Aldrich)] and shaking for 20 min at 4°C. After centrifugation at 15000 RPM for 20
min at 4°C, soluble proteins in the supernatants were harvested to obtain the “TE-NP40 extracts”. The
130
pellets were then solubilized in Laemmli buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl pH 6.8, 0.1% SDS, 1.6% β-
seconds each) to obtain the “Laemmli extracts”. Proteins of the “TE-NP40 extracts” were quantified
by the Bradford method (Amresco Inc.) with a standard BSA curve. After gel electrophoresis and
electro-transfer, amounts of protein in the “Laemmli extracts” were estimated by Ponceau red
For total RNA extractions, NHKs from 3 wells were homogenized by pipetting with 350 µl of RLT
buffer from the RNeasy extraction kit (Qiagen, Courtaboeuf, France), quickly frozen in liquid
nitrogen and stored at -80°C until complete extraction as mentioned in the manufacturer’s
instructions. A DNase I, RNase free treatment (Qiagen) was performed directly on the column for 15
min at room temperature. Quantity and quality of the RNA were checked with an RNA 6000 nano
assay kit using the Agilent 2100 bioanalyzer, according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Agilent
The anti-modified-citrulline antibody (AMC), a generous gift from T. Senshu, Tokyo, Japan, was
used at 0.184 µg/ml. Anti-PAD antipeptides were produced, purified and used as previously described
(Guerrin et al., 2003; Nachat et al., 2005). Anti-PAD2 monoclonal antibody, a kind gift from A.
Ishigami, Chiba, Japan, was diluted at 1/1000. Its specificity has been controlled on recombinant PAD
isotypes (A. Ishigami et al, manuscript submitted for publication). Anti-actin monoclonal antibody
(MAB1501) was diluted at 1/30 000 (Chemicon International, Southampton, UK). Anti-involucrin
monoclonal antibody (clone SY5) was diluted at 1/5000 (Sigma, Aldrich). The monoclonal antibody
AHF11, reacting mainly with deiminated filaggrin, was used at 0.4 µg/ml as previously described
(Dong et al., 2005b). Anti-rabbit and anti-mouse IgG secondary antibodies (Zymed, Clinisciences,
Montrouge, France) were diluted at 1/10 000 and 1/8000, respectively, and used as previously
described (Guerrin et al., 2003; Nachat et al., 2005). Active recombinant human PAD1-3 and His-
filaggrin were produced and purified as previously described (Dong et al., 2005; Kanno et al., 2000;
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Western blotting analysis
Equal amounts of proteins (30 µg; according to Ponceau red staining) were resolved by 10% sodium
nitrocellulose membranes for western blotting analysis as previously described (Guerrin et al., 2003;
Nachat et al., 2005). Immunoreactivities were quantified in arbitrary units with the ImageJ program
available at the following address [[Link] Data were normalized with detection of
For real time PCR, cDNAs were produced in 20 µl from 1 µg of total RNA, with 15 U of AMV
reverse transcriptase (RT) from the reverse transcription system kit (Promega, Charbonnières-les-
ng/µl oligo-dT. First, RNAs were denatured for 2 min at 70°C, reverse transcribed for 60 min at 42°C
and ultimately denatured for 1 min at 99°C. Each RT product was used for real time PCR after 1/10
dilution and analyzed in duplicate PCR plates. All samples that were to be compared were analysed in
the same PCR plates for the genes of interest and the three housekeeping genes used for normalization
(YWHAZ, B2M and GAPDH; Table 1). PCR reactions were performed twice on a Biorad iCycler 96-
well block, with the real-time detection system software, V3.0, in 26 µl using iQ sybergreen mixture
(Biorad, Marne-la-Coquette, France), each primer at 460 nM (Table 1), and 5 µl of the diluted cDNA
with a program as follows: [95°C, 30 sec] 3 cycles, [95°C, 1min 30 sec] 1 cycle, [95°C, 15 sec; 60°C,
30 sec] 40 cycles, [95°C, 1 min 30 sec] 1 cycle and [95°C to 20°C, 10 sec] 80 steps. For PADI genes,
several primers were designed with the Beacon Designer or Primer3 software (iQBiorad Beacon
“blast” analysis and controlled on positive diluted cDNAs (1/10, 1/30, 1/90, 1/270, 1/810) (Table 1).
The efficiencies of the PADI primer pairs were determined between 99.5 and 113.5% with cDNAs
produced from NHKs, HaCaT cells and testis [the latter was from the human Multiple Tissue cDNA
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specificities, amplicons were controlled on 2.5% agarose gel, then purified and sequenced. The cycle
threshold (Ct) number was defined as an arbitrary number of PCR cycles in which the PCR curves
were in the linear range. The Ct values measured for the PADI genes and for the differentiation
marker genes were normalized to the Ct values of three housekeeping genes according to the function
2-∆∆Ct. As previously advised (Vandesompele et al., 2002), the Ct variations obtained for the 3
housekeeping genes in the different cell culture conditions were controlled (the ∆Ct (means ± sem)
for YWHAZ, B2M and GAPDH, were 0.633 ± 0.036, 0.577 ± 0.070 and 0.424 ± 0.204, respectively).
In this work, all the reported data correspond to normalization using YWHAZ. Similar results were
Quantification of PAD activity, referred to as the “deimination rate”, was performed by western
blotting with the anti-citrulline AMC antibody, as described above. To evaluate the activity of PADs
in HaCaT and HeLa cells, proteins were extracted into the following buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4,
150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 1% Triton X-100 and a 1/100 (v/v) cocktail
mammalian protease inhibitors (Sigma-Aldrich)] sonicated on ice for 20 sec and centrifuged at 10 000
g for 10 min at 4°C. After addition of CaCl2 to 10 mM and DTT to 5 mM, the HaCaT and HeLa cell
extracts were incubated for 1 h at 50°C, and the proteins immunodetected with the anti-citrulline
AMC antibody.
For auto-deimination assays, purified recombinant PAD1-3 were incubated in a first step for 1 h at
50°C in the following deimination buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4, 10 mM CaCl2, 5 mM DTT]. Next,
the resulting PAD activity of each isotype was analyzed on a purified recombinant His-filaggrin
subunit and revealed by immunodetection using AHF11, as previously described (Dong et al., 2005).
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed by unpaired Student’s t-test. All the experiments were done at
least three times and the data expressed as the mean ± SEM. Differences were considered significant
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Topological 3D models of PAD3
As previously described for PAD1 (Méchin et al., 2007), we produced topological 3D models of
PAD3 using the atomic coordinates derived from the analysis of PAD4 crystal structures (Arita et al.,
2004). Schematic ribbon representations of 3D structures of PAD3 were derived from the following
PAD4 atomic coordinates available in the Protein Data Bank [[Link] Ca2+-free
PAD4 (PDB accession code 1WD8, also called “empty model”) and PAD4 complexed to Ca2+ and
benzoyl-L-arginine amide as a substrate (1WDA, also called “full model”) (Arita et al., 2004). All the
3D modeling structures were produced by the Bioinformatic Tool Server @TOME (@utomatic
[[Link] (Douguet and Labesse, 2001). They were refined by energy minimization
(3000 iterations) and validated by Ramachandran plot analyses using MSI Insight II modules
Biopolymer, CHARMM and Viewer on an O2 SGI workstation and finally analyzed on the “Swiss-
Pdb Viewer Deep View 4.0.1 (SPDBV)” [[Link] (Guex and Peitsch, 1997).
After in silico exchanges of arginine (Arg) by citrulline (Cit), the percentages of the accessibility to
solvents of the Arg or Cit were evaluate for “empty” and “full” PAD3 models. Distances between the
Cγ of Asp-350, the Nδ1 of His-470, the Cγ of Asp-472 and the Sγ of Cys-646, the four major amino-
acids of the active site, were computed using “SPDBV”. From these distances, the volume of the
tetrahedrons formed between these four reactive atoms was obtained according to the Euler formula
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Results
Looking for cellular models suitable to test for the regulation of deimination, we first used the
immortalized HaCaT keratinocytes, and the cervix adenocarcinoma HeLa cells. Even though we
detected mRNAs encoding PADs by RT-PCR, and PADs by western blotting in both cell lines, we
were unable to immunodetect deiminated proteins using the anti-citrulline AMC antibody (data not
shown). This suggested that PADs were inactive. Since it is known that a high calcium ion
concentration is necessary for PADs to be active, HeLa and HaCaT cells were treated with ionomycin,
a calcium-ionophore which increases the calcium influx in the cytoplasm, or with thapsigargin which
induces the release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. These treatments did not allow
deiminated proteins to be detected (data not shown). These results demonstrate that HeLa and HaCaT
keratinocytes are not adapted to analyze endogenous PAD activity and deimination rate. In all the
following experiments we used cultures of primary normal human keratinocytes (NHKs), where the
Vit D increases the PADI1-3 mRNA amounts in NHKs, with distinct kinetics, but not the
corresponding proteins
Since the active form of Vit D has been reported to induce PAD activity in human myeloid leukemia
HL-60 cells (Nakashima et al., 1999) and to promote keratinocyte differentiation (Bikle and Pillai,
1993; Hosomi et al., 1983; Reichrath, 2007; Reichrath et al., 2007), we investigated the effect of
NHK treatment for 24 hours with either Vit D (10-7 M) or Vit D (10-7 M) in presence of 1.5 mM
calcium (Vit D + Ca2+). First, we confirmed, by real time PCR, the expression of PADI1-3 in NHKs,
and the transcriptional effect of Vit D [with low (0.35 mM) or high (1.5 mM) calcium concentrations]
on three keratinocyte differentiation markers, namely the genes of profilaggrin (FLG), involucrin
(IVL) and keratin 10 (KRT10) (data not shown). As is the case in the epidermis (Chavanas et al., 2004;
Guerrin et al., 2003; Nachat et al., 2005), transcripts of PADI4 and 6 were never detected. The Vit D
treatment was shown to up-regulate the PADI1-3 mRNA amounts and no synergic effect of calcium
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was observed (Table 2). On the contrary, as previously reported (Bikle et al., 2004; Bikle and Pillai,
1993), the high calcium concentration potentiated the Vit D-induced over-expression of the
differentiation markers by a factor of 2.45 ± 0.58 for KRT10, 2.76 ± 1.50 for FLG and 5.88 ± 1.58 for
IVL. The Vit D effect on the amounts of PADI1-3 transcripts started to be detectable after only 6
hours of treatment (data not shown). When we analyzed the effect of Vit D over a longer time (Fig.
1), we observed that the three epidermal PADI genes showed clearly distinct kinetics of induction: the
induction of PADI1 and 3 was maximal at 24 hours, and the amounts of PADI1 and PADI3 mRNAs
had returned to the base line at day 7, whereas the quantity of PADI2 mRNAs continued to increase
We next investigated the effect of the Vit D treatment on PAD expression at the protein level. Treated
NHKs and controls were homogenized in TE-NP40 buffer, a condition known to extract PADs, and
the same amounts of extracted proteins were immunodetected with antibodies against PAD1, PAD2
and PAD3 (Fig. 2A). Using actin detection to normalize the data, the amounts of immunodetected
PAD1-3 remained unchanged after the Vit D treatments as compared to controls. Since PADs require
high calcium concentration to be active (at least in vitro) and Vit D has been reported to increase the
intracellular calcium concentration, we also checked the effect of Vit D on the level of PAD activity.
To reveal deimination rates, NHK proteins were sequentially extracted in TE-NP40 and Laemmli
buffers, and immunodetected with the anti-citrulline AMC antibody (Fig. 2B). No or very little
deimination was detected in the “TE-NP40 extracts” (Fig. 2B, top panels) in contrast to the large
smear of deiminated proteins always observed in the “Laemmli extracts” of NHKs harvested at 6
hours, 24 hours or 7 days after the beginning of the treatments (Fig. 2B, bottom panels). Profiles of
deiminated proteins were similar between controls and Vit D-treated NHK extracts and furthermore,
after actin normalization, no significant effect on the deimination rate was measured between extracts.
Cell-density has been largely described as an efficient way to induce differentiation of NHKs
(Maijgren et al., 2004; Poumay et al., 1999; Poumay and Pittelkow, 1995). We therefore used this
model to further analyze the effect of keratinocyte differentiation on PADs. First, by real time PCR,
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we investigated the state of differentiation of NHKs harvested at low, intermediate and high cell-
density. We analyzed the mRNA levels of four differentiation markers, i.e. KRT10, FLG, IVL as
above and also galectin 7 (LGALS 7) (Sarafian et al., 2006) (Table 3). As expected, the amounts of
transcripts of these markers were significantly increased at the highest cell-density. For PADI gene
expression, the kinetics of induction were distinct. First, the PADI3 transcript amount was increased
around five fold at the intermediate cell-density and returned to the baseline at the high cell-density.
Next, as observed for the differentiation marker genes, PADI1 transcript level was increased nearly
threefold at the high cell-density. Finally, the amount of PADI2 transcripts remained constant. The
high cell-density of NHKs was also efficient to increase PAD protein amounts (Fig. 3A) and to
drastically up-regulate PAD activity (Fig. 3B). Using actin immunodetection to normalize the data,
the amounts of PAD1 and PAD3 in the “TE-NP40 extracts” were shown to have risen by a factor of
2.30 ± 0.54 and 3.69 ± 0.41, respectively. In parallel, involucrin was also increased at the protein level
by a factor of 3.09 ± 1.31 (Fig. 3B, bottom panel) confirming the effect of cell-density on the
differentiation of NHKs. Furthermore, a large increase of the deimination rate was clearly evidenced
(by a factor of 12.72 ± 0.93) as shown by immunodetection of the “Laemmli extracts” using the anti-
citrulline AMC antibody. In contrast, no effects of NHK cell-density on PAD2 protein amounts were
observed (1.32 ± 0.02). This was to be expected since PADI2 transcript amounts were not modified.
To summarize, NHK differentiation, promoted by an increase in cell density, induced larger amounts
of PADI3 and PADI1 mRNAs, of PAD3 and PAD1 proteins and of protein deimination rate. This
corresponds to the in vivo situation where PAD3, PAD1 and deiminated filaggrin are detected in the
PAD1, 2 and 3, after incubation of the enzymes for 1 h at 50°C (Fig. 4A). We wondered whether
auto-deimination might be another level to control PAD activity. To test this hypothesis, a filaggrin
subunit, a physiological substrate of PADs, was incubated for increasing periods of time with the
same amount (40 mU) of unmodified (Fig.4B, lanes -) and auto-deiminated recombinant PAD1, 2 or 3
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(Fig.4B, lanes +; auto-deimination was achieved during 1 h of pre-incubation at 50°C). As we and
others have demonstrated previously (Dong et al., 2005b; Kanno et al., 2000a; Tarcsa et al., 1996),
deimination of filaggrin induced a progressive shift of its migration in SDS-gels, with an apparent
was the deimination of filaggrin more close to ~ 66 kDa was its migration in the gels. When filaggrin
was incubated with the auto-deiminated PADs, the shift in its migration was generally less
pronounced (Fig. 4B, for example compare lanes 1 and 2). Therefore filaggrin was less deiminated,
indicating that the auto-deiminated PADs were less active. This was clearly observed for each isotype
at different incubation times according to their kinetics: after 5 min with the auto-deiminated PAD1
(lanes 1 and 2), after 5 and 60 min with the auto-deiminated PAD2, (lanes 5 and 6, and lanes 7 and 8)
and after 60 min with the auto-deiminated PAD3 (lanes 9 and 10). When filaggrin was incubated with
the auto-deiminated PADs for longer times, it was quite completely deiminated (lanes 3 and 4 for
PAD1, lanes 11 and 12 for PAD3 and not shown for PAD2). These data demonstrate that PAD
western blotting experiments using the anti-PAD3 anti-peptide antibody (Fig. 4A, top of panel 3).
This is probably linked to antigenic variation(s) of the charge and/or structure of the epitopes after
deimination and therefore to a reduced avidity of the antibody for its immunogenic peptide (49-
on the basis of their high sequence similarities, we developed 3D models of PAD3 [without bound-
calcium and substrate (“empty” enzyme), with bound-calcium and benzoyl-L-arginine amide as a
substrate (“full” enzyme)] from PAD4 crystal structures (See supplemental data Fig. S2). According
to these models, the four arginyl residues of PAD3 peptide 49-66 are largely accessible to solvents
and therefore probably to PAD3 itself for deimination (See supplemental data Table S1).
We thought that auto-deimination, inducing a major modification of the global charge of PADs, could
change their 3D structure and in turn their activity. To test this hypothesis we mimic auto-deimination
of PAD3 in silico. First, we determined the accessibility to solvents of all the Arg of the enzyme.
Then the most accessible Arg (% of accessibility ≥ 40) were replaced by Cit in the 3D models [these
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new models were refined by energy minimization (3000 iterations)], and the Arg/Cit accessibility was
computed again, as described in the experimental procedures. We also calculated the volumes and
surface areas of these 3D structures (of either the entire molecule or the conserved C-terminal domain
containing the active site). Unexpectedly, the accessibility to solvents, volumes and surface areas
remained very similar before and after Arg/Cit conversions (See supplemental data Tables S1 and S2).
In contrast, major differences linked to the presence or absence of both calcium and substrate were
observed between PAD3 models. This suggests that the overall framework structure of the enzyme
subtle conformational changes of the structure and/or accessibility of the active site, sufficient to
reduce PAD activity. To test this hypothesis, and according to a multiple alignment analysis of human
and murine PAD primary sequences (Méchin et al., 2007), we compared, before and after Arg/Cit
substitutions into the PAD3 topological models, the distances between the Asp-350 (atom Cγ), His-
470 (atom Nδ1), Asp-472 (atom Cγ) and Cys-646 (atom Sγ) (Figure 5). These conserved amino-acids
have been previously described for PAD4 as the four reactive amino-acids probably involved directly
in the deimination reaction mechanism (Arita et al., 2004). After deimination, large increases of
distances were observed between the Cγ of Asp-472 and the Sγ of Cys-646 (1.21 Å; 23.54%), the Nδ1
of His-470 (1.3 Å; 38.12%), and the Cγ of Asp-350 (1.42 Å; 19.48%); and also between and the Cγ of
Asp-350 and the Sγ of Cys-646 (0.98 Å; 21.40%). This suggested that the volume of the active site of
PAD3 increases after auto-deimination. To evaluate this swelling, we calculated the volumes of the
tetrahedron form between the four previous atoms of the major amino-acids in the active site of the
PAD3 topological models. The computed volumes were 64.05 Å3 for the “empty” PAD3 model,
against 11.05 Å3 for the “full” PAD3 model, confirming the huge effect of calcium binding. More
interestingly, substitutions of the accessible Arg by Cit in the “full” 3D model (i.e. the active form)
induced an enlargement of 2.34 Å3 (21.1%) to reach 13.39 Å3. These larger distances observed
between major amino-acids involved in the deimination reaction, and consequently the bigger volume
of the active site could explain the reduction of PAD activity induced by auto-deimination. Therefore,
139
140
Discussion
Since PADs seem to be regulated at multilock points (Méchin et al., 2007; Ying et al., 2009), we
investigated for the first time, the control of deimination during epidermal cell differentiation at
several levels. We quantified first the amounts of each PADI gene transcript, second the amount of the
corresponding PAD isotypes and, third the protein deimination rate as a direct evaluation of PAD
HeLa and HaCaT cell lines were not adapt to these investigations since no endogenous protein
deimination was detectable, even after treatments to increase the intra-cellular calcium concentration.
We therefore used primary NHK cultures, and modulated their differentiation following two in vitro
models: (i) treatment with 10-7 M Vit D and (ii) high cell-density.
In the NHKs, we showed that the amounts of PADI1-3 gene transcripts are up-regulated as early as 6
to 24 hours after starting Vit D treatment. Moreover, for the first time, we demonstrated by a
quantitative RT-PCR approach that whereas the amounts of PADI3 rapidly return to the baseline, the
effect on PADI1 is still observable at day 10 after the beginning of the treatment, and the amount of
PADI2 transcript continues to increase until day 10. So, during differentiation of NHKs induced by
VitD, the regulation of the three PADI genes follows distinct kinetics. The differentiation of NHKs
induced by high cell-density controls the amounts of the PADI gene transcripts differently. In this
cellular model, PADI2 is not affected whereas PADI1 and PADI3 are clearly up-regulated. In
summary, the three epidermal PADI genes are controlled differentially during the keratinocyte
differentiation program. In agreement with this hypothesis, we have already demonstrated, using
NHKs exposed to high calcium concentration (1.5 mM), another model to induce differentiation, that
the minimal promoter-driven transcription of PADI3 but not PADI2 is strongly increased through
chromatin looping events by the binding of AP-1 factors to several long-range enhancers, 86 kb and
81-82 kb distant from the PADI3 promoter (Adoue et al., 2008b; Chavanas et al., 2008). During the
course of this work, transcriptional profiling of Vit D-treated immortalized (KerTr) and primary
NHKs using Affymetrix genechips and Q-PCR has confirmed the up-regulation of PADI1-3 and other
differentiation-related genes (Lu et al., 2005). However, in this latter study the corresponding protein
141
levels and enzymatic activities have not been investigated. Moreover, the authors have proposed that a
VitD treatment could be therapeutically relevant in psoriasis to correct the deimination alterations
observed in the patient epidermis. Our own results do not sustain this proposal since inducing the
mRNA levels is not sufficient to induce the protein level and deimination.
To further investigate the Vit D up-regulation of PADI1-3 genes in NHKs, we performed luciferase-
reporter assays as previously described (Adoue et al., 2008b). NHKs, cultured in a medium containing
low or high amounts of calcium, with (10-7 M) or without VitD, were transfected with reporter
plasmids containing 700 bp segments upstream of the transcription initiation start site as PADI1-3
suggesting that Vit D does not act through Vit D response elements (VDRE) located in the PADI1-3
minimal promoters (data not shown). Through the use of transgenic murine models, the Vit D receptor
(VDR) has recently been demonstrated to be involved in hair follicle differentiation and in β-catenin
induced skin tumors (Palmer et al., 2008). A Padi3 2-4 fold transcriptional up-regulation was induced
by treatment with the Vit D analog EB1089 of primary keratinocytes from wild type mice but not
VDR null mice. In the same study using chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, 3 functional
variant consensus VDREs were identified among 11 putative ones upstream of the Padi3 promoter, in
the distal region between nucleotides -2839 and –3095. Based on these data and, using the “NHR scan
direct repeats (DR1 to 5) in the 6000 bp upstream of the human PADI3 transcription initiation start
site (Genbank accession number AJ549502) (data not shown). Some of them could be functional.
Finally, to test for the in vivo necessity of Vit D, for Pad expression in the skin, we immunodetected
Pad1 and 3 on sections of formalin-fixed skin from adult wild type and VDR null mice. In the
epidermis, we did not detect any obvious differences in the location or any decrease in the expression
level of either of these isotypes (see supplemental data Fig. S3). This suggests that the expression of
Pad1 and 3 in basal conditions does not need VitD stimulation via the VDR pathway.
In this work, we also observed for the first time that PADs are regulated in NHKs at the post-
transcriptional level. Indeed, in spite of the up-regulation of mRNAs encoding PAD1-3, the
corresponding proteins are not over-expressed and the deimination rate is not increased in Vit D-
142
treated NHKs compared to controls (note that 0.1 % DMSO induces deimination by itself.) Such a
complex PAD regulation during differentiation has been previously observed in other cellular models.
For example, during monocyte/macrophage differentiation, PADI2 and PADI4 mRNA amounts are
unrelated to PAD2 and PAD4 protein levels (Vossenaar et al., 2004). It has been suggested that
terminal region, but other mechanisms may be proposed, including messenger regulation by miRNAs.
Using HeLa and HaCaT cells, we also highlight the fact that PADs could be expressed but not active.
At least one PAD isoform was detected in both cell lines without any deiminated proteins.
Interestingly, in normal epidermis, PAD1 and PAD2 are expressed in the basal and spinous layers,
where deiminated proteins are not detected. This strongly suggests that PADs are also controlled in
vivo at the level of their enzymatic activity. One way to achieve this level of control may be a post-
translational modification. We give here the first evidence that in vitro auto-deimination reduces the
activity of PAD1-3, suggesting that auto-deimination could be a new step of PAD regulation in vivo,
deimination rate of filaggrin and therefore have major incidences on its metabolism and consequently
on stratum corneum moisturizing and barrier functions. The existence of auto-deimination of PADs in
vivo remains to be proved, and the mechanism to control their activity is yet to be determined. It
should be also noticed that auto-deimination of PADs does not seem to induce large conformational
changes of the enzymes, as suggested by our computational modeling of PAD3 structure. In contrast,
we propose that subtle changes (increasing distances between major amino-acids involved in the
catalytic reaction, and increasing volume) at the level of the active site could be sufficient to reduce
Furthermore, this work demonstrates, for the first time, that NHK cell density enhances the
transcription of the human PADI3 (fivefold) and PADI1 (threefold) genes, the expression of PAD3
and PAD1, and mainly the deimination rate of cellular proteins (by a factor of 12). This expands the
list of epidermal differentiation markers, including filaggrin, keratins, involucrin and galectins,
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The expression of PAD4 in HeLa and HaCaT cells and its absence in NHKs could be related to the
fact that these cell lines are malignant or transformed. In agreement with this hypothesis, PAD4 has
been detected in various carcinomas (especially adenocarcinomas) but not in the corresponding
normal tissues (Chang and Han, 2006). Furthermore, overexpression of PAD4 has been associated
with G1-phase cell arrest and apoptosis events in hematopoietic cells (Li et al., 2008; Liu et al.,
2006).
The regulation (or disregulation) of PADs in dry skin environments such as atopic dermatitis, the
prevalence of which increases in children of industrial countries (de Benedictis et al., 2009), and in
other pathological situations such as rheumatoid arthritis, is currently being deciphered in our research
unit.
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Acknowledgments
We thank C. Pons for her excellent technical assistance, the staff of the “Laboratoire de Biologie
Cellulaire Cutanée du CERPER” especially I. Cerutti, M. J. Haure and S. Julié for their technical
advice, the sequencing and genotyping facility of the IFR150 at Toulouse-Purpan, particularly C.
Offer and H. Brun for their precious high efficiency, and the histological facility at Toulouse-Purpan,
especially F. Capilla for her technical advice. We are indebted to Dr A Ishigami (Chiba, Japan) for the
anti-PAD2 antibody, and to Drs H Palmer and G. Carmeliet (Cancer Research UK Cambridge
Research Institute, Cambridge, UK) for providing us with skin sections of VDR-null mice and control
littermates. We would also particularly like to thank N. Mattiuzzo for his technical bio-informatics
suggestions for performing VDRE sequences analysis. This work was supported by grants from the
“Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique” (CNRS), the “Société Française de Dermatologie” and
the “Centre Européen de Recherche sur la Peau et les Epithéliums de Revêtement” (CERPER,
Toulouse, France) and by the “Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale” (INSERM).
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Legends of figures
Figure 1. Effect of Vit D on PADI1-3 transcript levels in NHKs at 1, 7 and 10 days. Quantitative
RT-PCR analysis of the steady-state levels of PADI1-3 mRNAs was performed using NHKs treated
for 24 h with either 10-7 M Vit D in DMSO or DMSO alone (control), harvested at the indicated time,
and using the YWHAZ mRNA as the reference to normalize. The ratios (treated / control) are
expressed as means ± sem for a representative experiment performed in duplicate from among at least
3 independent experiments.
Figure 2. Effect of Vit D on PAD1-3 protein levels (A) and PAD activity (B) in NHKs.
(A) Immunodetection of PAD1-3 and actin in “TE-NP40” extracts of NHKs treated for 24 h with
either Vit D (with or without 1.5 mM calcium) or DMSO as the vehicle control, as mentioned at the
top of the panels. NHKs were harvested at the indicated time. (B) Immunodetection of deiminated
proteins using the anti-citrulline AMC antibody in the “TE-NP40” (top) and “Laemmli” (bottom)
extracts of NHKs treated as described above. Molecular masses are reported in kDa on the right.
Positive controls [C] correspond either to purified recombinant human PAD1, PAD2 and PAD3, and
(A) Immunodetections of PAD1-3 (arrowheads) and actin in “TE-NP40” extracts of NHKs harvested
at intermediate (Int.) and high cell-density, as mentioned on the panels. Data obtained for 3
independent experiments are shown. The positive controls [C] correspond to purified human
recombinant PAD1 (top panel), PAD2 (middle panel) and PAD3 (bottom panel). (B)
Immunodetection of deiminated proteins with the anti-citrulline AMC antibody (top panel), of
involucrin (middle panel) and of actin (bottom panel) in the “Laemmli” extracts of NHKs harvested at
intermediate (Int.) and high cell-density. Data obtained for 3 independent experiments are shown.
151
Figure 4. Calcium-dependent auto-deimination of PAD1-3 modulates their activity.
(A) Purified PAD1-3 (as indicated) were incubated in the deimination buffer (Tris-HCl 50 mM pH
7.4, CaCl2 10 mM, DTT 5 mM) for 1h at 50°C in the presence (+) or absence ( - ) of 10 mM EDTA.
PAD1-3 were then immunodetected with their respective anti-PAD antibodies (top panel) and the
anti-citrulline AMC antibody (bottom panel). (B) PADs (40 mU) were preincubated for 1h in the
deimination buffer at either 50°C to allow autodeimination (+) or 0°C as a negative control (-). To test
for the residual PAD activity after auto-deimination, an equal amount of a recombinant filaggrin
subunit was incubated for 5 to 1140 min with the preincubated enzymes, as indicated. For each PAD
isotype the times of incubation with filaggrin were chosen according to their efficiency to deiminate
this physiological substrate. Filaggrin was then immunodetected with AHF11, a monoclonal antibody
recognizing the deiminated filaggrin. Fully deiminated filaggrin is observed at ~ 66 kDa, whereas
partially deiminated forms migrate between ~ 45 and ~ 66 kDa. More the deimination of filaggrin was
Zoom, from topological models of PAD3, on the four amino-acids (as indicated on the left panel)
involved during catalysis in the active site, left panel, from “empty” PAD3 model (from WD8) with
39 Arg; middle panel, from “full” PAD3 model (from WDA) with 39 Arg; right panel, from “full”
PAD3 model (from WDA) with Cit instead of the most solvent accessible Arg (accessibility ≥ 40 %).
Distances calculated between the atoms of the four major reactive amino-acids, as indicated, are
reported in Å.
152
Tables and figures
Housekeeping genes
YWHAZ acttttggtacattgtggcttcaa NM_003406 94 82
ccgccaggacaaaccagtat
153
* For each gene, the first sequence is the upper primer and the second one is the lower. Abbreviations
for genes: PADI, peptidylarginine deiminase; FLG, profilaggrin; IVL, involucrin; KRT10, keratin 10;
is the melting temperature of the amplicon as observed during experimental validations of the primer
pairs for real time PCR. aAN: GenBank accession number. For PADI genes, the ANs are as follows:
PADI1, AB033768; PADI2, AB030176; PADI3, AB026831; PADI4, AB017919; PADI6, AY422079.
154
Table 2. Treatment of NHKs with Vit D increases PADI1-3 transcript amounts at 24 h*.
PADI1 PADI2 PADI3
Vit D a 1.99 ± 0.47 7.96 ± 1.90 5.25 ± 1.25
b 1.45 ± 0.30 7.73 ± 0.27 4.46 ± 0.46
c 6.45 ± 2.24 8.87 ± 1.93 24.69 ± 8.36
* Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the steady-state levels of PADI1-3 mRNAs was performed using
NHKs treated for 24 h with either 10-7 M Vit D in DMSO or DMSO alone (control), and the YWHAZ
mRNA as the reference. The ratios (treated / control) are expressed as means ± sem for 3 independent
155
Table 3. Modulation of the transcript amounts of differentiation marker and PADI1-3 genes by
NHK cell-density *.
NHK cell-density .
* Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the steady-state levels of the indicated mRNAs was performed
using NHKs harvested at low, intermediate and high cell-density, and YWHAZ mRNA as the
reference. The ratios are expressed as means ± sem for 3 independent experiments, each performed in
156
Figure 1
157
Figure 2
158
Figure 3
159
Figure 4
160
Figure 5
161
Table S1: Arg accessibility to solvents in the 3D models of PAD3*.
* Three-dimensional models of PAD3 without bound-calcium and substrate (empty) or with bound-
calcium and -benzoyl-L-arginine amide (full) were deduced from the PAD4 structures and the amino-
acid sequence of PAD3. For each Arg, the accessibility to the solvents (in %) was computed. The most
accessible Arg (% of accessibility ≥ 40) were then replaced by Cit, and the accessibility computed
again. The same was done with all Arg replaced by Cit.
162
Table S2: Volumes and surface areas of the entire molecule or C-terminal domain of PAD3*.
* Volumes (Å3) and surface areas (Å2) were computed for PAD3 three-dimensional structures either
without bound-calcium and substrate (empty) or with bound-calcium and -benzoyl-L-arginine amide
as a substrate (full) using “Swiss-Pdb Viewer Deep View 4.0.1”. The same evaluation was made after
substitutions of the most accessible Arg to Cit. The same was done for the C-terminal (C-ter) domain
163
Figure S1: Schematic representation of the formula to evaluate a tetrahedron volume.
164
Figure S2: Topological 3D models of PAD3*.
* 3D modeling of A, Ca2+-free PAD3 (derived from 1WD8) and B, Ca2+-bound PAD3. The
immunoglobulin-like sub-domains 1 (residues 1-123) and 2 (residues 124-294) are in green and purple
respectively, and the C-terminal domain (295-664) is in yellow. The lateral chains of the arginines of
the peptide 49-66 in sky blue and of the Arg-67 and Arg-69 in red are reported on the structure to
show their accessibility. Ten amino-acids major in the active site are shown using space-filling
representation. The arginine (Arg-372), glycine (Gly-374) and leucine (Leu-640), probably involved in
the substrate specificity of PAD3 are in red, black and orange respectively. The arginine (Arg-346),
tryptophan (Trp-347) and valine (Val-468) recently reported as important in the active site of PAD4
and conserved in the other PADs are in red, grey and pink. Among the four amino-acids directly
involved in the deimination reaction, the two aspartic acids (Asp-350 and Asp-472) are in sky blue and
165
blue navy, respectively, the histidine (His-470) is in purple and the cysteine (Cys-646) in green. As
observed for PAD1 and PAD4 (Méchin et al., 2007), the two structures are roughly superimposable.
166
Figure S3: No decrease in the expression of Pad1 and Pad3 in the epidermis of VDR-null as
compared to wild type mice*.
* Paraffin-embedded sections of 30 (A-D), 60 (E-H) and 105 (I-L) days old wild type (WT) (A, C, E,
G, I and K) and VDR-null mice (B, D, F, H, J and L) were analyzed by immunohistochemical staining
with the purified polyclonal antibodies against Pad1 and Pad3. Pad1 and Pad3 are located
preferentially in the stratum granulosum of both WT and VDR-null mouse epidermis. No decrease in
the detection level of both Pad1 and Pad3 was evidenced in the VDR-null mouse epidermis. Moreover
Pad3 but not Pad1 was located in dermal cysts of the VDR-null mouse skin (H and L).
hf (hair follicle); dc (dermal cyst). Bars in A -D = 100 µm; bar in E-L = 200 µm.
167
Method: Paraffin-embedded skin sections of WT and VDR-null mice were a kind gift from H. Palmer
and G. Carmeliet (Cancer Research UK Cambridge research Institute, Cambridge,UK). Skin sections
were deparaffinised and rehydrated using standard procedures. Immunohistochemistry was performed
using the Histostain-Plus kit (Zymed) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Pad1 and Pad3
were detected using already described and validated isotype specific rabbit antipeptide antibodies at a
concentration of 1 and 0.3 µg/ml respectively. Before applying the primary antibodies, tissue sections
were processed for heat-induced epitope retrieval using a target retrieval solution at pH 9.9 (Dako,
#S3308) and pH 9 (Dako, #S2368) for Pad1 and Pad3 detection respectively. The slides were then
incubated in a humidified chamber with their corresponding primary antibodies overnight at 4°C.
Colour was developed in an aminoethyl carbazole substrate solution and the tissues were
counterstained with hematoxylin. A normal rabbit antiserum was used as a negative control.
168
Publication n° 2 :
Fanny Coudane, Marie-Claire Méchin, Anne Huchenq, Julie Henry, Rachida Nachat,
Akihito Ishigami, Véronique Adoue, Mireille Sebbag, Guy Serre, Michel Simon.
169
avons montré par western blot que la fibrine est l’une des protéines désiminées dans le caillot
et détecté la présence d’une Pad normalement absente de l’épiderme : la Pad4. La présence de
fibrine citrullinée et de PAD4 a été montrée dans plusieurs cas d’inflammation pathologique
en particulier articulaire, mais c’est la première fois qu’elle est décrite au cours d’un
processus physiologique, la cicatrisation cutanée. Notre hypothèse est que la Pad4 pourrait
être amenée au niveau du site de la blessure par des cellules inflammatoires comme les
neutrophiles.
170
Citrullination of Fibrin and Differential Expression of Peptidylarginine Deiminases during
Wound Healing in Mice
Fanny Coudane1, Marie-Claire Méchin1, Anne Huchenq1, Julie Henry1, Rachida Nachat1, Akihito
Ishigami2, Véronique Adoue1, 3, Mireille Sebbag1, Guy Serre1, Michel Simon1.
1
CNRS-University of Toulouse III, UMR5165, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 150 (INSERM-CNRS-
Université Paul Sabatier-Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse), Toulouse, France.
2
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan.
3
Present address: Genome Québec Innovation Centre and Department of Human Genetics, McGill
University, Montreal, Canada.
Correspondence: Michel SIMON UMR5165, CNRS-Université Toulouse III, CHU Purpan, Place du
Dr Baylac TSA40031, 31059 Toulouse cedex 9, France.
Tel: +33-5 6115 8427; Fax: +33-5 6149 9036; E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
Abbreviations: IF, immunofluorescence; PAD, peptidylarginine deiminase; SC, stratum corneum; SG,
stratum granulosum.
171
ABSTRACT
Citrullination or deimination is a posttranslational modification catalyzed by peptidylarginine
deiminases (PADs) that convert protein-bound arginines into citrullines. PAD1-3 are differentially
expressed in the epidermis, where deimination of filaggrin plays a key role in the stratum corneum
(SC) barrier functions. Since deimination has been observed in various inflammatory conditions, we
analyzed Pad expression and citrullinated proteins during cutaneous wound healing. Full-thickness
punches were performed on adult mouse back skin, and wound recovery was analyzed over 10 days by
well as in the non-injured tissue. Pad3, normally expressed in the stratum granulosum, was not
detected in the hyperproliferative tongue of the neo-epidermis closed to the leading edge, but was
differentiating part. Wound healing seemed to be Pad2-independent, as shown using Padi2-/- mice.
Deiminated proteins were detected in the SC of the non-injured epidermis and of the neo-epidermis in
the late phase of re-epithelialization. At the wound site, they were also detected in the clot and then in
the clot-derived scab. Our data showed that the involved enzyme at this site is Pad4, and that fibrin is
172
INTRODUCTION
173
are responsible for the deimination of filaggrin and keratins (Mechin et al., 2005) but the exact
function of PAD2 remains unknown.
PAD expression in keratinocytes is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription of their
encoding PADI genes. In particular, transcription factors of the AP1 family, namely c-Jun, c-Fos and
JunD, have been shown recently to be involved in a long range control of PADI3 gene transcription
(Adoue et al., 2008a; Chavanas et al., 2008b). These transcription factors are either down-regulated or
translocated to the keratinocyte cytoplasm in the very early phase of cutaneous wound healing (Neub
et al., 2007), suggesting a possible down-regulation of PADI3. Interestingly, decreased deimination of
K1 (Ishida-Yamamoto et al., 2000) and a down-regulation of AP1 factors (Zeeuwen et al., 2004; Zenz
and Wagner, 2006) have been observed in psoriatic lesional skin, a disease with features of a chronic
wound response (McKay and Leigh, 1995; Nickoloff et al., 2006). In addition, wound healing is a
complex and dynamic process that consists of three main overlapping phases: inflammation in the first
48 hours, re-epithelialization 2-10 days after injury (including keratinocyte hyperproliferation,
migration then differentiation) and remodeling of the dermis for a year. Since deimination has been
previously observed in several inflammatory conditions (Foulquier et al., 2007; Makrygiannakis et al.,
2006), the deimination of proteins during the inflammation phase of wound healing can be suspected.
To gain more information on the physiological importance of deimination in the epidermis, we
investigated the immunodetection patterns of citrullinated proteins, Pad1 and Pad3 during cutaneous
wound healing. Moreover, to evaluate the role of Pad2 we analyzed the cutaneous phenotype of Padi2
knock-out mice, and compared wound healing in wild type and Padi2-/- mice.
174
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To investigate pattern of deiminated proteins and expression of Pad1 and 3 during cutaneous wound
healing, we performed 4 mm excisional wounds on the flank of normal adult C57BL/6 mice, and
immunohistochemical analysis on sections of mouse skin using an antibody to citrullinated proteins
and affinity-purified antibodies specific for Pad1 or Pad3. We also used anti-keratin K6 and anti-
(pro)filaggrin antibodies to discriminate hyperproliferative and differentiating states of the
keratinocytes. During the 10 days following wounding, we analyzed the epidermis at some distance
from the wound and several wound areas. We observed the keratinocytes localized behind and at the
wound margin, and the keratinocytes of the regenerating epidermis (neo-epidermis) including the
leading edge. We also analyzed the blood clot in the early phase of healing and then the clot-derived
scab.
Deiminated proteins, Pad1 and Pad3 are detected in the interfollicular epidermis of adult mice
In the epidermis distant from the wound (Figure 1A), and also in the epidermis of non-wounded mice
(data not shown), deiminated proteins were detected in the stratum corneum (SC), Pad1 in the
cytoplasm of all keratinocytes and Pad3 only in the stratum granulosum (Salomon et al.) where
profilaggrin was also immunodetected. These results showed that, in the epidermis of adult mice, Pads
are expressed and deimination occurs with patterns similar to those previously observed in newborn
mice (Akiyama and Senshu, 1999; Nachat et al., 2005b).
175
was delayed compared with that of K6. It was only detected in the upper keratinocytes of the most
distal part of the neo-epidermis (Figure 2), as previously published (Mansbridge and Knapp, 1987;
Paladini et al., 1996a; Patel et al., 2005). Profilaggrin and filaggrin were observed in the cytoplasm of
6-7 keratinocyte layers with a granular pattern of labeling, and in the lower SC. Pad1 was detected in
all the regenerating epidermis up to the leading edge. The anti-Pad3 antibody also labeled the
cytoplasm of 6-7 keratinocyte layers with a granular pattern, and the lower SC. The expression of
Pad3 and (pro)filaggrin seemed to follow the same kinetics of appearance when serial sections were
observed (Figure 2). To confirm these results, double-labeling direct IF was performed using the
Zenon immunolabeling technology and analyzed by confocal microscopy. At and just behind the
wound margin, we observed an increase in the detection of Pad3 and (pro)filaggrin (Figure 3B). The
co-localization of Pad3 and profilaggrin in the granular keratinocytes of the neo-epidermis was clearly
demonstrated (Figure 3C). Double-labeling was performed with the anti-K6 and anti-Pad3 antibodies
to control the specificity of detection. The absence of transfer of the Zenon-label from one primary
antibody to the other was confirmed since K6 was not detected in the epidermis at some distance from
the wound where Pad3 was (Figure 3D, left part of the pictures).
During the late phase (day 6-8) of re-epithelialization (Figure 4) citrullinated proteins were detected
in the scab and the SC of the neo-epidermis. The migrating tongue of the neo-epidermis had achieved
its progression, i.e. the leading edges were in contact, and the keratinocytes were no longer
proliferating as demonstrated by the absence of K6. Pad1 was detected in all the neo-epidermis with a
lower intensity in the basal layer. Pad3 was still co-expressed with (pro)filaggrin in several layers of
granular keratinocytes.
Later in the process of healing (8 to 10 days) when the scab had came out, deiminated proteins were
only detected in the SC (Figure 5, upper). Pad1 was detected in all the suprabasal epidermis (data not
shown). K6 was no longer expressed. Pad3 and (pro)filaggrin still had the same granular pattern of
expression in differentiating keratinocytes (Figure 5).
This colocalization of Pad3 and profilaggrin in the granular keratinocytes, probably in keratohyalin
granules, observed during the entire re-epithelialization suggested a similar mechanism of regulation
for the expression of both proteins. Since filaggrin is a substrate of PAD3, we can suspect that the
expression pattern of these proteins had converged during evolution. Interestingly, expression of both
human filaggrin and PAD3 genes has been shown to be regulated at the transcriptional level, and
implicates Activated Protein-1 (AP-1) transcription factors, particularly c-Jun (Adoue et al., 2008a;
Chavanas et al., 2008b; Jang et al., 1996). Expression of c-Jun is also reduced at the wound margins in
the early phase of wound healing (Neub et al., 2007). A downregulation of c-Jun transcripts has also
been found in psoriasis (Basset-Seguin et al., 1991; Zenz et al., 2005). A resulting reduction of PAD3
expression, that remains to be tested, could therefore explain the decrease deimination of keratins
observed in the patient SC.
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In the scab fibrin is a good candidate for deimination by Pad4
To biochemically characterize the citrullinated proteins in the scab we performed western blotting
experiments (Figure 6A) with proteins sequentially extracted in different solubility conditions: in the
presence of first nonidet P-40 detergent (TENP40 buffer extracts), then urea (TEU buffer extracts) and
finally urea and a reducing agent (TEUDTT buffer extracts). The anti-citrulline antibody clearly
immunodetected several citrullinated proteins of various molecular weight, essentially in the TENP40
and TEU buffer extracts (lanes 1 and 2). A fibrin-rich clot is known to form early in the course of
wound repair (Gurtner et al., 2008). Moreover, citrullinated fibrin has been identified in the synovial
tissue affected by a wide variety of inflammatory conditions and shown to be extracted in similar
conditions (Chapuy-Regaud et al., 2005; Foulquier et al., 2007). We therefore investigated whether
fibrin was a potential target of PADs in the scab. We confirmed the presence of fibrin in the TEU
buffer extracts by western blotting with an antiserum directed to the β-chain of fibrin(ogen). The β-
chain was mainly detected as a large band of approximately 55 kD (Figure 6B). This band co-migrated
with the in vitro citrullinated β-chain of purified mouse fibrinogen used as a positive control. We then
performed immunoblotting of the same membrane after dehybridation, with the anti citrulline
antibody. An immunoreactive band was detected at exactly the same size (Figure 6B, arrow),
indicating that fibrin could actually be one of the citrullinated extracellular proteins detected in the
scab. This is another example of fibrin deimination during inflammation. This confirms that fibrin
deimination is neither synovium- nor rheumatoid arthritis-specific but rather an inflammation-related
process. The function of fibrin deimination is not known. However, two recent studies have suggested
that the citrullination of fibrinogen could inhibit its transformation directed by thrombin into fibrin
fibrils (Nakayama-Hamada et al., 2008; Okumura et al., 2009).
We next looked for the Pad isotypes present in the protein extracts of scabs by immunoblotting
(Figure 6C) using the above described isotype-specific anti-Pad antibodies. Two additional probes
were used: a monoclonal antibody specific for PAD2, and affinity-purified antibodies specific for
PAD4, both known to specifically react with their corresponding mouse ortholog, but that had
unfortunately turned out useless in immunohistological analysis despite extensive work to overcome
low reactivity and high background levels on mouse tissues (not shown). Pad1, 2 and 3 could not be
detected in the scab extracts. The absence of Pad1 and 3 detection is consistent with the
immunohistological data. Only Pad4 was detected in the TEU buffer extracts. This suggests that, in the
wound-induced scab, Pad4 is the isotype involved in the deimination of proteins, and particularly of
fibrin. This hypothesis is in line with the observation of PAD4 isotype in the inflamed synovium of
human patients with arthritis where fibrin has been shown to constitute an important target for this
enzyme (Foulquier et al., 2007) or of mice and rat with various experimentally-induced arthritides
(Vossenaar et al., 2003; Lundberg et al., 2005). It is also consistent with PAD4 being expressed in
various cells of the hematopoietic lineage (Hagiwara et al., 2002), including monocytes, macrophages
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and neutrophils, i.e. cells commonly found in wound scabs and of importance for the wound repair. In
fact, after formation of a platelet plug, the cellular response of the inflammatory phase is characterized
by the influx of leukocytes at the wound site. Shortly after the injury, neutrophils are the first cells to
migrate in great number to form a barrier against the invading pathogens at the wound site. They
reside diffusely distributed in the blood clot, which provides a matrix for the recruitment of cells
(Gillitzer and Goebeler, 2001). At the wound site (day 4) in the scab, we experimentally confirmed the
already known presence of polynuclear cells by haematoxylin/eosin staining, and of neutrophils by
immunohistochemistry with the monoclonal antibody NIMP-R14 (Figure S1). Interestingly, histone
hypercitrullination performed by PAD4 has been detected in neutrophils and has been suggested to
play a major role in the innate immune response to bacterial infections by mediating chromatin
decondensation. Upon activation, neutrophils release in the extracellular space highly decondensed
chromatin structures associated with cytoplasmic proteins, termed neutrophil extracellular traps. These
structures bind bacteria and fungi, and induce their death through a high local concentration of
antimicrobial peptides (Fuchs et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2009). This process may take place for
neutrophils in the clot and be at the origin of the extracellular release of Pad4 that can mediate
citrullination of extracellular proteins including fibrin. An alternative possibility is that apoptosis (or
necrosis) of Pad-expressing cells present in the clot could lead to leak out of the enzymes following
membrane integrity lost. Whatever the cells and mechanisms involved in Pad expression and
activation, it should be mentioned that the presence of Pad4, the only isoform with a nuclear
localization signal (Nakashima et al., 2002b), is in agreement with the immunohistological detection
of citrullinated proteins in the nucleus of some cells in the clot and the scab (Figures 1, 2 and 3A).
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proteins were strongly detected in the scabs with both extracellular and nuclear staining patterns
(enlargements, Figure 7B upper part). Finally, the patterns and kinetics of K6, (pro)filaggrin and Pad3
expression in skin during wound healing in wild type and Padi2-/- mice were identical (Figure 7B and
data not shown). These data demonstrate that the Pad2 isotype does not play an essential role in the
completion of wound closure and in the citrullination of proteins in the blood clot and the clot-derived
scab. They strengthen the role of Pad4 in the deimination of proteins in the clot during cutaneous
wound healing.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Antibodies
The characterization of the isotype-specific affinity-purified rabbit anti-peptide antibodies directed to
Pad1, 3 and 4 has already been reported (Guerrin et al., 2003a; Nachat et al., 2005b). The mouse
monoclonal anti-Pad2 antibody was recently described (Shimada et al., in press). Rabbit polyclonal
antibodies against keratin K6 and (pro)filaggrin were from Covance Research (Princeton, NJ) and the
rabbit polyclonal antibody against fibrin(ogen) was from Cambio (Cambridge, UK). Citrullinated
proteins were probed using rabbit IgG to modified citrullyl residues, a generous gift of Pr Tatsuo
Senshu, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan), as previously described (Senshu et al., 1992).
Immunohistology
The formalin-fixed mouse skin samples were embedded in paraffin and 5 µm-thick sections were
generated. Immunohistochemical staining was performed using a Vectastain ABC kit (Vector
Laboratories, Burlingame, CA), according to the manufacturer’s instruction. Anti-Pad1 and -Pad3
were diluted to 1 and 0.3 µg/ml, respectively. The antibodies against keratin K6 and (pro)filaggrin
were diluted following the manufacturer recommendations. Citrullinated proteins were probed using
rabbit IgG to modified citrullyl residues after in situ modification of citrullyl residues as previously
described (Senshu et al., 1992). Before overnight incubation at 4°C in a moist chamber with the
primary antibodies, tissue sections were processed for heat-induced epitope retrieval using one of the
following target retrieval solutions: pH 9.9 or 9 buffered solutions (Dako, Glostru, Denmark) for the
detection of citrullinated proteins or Pad3, respectively, and a 1 mM EDTA pH 10 solution for Pad1
detection. Finally, the slides were incubated for 10 minutes with the secondary reagent provided in the
kit, and bound antibodies were visualized by incubation for 10 minutes at room temperature with
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diaminobenzidine and counterstained with hematoxylin. A normal rabbit antiserum was used as a
negative control.
Indirect IF was performed on mouse skin samples, after antigen retrieval as described above. After
rehydration in PBS at room temperature, sections were incubated in a moist chamber for 30 minutes
with PBS containing 1% goat serum and 0.05% Tween-20, then 1 hour at 37°C with the antibodies
diluted in the same buffer. After washing four times in PBS containing 0.05% Tween-20, sections
were incubated for 1 hour at room temperature with 488 Alexa Fluor® secondary antibodies diluted to
1/1000 in PBS containing 1% bovine serum albumin and 0.05% Tween-20. Sections were washed in
PBS and mounted in an anti-fading solution (Mowiol; Calbiochem, San Diego, CA) before
observation under a confocal laser microscope (LSM510, Carl Zeiss, Iena, Germany).
Direct double-labeling IF was performed with the Zenon labeling system that allows using of multiple
antibodies derived from the same species in the same protocol, according to the manufacturer
instructions (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Rabbit anti-(pro)filaggrin and -keratin K6 antibodies were
prelabeled with the Zenon® Alexa Fluor® 555 Rabbit IgG2b labeling kit, and rabbit anti-Pad3
antibodies with the Zenon® Alexa Fluor® 488 Rabbit IgG2b labeling kit with a final dilution of
1/100, 1/100 and 1/30, respectively. Sections were observed by confocal microscopy (LSM710, Carl
Zeiss). Co-localization was evaluated by a comparison of the emission spectra of the fluorochromes
along a line crossing several stained keratohyalin granules using the Zen 2008 software (Carl Zeiss).
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Padi2 knock out mice
The Pad2 deficient mice were obtained from Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceutical, Inc. (Ridgefield,
CT) and have been described previously (Rajmakers et al., 2006). All mice were bred and housed in a
specific pathogen-free transgenic mouse facility and the animal protocols were approved by the
French Ministry for Education, Research and Technology (Genetic Engineering Commission) and the
CNRS.
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CONFLICT OF INTEREST
All authors state no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to Dr Brian Werneburg and Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceutical for the gift of
Padi2+/- mice, Pr Hidenari Takahara (Ibaraki University, Japan) for the recombinant PADs, and Pr
Tatsuo Shenshu for the anti-citrullinated protein antibodies. We thank Carole Pons and Renan
Destrade for their excellent technical assistance, Sophie Allard from the confocal microscopy facility
(INSERM, IFR150, Toulouse), and Dr Talal al Saati (INSERM, UMR563, Toulouse) for his help in
the identification of cellular infiltrate. We are also indebted to the experimental histopathology and
animal facilities (Platform in Life Sciences AnExplo of Toulouse genopole (Genotoul)) of IFR150.
This work was supported by the «Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale»
(INSERM), the Toulouse University and the «Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique» (CNRS).
183
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LEGENDS
Figure 1. Localization of deiminated proteins, Pad1 and Pad3 in skin during the wound healing
early inflammatory phase.
Citrullinated proteins (Candi et al.), Pad1, Pad3 and (pro)filaggrin ((pro)Flg) were
immunohistochemically localized in sections of paraffin-embedded samples of mouse wounded skin,
as indicated. The samples were obtained 1 day after wounding, at the early inflammatory stage of
healing. The analyses were performed both at some distance from (A) and at the level of (B) the
wound site. A strong staining of citrullinated proteins is observed in the clot where the arrows denote
nuclear staining of some cells and the star a diffuse, apparently extracellular, staining. The dotted lines
show the dermo-epidermal junction, and the arrowheads the wounded site. Scale bars = 100 µm.
Figure 2. Localization of deiminated proteins, Pad1 and Pad3 in normal skin during the wound
healing early phase of re-epithelialization.
Paraffin-embedded skin sections of wounded mice were analyzed using the anti-modified citrulline
(Candi et al.), anti-Pad1 and anti-Pad3 antibodies, as indicated. Keratin K6 and (pro)filaggrin
((pro)Flg) specific antibodies were used to mark keratinocyte hyperproliferation and late
differentiation, respectively. The samples were obtained 2 to 4 days after wounding during the early
stage of re-epithelialization. A strong staining of citrullinated proteins is observed mainly inside the
scab. The arrows denote the presence of a nuclear staining and the star indicates a diffuse, extracellular
staining. The dotted lines show the dermo-epidermal junction. Scale bars = 100 µm.
Figure 3. Co-localization of Pad3 and profilaggrin in normal skin during the wound healing
early phase of re-epithelialization.
Paraffin-embedded skin sections of wounded mice were analyzed by confocal microscopy using the
anti- modified citrulline, anti-Pad1, anti-Pad3, anti-keratin K6 and anti-(pro)filaggrin antibodies, as
indicated. The samples were obtained 2 to 4 days after wounding. The abbreviations are as in Figure 2,
and the wounded site (ws) is indicated by an open arrow. (A) The presence of citrullinated proteins in
the scab is confirmed: the arrows denote the presence of abundant nuclear staining and the star
indicates diffuse staining. An increase in the detection of citrullinated proteins in the stratum corneum
is observed at the wound margin, as compared to the more distal epidermis. (B) Using the Zenon
technology for immunolabelling and direct immunofluorescence, an increase in the detection of Pad3
and (pro)filaggrin in the stratum granulosum is observed at the wound margin. A merged image of
(pro)filaggrin/Pad3 detection is shown. (C) The co-localization of (pro)filaggrin and Pad3 in granular
keratinocytes is shown by double labeling, and confirmed by the spectral profiles of the two
fluorochromes (Zenon-Alexa-488 in green and Zenon-Alexa-555 in red) detected along the white
arrow (lower panels). (D) A merged image of K6/Pad3 detection is shown. The absence of a total
superposition indicates the stability of the Zenon-Fab-antibody complexes and the absence of transfer
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of the Zenon-labels from one primary antibody to the other. The dotted lines show the dermo-
epidermal junction. Scale bars = 100 µm.
Figure 4. Localization of deiminated proteins, Pad1 and Pad3 in normal skin during the wound
healing late phase of re-epithelialization.
Paraffin-embedded skin sections of wounded mice were analyzed using the anti-modified citrulline,
anti-Pad1, anti-Pad3, anti-keratin K6 and anti-(pro)filaggrin antibodies, as indicated. The skin biopsies
were obtained 6 to 8 days after wounding during the late stage of re-epithelialization where no more
proliferative keratinocytes can be observed (keratin K6 is not detected). The abbreviations are as in
Figure 2. A strong staining of deiminated proteins is observed in the scab and the stratum corneum.
The dotted lines show the dermo-epidermal junction. Scale bars = 100 µm.
Figure 5. Localization of deiminated proteins, Pad3, keratin 6 and (pro)filaggrin in normal skin
at the end of the process of wound healing.
Paraffin-embedded skin sections of wounded mice were analyzed using the anti modified citrulline,
anti-Pad1, anti-Pad3, anti-keratin K6 and anti-(pro)filaggrin antibodies, as indicated. The sections
were obtained 8 to 10 days after wounding. Note the detection of deiminated proteins in the stratum
corneum of the neo-epidermis (arrow). The abbreviations are as in Figure 2. The dotted lines show the
dermo-epidermal junction. Scale bars = 100 µm.
Figure 7. Pad2 is not required for a normal cutaneous wound healing in mice.
The healing process of excisional wounds in the back skin of Padi2 knockout and control mice was
followed over 10 days (n=6 animals per genotype and time point, 1–4 wounds of each animal were
analyzed). (A) The surfaces of wound closure were measured over time and plotted as a percentage of
the surface at day zero. No significant differences in wound closure were detected between wild type
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(black line) and Padi2-/- (gray line) mice. Bars represent the mean plus standard deviation. (B)
paraffin-embedded skin sections of wounded Padi2-/- mouse were analyzed using the anti-modified
citrulline, anti-keratin K6, anti-(pro)filaggrin and anti-Pad3 antibodies, as indicated. The samples were
obtained 4 to 6 days after wounding during the early stage of re-epithelialization where proliferative
keratinocytes can be observed (detection of K6). The abbreviations are as in Figure 2. The dotted lines
show the dermo-epidermal junction. Scale bars = 100 µm or 10 µm in the enlargements.
Supplemental Figure S2. The epidermis of Padi2 knockout mice is apparently normal.
(A) Frozen newborn mouse skin samples were first ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen. All
subsequent steps were performed at 0-4°C. The proteins were sequentially extracted by suspension in
Hepes buffer (50 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.6, 1 mM EGTA, 0.43 mM PMSF, 0.5 mM DTT, 1% Triton
X-100) and disruption by sonication (Lippens S). After centrifugation for 30 minutes at 12,000 g, the
supernatant was collected and the remaining pellet was extracted in an equal volume of the same
buffer containing 6 M urea (Lippens S). Proteins of wild type (wt; Padi2+/+) and Padi2 knockout
(Padi2-/-) mouse skin were then analyzed by Western blotting with an anti-Pad2 antibody and an anti-
modified citrulline antibody (Candi et al.). Pad2 was detected in the protein extracts of wt but not
knockout mice. Citrullinated proteins are detected in the extracts of wild type and Padi2-/- mice with
the same profile of detection. (B) Trans epidermal water loss (TEWL) of 2-day-old knockout, wt and
heterozygous mice were evaluated using an EP1 Evaporimeter (Servo Med, AB Stockholm, Sweden).
No significant differences (ns) were observed in the values obtained. One-tailed Student's t-tests and
Mann Whitney tests were performed for statistical evaluation of data. P-values of more than 0.05 were
considered non significant. All bars correspond to the mean ± SEM values (n = 30 animals). (C)
Cryosections of back skin samples of newborn mice were analyzed using the anti-modified citrulline,
anti-Pad1, anti-Pad3, anti-(pro)filaggrin ((pro)fil), anti-loricrin (lor) and anti-keratin K10 antibodies.
Anti-loricrin and anti-K10 antibodies were from Covance. The dotted lines show the dermo-epidermal
junction. Scale bars = 100 µm.
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Résultats complémentaires 1
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
Résultats complémentaires 1 :
Etude du phénotype cutané des souris dont le gène Padi2 a été invalidé.
Les souris invalidées pour le gène Padi2 nous ont été fournies par la société Boehringer
Ingelheim Pharmaceutical, Inc. (Ridgefield, CT). Elles ont été obtenues par insertion/délétion
d’une cassette néomycine dans le premier exon du gène Padi2.
Raijmakers et coll. ont produit ces souris pour étudier l’effet de l’absence de Pad2, dans le
cerveau sur le développement de l’encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimentale. Ils ont
observé une diminution très importante des protéines citrullinées dans le cerveau des souris
KO, ce qui indique que cette isoforme a un rôle prépondérant dans la citrullination des
protéines au cours de l’encéphalite, mais ont aussi montré que cette modification n’est pas
indispensable au développement de la pathologie (Raijmakers et al., 2006).
201
Résultats complémentaires 1
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
A B
Figure 42 : Génération des souris KO Padi2. Schéma décrivant la position des amorces utilisées pour le génotypage (A) et
résultats obtenus (B). Analyse par western blot d’un extrait protéique de peau de souriceaux (C).
A WT Padi2-/-
Figure 43 : analyse histologique de la peau
des souris sauvages (WT) et KO (Padi2-/-).
202
Résultats complémentaires 1
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
2,5
1,5
0,5
0
+/+ +/- -/-
4- Différenciation normale
Je n’ai pas mis en évidence de différence dans l’expression des marqueurs de différenciation
kératine K10, involucrine, loricrine et (pro)filaggrine, par western blot (figure 45) et
immunohistochimie (article n°2).
203
204
Résultats complémentaires 2 :
Les cellules prolifératives de la lignée HaCaT expriment les PADs 1, 2, 3 et 4 mais aucune
protéine désiminée n’a pu y être détectée (article 1 et données non publiées de M-C Méchin).
Nous avons cherché à activer la désimination. Pour cela nous avons soumis ces cellules à
deux traitements (figure 46A et B) :
A : Afin de déterminer l’impact des rayonnements UVs, connus pour induire l’apoptose, sur
la réaction de désimination, les cellules HaCaT ont été irradiées avec des doses d’UV-B de 25
et 50 mJ/cm2. Cette irradiation a clairement permis de détecter des protéines citrullinées par
Western blot avec l’anticorps anti-citrulline AMC.
B : Les cellules ont été soumises à un stress oxydatif, grâce à l’ajout de peroxyde d’hydrogène
dans le milieu de culture pendant une heure. L’activation des PADs a également pu être mise
en évidence par immunodétection avec l’anticorps AMC.
Dans un extrait de kératinocytes primaires non-différenciés en culture, les PAD1-3 ont pu être
détectées facilement mais pas les protéines désiminées (article n°1). Pour tenter d’activer la
désimination un tapis cellulaire de kératinocytes a été « blessé » par des rayures selon le
« scratch assay » décrit par Turchi et al (Turchi et al., 2002). Les kératinocytes ont été
récoltés immédiatement, ou après 3 à 24 heures d’incubation. Des protéines désiminées ont
été mises en évidence par immunodétection avec l’anticorps AMC après 3 et 6 heures
d’incubation (figure 46C). Les extraits protéiques de ces kératinocytes nous ont été
aimablement fournis par le Dr G. Ponzio (INSERM U634, Nice).
205
UVs (mJ/cm2)
A B C+ H2O2 T-
C
Kd
C+ 0 25 50
Kd C C+ C- 3h 6h 8h 12h 24h C-24h
250 Kd
250
250
130
130 130
95
95 95
72 72
72
55 55
55
36
36
36
28 28
28
Figure 46 : activation des PADs in vitro. (A et B) Des cellules HaCaT ont été irradiées avec des doses d’UV-B de 25 et 50
mJ/cm² (A) ou traitées pendant 1h avec 0,4 mM d’H2O2 (B). (C) Des kératinocytes humains normaux en culture ont été
« blessés » et recueillis immédiatement (C-) ou après 3, 6, 8, 12 et 24 h d’incubation. Des cellules recueillies après 24h sans
blessure préalable ont aussi été analysées (C- 24h). Les pistes (C+) correspondent à un extrait de fibrinogène désiminé. Dans
tous les cas, les cellules ont été extraites en tampon Laemmli et les protéines citrullinées détectées avec l’anticorps AMC
(voir le paragraphe « matériel et méthodes » de l’article n°1).
206
Discussion et perspectives
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
Nos travaux nous ont permis de poser les bases de la régulation complexe de
l’expression des PADs. Nous avons par ailleurs établi que les Pad3 et 4 de souris ont des rôles
spécifiques dans la cicatrisation cutanée. Si la présence de fibrine citrullinée avait été montrée
dans plusieurs cas d’inflammation pathologique, en particulier articulaire, c’est la première
fois qu’elle est décrite au cours d’un processus physiologique comme la cicatrisation cutanée.
Nous avons également essayé d’induire la citrullination dans les cellules HaCaT par
irradiation avec des doses croissantes d’UV-B, ou par un stress oxydatif au peroxyde
d’hydrogène. Dans les deux cas, des protéines citrullinées ont été immunodétectées dans les
extraits protéiques. Cette expérience montre que dans ce modèle cellulaire, la désimination
n’est pas uniquement dépendante de la concentration en calcium ou de la différenciation
épidermique, mais peut être activée lors d’un stress ou au cours de l’apoptose. Les PADs
209
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
seraient donc maintenues à l’état inactif dans les conditions basales. Le(s) mécanisme(s)
déclencheur(s) de l’activation, les isotypes de PADs ainsi que les voies de signalisation mises
en jeu ne sont pas connus.
ARNm :
PAD1+
Ca 2+
PAD3+++
potentialisation
ARNm :
Pas
PAD1max à 24h d’augmentation
Vit D d’ expression Pas d’ d’Activité
PAD2 jusqu’à 10jours des protéines.
PAD3 max à 24h
ARNm : Protéine:
Confluence PAD1+++ Activité
PAD1+++
PAD3+++
PAD3+++
PADs:
autodésimination
Figure 47 : représentation schématique des résultats obtenus lors des analyses de l’expression et du contrôle de
l’activité des PADs dans les kératinocytes humains en culture et à l’aide d’enzymes recombinantes
210
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
Nous avons confirmé que les PAD4 et 6 ne sont pas exprimées par les kératinocytes en
culture et que la Vit D augmente les quantités d’ARNm des marqueurs de la différenciation
épidermique (filaggrine, involucrine et kératine 10), cet effet étant bien potentialisé par l’ajout
de calcium.
La Vit D augmente également les quantités d’ARNm des PAD1, 2 et 3 dès 6 heures de
traitement, avec des cinétiques et des taux d’induction différents. Cependant, contrairement
aux marqueurs de différenciation, aucun effet potentialisateur du calcium n’a été observé. Ces
observations suggèrent que la Vit D affecte la stabilité des messagers ou la transcription des
gènes PADI indépendamment du calcium, soit directement en tant que régulateur
transcriptionnel à travers les VDRE, soit indirectement en modifiant l’expression d’autres
facteurs de transcription comme les membres de la famille AP-1.
En effet, la Vit D possède une voie d’action génomique passant par un récepteur nucléaire, le
VDR, et des éléments de réponse (VDRE) situés sur les gènes cibles. Afin d’identifier la voie
d’action de la Vit D sur les gènes PADI, nous avons réalisé des essais luciférase avec leurs
promoteurs. Des plasmides rapporteurs contenant des séquences d’ADN, correspondant au
segment de 700 pb en amont du site d’initiation de la transcription et recouvrant tout le
promoteur minimal de PADI1, 2 et 3, ont été transfectés dans les kératinocytes cultivés en
présence ou en absence de Vit D. L’effet sur la transcription a été évalué grâce à l’activité
d’un gène rapporteur codant pour la luciférase. Nous n’avons pas détecté de différence, ce qui
suggère que la Vit D n’agit pas par l’intermédiaire de VDRE localisés sur les promoteurs
minimaux des gènes des PAD1-3.
Le récepteur de la Vit D (VDR) est impliqué dans l’augmentation de l’expression de gènes de
la différenciation épidermique, et en particulier de Padi1 et 3 chez la souris lors de la
différenciation du follicule pileux et de l’induction de tumeurs via la voie β-caténine (Palmer
et al, 2008). Cette équipe a montré une surexpression de l’ARNm de la Pad3 après traitement
avec un analogue de la Vit D sur des kératinocytes issus de souris sauvages mais pas sur des
kératinocytes issus de souris KO pour le VDR. Ces chercheurs ont également identifié trois
variants consensus du VDRE fonctionnels, à longue distance du promoteur de Padi3. En nous
basant sur ces données et à l’aide du programme “NHR scan program”
([Link] nous avons trouvé au moins 11
séquences répétées (canonical direct repeat DR1 à 5) situées dans la région de 6000 pb en
amont du site d’initiation de la transcription du gène PADI3 humain (numéro d’accession
Genbank AJ549502). Il serait intéressant de tester leur fonctionnalité en effectuant des tests
211
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
212
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
De la même manière, nous avons montré que la différenciation induite par la confluence
cellulaire permet aussi d’augmenter le niveau d’expression des ARNm de PAD1 et 3 mais pas
ceux de PAD2. Comme nous l’avons déjà vu, au cours du traitement à la Vit D, les transcrits
des 3 gènes PADI suivent une cinétique d’activation propre. Les transcrits des PAD1 et 3
présentent un niveau maximal après 24 heures avant de retrouver leur niveau basal au bout de
7 jours tandis que la quantité d’ARNm de PAD2 continue à augmenter jusqu’à 10 jours après
induction.
213
Discussion et perspectives
Régulation de l’expression et de l’activité des PADs
214
Discussion et perspectives
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
215
Discussion et perspectives
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
216
Discussion et perspectives
Etude du phénotype des souris Padi2-/-
E- Perspectives
L’invalidation de l’expression de chacune des PADs dans les kératinocytes primaires, en
culture monocouche ou utilisés pour produire des épidermes reconstruits, permettrait
d’évaluer le rôle de ces enzymes. Il faudrait inhiber simultanément l’expression, d’une, de
deux ou des trois PADs exprimées dans l’épiderme grâce à des siRNAs ou shRNAs, par la
technique d’interférence à l’ARN, ou en utilisant des inhibiteurs des PADs quand ils auront
été identifiés. Nous pourrions alors évaluer la contribution de chaque isotype à la
désimination de la filaggrine et des kératines et démontrer leur importance pour
l’établissement de la barrière épidermique. Il serait de la même manière possible de tester leur
rôle dans l’apoptose et au cours d’un stress et vérifier notre hypothèse d’un contrôle de
l’activité des PADs par les PADs elle-mêmes. Nous pourrions aussi évaluer l’impact de la
sur-expression des PADs in vitro grâce à des vecteurs rétro- ou lentiviraux.
217
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
A- Modèle d’étude
Le modèle choisi pour cette étude a été le modèle de blessure excisionnelle, le plus
couramment utilisé lors de l’étude de la cicatrisation chez la souris. Ce modèle est plus
facilement analysable qu’une blessure incisionelle, car la cinétique de fermeture des plaies est
plus longue. Cependant, la peau de souris présentant des disparités avec la peau humaine,
notamment sa mobilité sur le fascia sous jacent, il n’est pas possible de transposer les résultats
obtenus directement à l’Homme (la cicatrisation chez le porc reste le modèle de référence).
C’est tout de même un modèle d’étude facile à mettre en place et les mécanismes
inflammatoires et de ré-épithélialisation mis en jeu chez la souris sont relativement similaires
aux mécanismes humains.
J’ai réalisé des blessures sur le flanc de souris adultes sauvages et Padi2-/- à l’aide d’un
punch de 4 mm, ce qui permet de contrôler le diamètre de peau prélevée, et observé la
cicatrisation au cours du temps pendant 10 jours. J’ai ensuite analysé l’expression des Pad1 et
3 et la désimination des protéines dans les kératinocytes présents au niveau et à distance des
marges de la plaie, au niveau du néo-épiderme progressant sur la blessure, dans le caillot
fibrino-plaquettaire puis dans la croûte dérivée du caillot desséché (figure 49).
218
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
a b
épiderme
c
Néo-épiderme derme
Figure 49 : représentation schématique d’une coupe de peau lors de la phase de ré-épithélialisation. Les zones
analysées en immunohistologie correspondent aux zones situées à distance de la plaie (a), au niveau des marges de la plaie
(b), dans le néo-épiderme (c) et dans le caillot fibrino-plaquettaire.
219
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
CICATRISATION CUTANEE
Phase précoce (inflammation) Ré-épithélialisation
Epiderme Cellules Cellules re- Caillot fibrino-
Expression/détection proximal prolifératives différenciées plaquettaire
Epiderme distal
(marges de la (Western Blot)
plaie)
Pad1 + (CSB*) - + + -
Pad3 + (CG) - - + -
Pad4 - ? ? ? +
Protéines
+ (CC) - - + +
désiminées
(pro)filaggrine + (CG) - - + -
K6 - - + - -
Tableau 9 : récapitulatif des résultats obtenus lors de l’étude de l’expression des Pads et des protéines citrullinées au
cours de la cicatrisation cutanée chez la souris. * Couches suprabasales, CSB ; couche granuleuse, CG ; couche cornée.
CC
220
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
de la couche cornée nouvellement formée. Ces résultats confirment que la Pad3 est bien
l’isoforme qui désimine la filaggrine et suggèrent un mécanisme commun de régulation de
l’expression des deux protéines. D’une façon intéressante, Neub et coll. ont observé une
inhibition de l’expression des facteurs AP-1 dans les 24 heures qui suivent une blessure
réalisée chez l’Homme (Neub et al., 2007). Or, les gènes de la filaggrine et de la PAD3 sont
tous deux régulés par les facteurs AP-1, et particulièrement le facteur c-Jun. De plus, c-Jun est
impliqué dans la cicatrisation. Les souris KO pour c-Jun mettent plus de temps à cicatriser,
avec des défauts de ré-épithélialisation se traduisant par une absence d’invasion du caillot de
fibrine par le néo-épiderme durant les premiers jours (Jang et al., 2000; Li, 2003; Zenz et al.,
2005). Une inhibition de l’expression de c-Jun et de la citrullination est aussi observée dans le
psoriasis (Zenz et al., 2005), une pathologie souvent comparée à une blessure chronique. Tout
ceci suggère une régulation commune des gènes de la filaggrine et de Pad3 par les facteurs
AP-1. Il serait intéressant d’analyser l’expression de la PAD3 dans l’épiderme des patients
psoriasiques, afin de déterminer si une diminution de cette isoforme contribue à la diminution
de la désimination observée dans cette pathologie.
221
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
Cela corrobore le fait que la présence de fibrine citrullinée n’est pas spécifique de la PR mais
est associée aux mécanismes de type inflammatoire. C’est la première description de la
désimination de la fibrine au cours d’un processus inflammatoire physiologique. Le rôle de la
désimination de la fibrine n’est pas connu. Cependant les propriétés du caillot de fibrine
généré lors de la cicatrisation dépendent de nombreux facteurs biochimiques comme le pH et
la concentration ionique, et peuvent être modifiées par de nombreux paramètres comme le
taux de coagulation, influencé par la concentration de thrombine, ou la vitesse de fibrinolyse
par la plasmine (Mosesson et al., 2001). La citrullination permettant de modifier la charge
globale d’une protéine et ainsi d’affecter ses propriétés structurales (comme celles des
kératines ou de la myéline), la modification de la fibrine pourrait jouer un rôle dans la
structure de la matrice de fibrine. Deux publications récentes d’ailleurs suggéré que la
citrullination du fibrinogène inhibe sa transformation en fibres de fibrine par la thrombine
(Nakayama-Hamada et al., 2008; Okumura et al., 2009). De la même manière, la
citrullination de la fibrine pourrait interférer avec la fibrinolyse en inhibant son clivage par la
plasmine, ces deux enzymes coupant après un résidu arginyl.
222
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
D- Perspectives
- Souris transgéniques :
L’invalidation des gènes de la Pad1, Pad3 et Pad4 chez la souris par la technique du KO
permettra d’étudier et de discriminer le rôle physiologique de ces isotypes, en particulier lors
de la différenciation épidermique mais aussi de la cicatrisation. Les phénotypes attendus
pourraient correspondre à un défaut de formation ou de lyse du caillot de fibrine pour les
souris Pad4-/-, et un défaut de ré-épithélialisation pour les souris Pad3-/-. De même, l’étude
de la désimination de la fibrine au cours de la cicatrisation des souris déplétées en
neutrophiles (à l’aide de sérums anti-neutrophiles) ou en neutrophiles, mastocytes et
macrophages (souris PU.1-/-, voir chapitre Introduction, paragraphe « cicatrisation »),
permettra de tester le rôle des neutrophiles et de l’invasion cellulaire lors de l’inflammation.
223
Discussion et perspectives
La citrullination dans la cicatrisation cutanée
la différenciation des épidermes reconstruits (Garlick and Taichman, 1994), ou après greffe
d’épidermes reconstruits sur une souris nude (Escamez et al., 2004).
Enfin, il serait intéressant de créer une matrice de fibrine citrullinée à partir de fibrinogène
citrulliné in vitro pour répondre à différentes questions concernant l’impact de la citrullination
sur le réseau de fibrine : la fibrinolyse est-elle modifiée ? La migration et la différenciation
des kératinocytes sur cette matrice sont-elles modifiées ? Et plus généralement, est-ce que la
formation de gel de fibrine désiminée ou de kératinocytes mis en suspension dans de la fibrine
citrullinée peuvent toujours améliorer la cicatrisation d’une plaie étendue, ou au contraire
l’empêcher ?
224
Annexes
Liste des publications
Fanny Coudane, Marie-Claire Méchin, Anne Huchenq, Julie Henry, Rachida Nachat, Akihito
Ishigami, Véronique Adoue, Mireille Sebbag, Guy Serre, Michel Simon. Citrullination of fibrin and
differential expression of peptidylarginine deiminases during wound healing in mice.
Soumis
Marie-Claire Méchin, Fanny Coudane, Véronique Adoue, Jacques Arnaud, Hélène Duplan, Marie
Charveron, Anne-Marie Schmitt, Hidenari Takahara, Guy Serre, Michel Simon. Deimination is
regulated at multiple levels including auto-deimination of peptidylarginine deiminases.
Soumis
Communications
227
Coudane F, Méchin MC, Huchenq A, Adoue V, Nachat R, Caubet C, Werneburg B, Serre G, Simon
M. Citrullination et peptidyl-arginine désiminases au cours de la cicatrisation cutanée chez la souris.
Congrès Annuel de Recherche Dermatologique, REIMS, juin 2009.
Adoue V, Chavanas S, Coudane F, Méchin MC, Caubet C, Ying S, Dong S, Duplan H, Charveron M,
Takahara H, Serre G, Simon M. Un enhancer bipartite distant contrôle la transcription du gène PADI3
par le biais du recrutement de différents facteurs AP-1 au cours de la différenciation kératinocytaire.
Congrès Annuel de Recherche Dermatologique, TOULOUSE, septembre 2008. J Invest
Dermatol, 129 : 799, 2009.
Méchin MC, Coudane F, Adoue V, Arnaud J, Duplan H, Charveron M, Schmitt AM, Takahara H,
Serre G, Simon M. L’expression des peptidyl-arginine désiminases kératinocytaires est régulée de
façon différentielle. Congrès Annuel de Recherche Dermatologique, REIMS, juin 2009.
Adoue V, Chavanas S, Coudane F, Méchin MC, Ying S, Dong S, Duplan H, Charveron M, Takahara
H, Serre G, Simon M. A bipartite long range enhancer recruits distinct AP-1 factors to control
peptidylarginine deiminase-3 gene during keratinocyte differentiation. European Epidermal Barrier
Research Network (E2BRN), BOUSSENS, novembre 2008.
Méchin MC, Coudane F, Adoue V, Chavanas S, Duplan H, Charveron M, Schmitt AM, Takahara H,
Serre G, Simon M. Cell-density and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhance peptidylarginine deiminases
in cultured primary human keratinocytes. European Epidermal Barrier Research Network
(E2BRN), BOUSSENS, novembre 2008.
Méchin MC, Nachat R, Adoue V, Coudane F, Arnaud J, Chavanas S, Serre G, Takahara H, Simon M.
Protein deimination and peptidylarginine deiminases in skin physiopathology. In 1st International
Symposium on Deimination and Skin Biology, Takahara H, Kawada A Eds, OSAKA, avril 2009.
228
doi:10.1016/[Link].2008.10.019 J. Mol. Biol. (2008) 384, 1048–1057
Introduction
*Corresponding author. E-mail address: The proximal promoter region of a transcriptional
msimon@[Link]. unit does not always contain all necessary trans-
Abbreviations used: ChIP, chromatin cription factor binding modules to direct proper
immunoprecipitation; CNS, conserved noncoding spatiotemporal expression of the cognate gene.
segments; HBE1, fetal ɛ-globin gene; NHEK, normal Transcription can be mediated by cis-regulatory
human epidermal keratinocyte; PAD, peptidylarginine elements located in transcriptionally active chroma-
deiminase; AP-1, activator protein 1; PIE-S1, PAD tin as far as several hundred kilobases from the
intergenic enhancer segment 1; EMSA, electrophoretic transcription start site.1 Such long-range regulation
mobility shift assay; qPCR, quantitative PCR. has been described in the tissue-specific transcrip-
0022-2836/$ - see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
229
Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation 1049
tional control of individual genes, e.g., those en- PADI2–4 and PADI3–4, respectively. Thus, proximal
coding interferon γ in the brain2 or p63 in the regulation alone could not fully explain the diversity
epidermis,3 and also in the coordinate regulation of and specificity of PADI expression. In the search for
clustered paralogous genes4 such as those for the other PADI transcriptional regulators, we have
small proline-rich proteins in the epidermis5 and identified an 8-kb evolutionary-conserved region
for the β-globin multigenic family in the erythroid (IG1) between PADI1 and PADI2, which contains 19
cells.4 Comparative analysis of human and mouse CNS that potentially bind transcription factors.8
genomic sequences to highlight highly conserved In this study, our goal was to determine whether
noncoding sequences (CNS) and testing for DNase I IG1 contained long-range PADI gene regulators. We
chromatin hypersensitivity is a powerful strategy to studied IG1 in normal human epidermal kerati-
predict distal candidate regulatory regions.6 nocytes (NHEKs), where the genes PADI1–3 adja-
The peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) constitute cent to IG1 are expressed in a finely regulated
a family of five enzymes designated PAD1–4 and fashion.17–19,21 Here, we reveal two regions located
PAD6, encoded by the five paralogous genes PADI1– in IG1, which cooperate at a long distance to spe-
4 and PADI6 clustered within a 355-kb region on cifically increase the PADI3 promoter activity in
chromosome 1p35–36.7,8 These enzymes are respon- differentiated NHEKs, and identify members of the
sible for deimination, a Ca2+-dependent post-transla- activator protein 1 (AP-1) family as major transcrip-
tional modification whereby the positively charged tion factors involved in this regulation.
argininyl residue is modified into the uncharged
citrullinyl residue leading to dramatic conforma-
tional and functional protein modifications. Protein
deimination has been detected in most mammalian
Results
tissues, and abnormalities of deimination have been
shown to be associated with severe human diseases. IG1 contains a specific enhancer of the PADI1
Deimination of myelin basic protein is increased in and PADI3 promoters in differentiated NHEKs
multiple sclerosis (OMIM 126200),9 and fibrin deimi-
nation in synovial membrane is a key factor in the In order to identify transcriptional regulatory ele-
pathophysiology of rheumatoid arthritis (OMIM ments in IG1, we performed luciferase assays in
180300).10 Moreover, mutations within the gene primary cultures of NHEKs. Cells were either
PADI4 have been shown to be associated with maintained for 72 h in proliferative conditions in
susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis in Asian low-calcium (0.2 mM) serum-free medium or ex-
populations.10 Furthermore, PAD4 has been reported posed to high calcium concentration (1.5 mM) to
to regulate transcription through histone modifica- induce growth arrest and differentiation, as pre-
tions.11,12 Also, a decrease in the levels of deiminated viously described.22 Consistent with the in vivo
keratins K1 and K10 has been observed in cutaneous pattern of expression of PAD1–3, quantitative real-
diseases such as bullous congenital ichthyosiform time reverse transcription PCR showed that the
erythroderma (OMIM 113800) 13 and psoriasis calcium switch was associated with strongly ele-
(OMIM 177900).14 Deimination is a key parameter vated levels of mRNAs for PADI3 (4.7-fold), and, to a
of epidermis differentiation. Epidermis is a stratified minor extent, for PADI2 (1.8-fold) and PADI1 (2-fold)
epithelium in which the basal proliferative keratino- (data not shown). Calcium-stimulated or unstimu-
cytes undergo profound morphological changes re- lated NHEKs were transfected by a set of reporter
sulting in the formation of the uppermost (cornified) plasmids containing either the whole IG1 region or
layer, which contributes to the epidermal barrier one of four arbitrarily chosen IG1 fragments encom-
functions.15,16 Deimination of filaggrin and keratin passing the full length of IG1 (namely, fragments
K1 play a pivotal role in barrier formation, including IG1-1 to IG1-4), as depicted in Fig. 1. Fragments IG1-
hydration of the cornified layer. During the kerati- 1 to IG1-4 are about 2.4, 2.2, 1.8 and 1.4 kb long and
nocyte differentiation steps, gene expression is accu- contain 4, 4, 7 and 4 CNS, respectively. Along with
rately regulated. PAD1 is detected throughout the IG1 or the fragments IG1-1 to IG1-4, we subcloned
epidermis with an increased expression in differen- the promoter segments of PADI1, 2 and 3 and that
tiated cells, PAD2 in the suprabasal layers, and PAD3 from SV40. As shown in Fig. 2a and b, segment IG1-
only in the terminally differentiated keratinocytes.17 3 (1764 bp) displayed a robust and specific enhancer
PADI gene expression is tightly controlled in a cell effect (threefold, P b 0.01) on PADI1 and PADI3
differentiation- and tissue-dependent manner, promoters under high-calcium conditions and
although the mechanisms involved are poorly under- showed no effect on the SV40 or PADI2 promoters.
stood. To characterize regulators of PADI gene A less pronounced effect was observed in prolif-
expression, we have previously defined the minimal erative keratinocytes but was revealed to be not
promoter regions of the genes PADI1 to 4 as short statistically significant. The constructs containing
sequences of less than 350 bp upstream of the the full-length IG1 or any of the IG1-1, -2 or -4 did
transcription initiation site.18–21 Many transcription not show any significant effect on any tested
factors implicated in this proximal regulation are promoters in these conditions (Fig. 2a and data not
shared by the PADI promoters: Sp1 is involved in the shown). In further experiments, we focused on the
activity of the four PADI1–4 minimal promoters, PADI3 gene promoter, the basal activity of which is
whereas Sp3 and NF-Y are crucial for those of greater than that of the PADI1 promoter, providing
230
1050 Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation
Fig. 1. Structure of the human PADI gene locus. IG1 is depicted as a black box. The four fragments of IG1 are indicated.
The PADI genes and their transcription orientation are shown with open boxes and arrows. The relative expression of the
different genes in proliferative and differentiated keratinocytes is shown below (the higher the number of +, the higher the
expression level).
greater sensitivity. We next performed experiments Two minimal regions of 346 and 245 bp, ∼1-kb dis-
to confirm that IG1-3 presented enhancer character- tant from each other, appeared necessary to enhance
istics. We showed that fragment IG1-3 enhanced the activity of the PADI3 promoter in differentiated
PADI3 promoter activity in an orientation-indepen- NHEKs. None of them showed any enhancer effect
dent and copy-number-dependent manner (Fig. 3a), when assayed independently. We named these two
two hallmarks of transcriptional enhancers. No such sequences PAD intergenic enhancer segment 1 (PIE-
enhancer activity was detected in human cervix S1; GenBank accession number EU694174) and 2
adenocarcinoma HeLa cells or in primary normal (PIE-S2; GenBank accession number EU694175),
human dermal fibroblasts, suggesting that the acti- respectively. Notably, PIE-S1 and PIE-S2 overlap
vity of fragment IG1-3 depends on cell type and/or two distinct conserved sequences of IG1: CNS10
status (Fig. 3b). We concluded that IG1-3 contained a (157 bp, nt 112,979–113,135 in AJ549502) and CNS14
specific enhancer of the PADI1 and PADI3 promoters (334 bp, nt 114,226–114,559) (Fig. 4). Neither CNS10
in differentiated NHEKs. nor CNS14 showed any detectable effect when
assayed individually.
IG1-3 contains a bipartite enhancer
PIE-S1 and PIE-S2 are DNase I hypersensitive
To refine the critical segment encompassing the
enhancer in IG1-3, we engineered a series of deletion To explore the chromatin conformation around
mutants and tested them for their ability to enhance PIE-S1 and PIE-S2, we performed DNase I hyper-
PADI3 promoter activity in luciferase assays (Fig. 4). sensitivity assays using quantitative PCR (qPCR) as
231
Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation 1051
previously described.23 We incubated nuclei from region of the fetal ɛ-globin gene (HBE1) that is not
proliferative or differentiated NHEKs with increas- transcribed in epidermis or NHEKs. We also
ing DNase I concentrations and evaluated the investigated the chromatin conformation around
number of remaining copies of matrix DNA. As a the CNS9 (96 bp, nt 112,873–112,969), which
negative control, we used a segment of the promoter presented no regulatory activity on PADI3 promoter
232
1052 Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation
in luciferase assay (data not shown). As shown in PIE-S1/-S2 by distinct nuclear factors with various
Fig. 5a, while remaining copies of CNS9 and HBE1 effects ruled their activity on the target promoter
remained constant with increasing DNase I concen- and, therefore, we queried which transcription
tration, PIE-S1 and PIE-S2 were found to be factors bound to PIE-S1 and -S2 in both proliferative
hypersensitive, with a dramatic fall in the remaining and differentiated conditions.
copy number in calcium-stimulated NHEKs. This
indicated an open chromatin conformation and PIE-S1 contains an MIBP1/RFX1-like site
supported their role as enhancers prone to bind essential to the IG1-3 enhancer activity
transcriptional activators in differentiated keratino-
cytes. Unexpectedly, we also found DNase I hyper- Sequence alignment of IG1-3 between human and
sensitivity of PIE-S1 and PIE-S2 in unstimulated mouse genomes showed several conserved potential
keratinocytes (Fig. 5b), i.e., in conditions where no binding sites for the transcription factors Sp1, NF1
detectable and significant enhancer effect was and MIBP1/RFX1 in PIE-S1 (Fig. 6a). Luciferase
found. We hypothesized that the occupancy of assays using constructs bearing invalidating muta-
tions or deletions of these candidate binding sites
were performed. Mutation of the MIBP1/RFX1 site
resulted in the loss of the enhancer effect on PADI3
promoter, but not mutation of the Sp1 or NF1 sites
(Fig. 6b and c). Electrophoretic mobility shift assay
(EMSA) experiments showed that the MIBP1/RFX1
site was able to bind nuclear epidermal proteins.
However, additional supershift experiments using
antibodies to MIBP1 or RFX1 did not detect any
fixation of these transcriptional factors on this site,
due to either the poor reactivity of the available
antibodies in these conditions or the binding of yet
unknown proteins from MIBP1 and/or RFX1
families not recognized by the commercially avail-
able MIBP1/RFX1 antibodies (data not shown).
233
Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation 1053
Fig. 6. AP-1 and MIBP1/RFX1 binding sites are essential for the IG1-3 enhancer activity. (a) Human/mouse sequence
alignment of IG1-3 identifies conserved putative transcription factor binding sites in the candidate regions PIE-S1 and
PIE-S2, as indicated. (b) Luciferase plasmids were engineered with invalidated MIBP1/RFX1, Sp1, NF1 or AP-1 binding
sites (the wild-type binding sites are indicated by black boxes). Luciferase tests were performed as in Fig. 2. Values of
relative luciferase activity (RLU) are expressed as means ± SEM for at least three independent experiments, each
performed in triplicate wells. Significant differences were evaluated using the Student's t test; ⁎P b 0.05, ⁎⁎P b 0.01. (c)
Locations of MIBP1/RFX1 (PIE-S1) and AP-1 (PIE-S2) binding sites on IG1.
in the condition showing not statistically significant transcriptional regulation of the PADI genes involves
enhancer activity and c-Jun in the condition show- additional modules other than those within the
ing significant enhancer activity. proximal promoters, which could explain the expres-
sion specificity of the PADI genes in differentiated
keratinocytes.
Discussion Surprisingly, the whole 8-kb IG1 region presents
no detectable regulatory activity upon PADI1 and
In this study, we report the characterization of two PADI3 promoters, although it encompasses PIE-S1
conserved distal cis-regulatory elements, PIE-S1 and and PIE-S2. This could be explained by the various
PIE-S2, clearly active on the PADI3 promoter in distances between these sequences and PADI pro-
keratinocytes prone to differentiate through calcium moter in luciferase plasmid constructions or, more
stimulation. Together, they bear all the hallmarks of likely, by the presence of other possible regulatory
enhancers: interspecies conservation, DNase I hyper- elements with antagonist effect within IG1.
sensitivity, orientation independence, and cell-type Transcription factor binding sites for MIBP1/
specificity.26 These two sequences are located 1 kb RFX1 and AP-1 were shown to be essential for the
apart in IG1 and cooperate to significantly enhance enhancer activity of PIE-S1 and PIE-S2, respectively.
the promoter activity of PADI3, from which they are RFX1 belongs to a conserved family of five homo-
approximately 81-kb distant (Fig. 8). PIE-S1 and PIE- dimeric and heterodimeric DNA-binding proteins.
S2 are probably also involved in the regulation of the RFX1 and MIBP1 can interact in vivo and were
PADI1 promoter by IG1-3. Our findings disclose that shown to be involved in the expression of a variety
234
1054 Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation
235
Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation 1055
of long-range regulatory elements has been shown human DNA and comprised 700 bp including proximal
for the regulation of other genes such as those of the promoters as published previously.18,19,21 IG1 fragments
β-globin locus.40,41 Furthermore, AP-1 family mem- and promoter regions were generated by PCR, then
bers have often been identified working coopera- subcloned into the pGL3 luciferase firefly reporter vector
backbone (Promega, Madison, WI) using the restriction
tively with other factors such as Sp1,42 various
sites NheI-XhoI and BglII-XhoI, respectively. Site-directed
members of the activating transcription factor or the mutagenesis was performed by PCR using the Vent DNA
CCAT/enhancer binding protein.43 In the same way, polymerase according to the supplier's recommendations
the MIBP1/RFX1 complex can act synergistically (NEB), followed by DpnI digestion of the PCR products to
with several elements. In particular, cooperation remove the parental strains. Sequence retrieval and
with AP-1 factors has been shown in the LTR of an analyses were performed using the Human BLAT Search
endogenous VL30 retrotransposon44 and in the Web site,† the Vista suite‡ and the Dialign-TF program§.
regulation of MHC class II genes.45
In our system, the IG1-3 fragment was found to be Cell cultures, transfection and luciferase reporter
specific to the PADI1 and PADI3 transcription, but assays
showed no detectable effect on PADI2 despite its
orientation-independent effect. Alignment of the Primary human keratinocytes were prepared from
PADI1 and PADI3 gene promoter sequences revealed foreskin in accordance with Helsinki principles. NHEKs
only one shared conserved sequence, corresponding were grown in KGM2 with all necessary growth factors
to the TATA box (data not shown). Unlike PADI1 and (KGM2 and Supplement Pack, Promocell, Heidelberg,
PADI3, the PADI2 gene harbors a TATA-less promo- Germany) in the presence of 0.15 mM (proliferating
ter region, and it has been shown that the TATA box conditions) or 1.5 mM (differentiating conditions) Ca2+
is an important determinant in preferential activa- for 72 h. Human dermal fibroblasts and HeLa cells were
maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium with
tion of one promoter over another by a distant 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA).
element.46,47 Direct interaction between PIE-S1/-S2 Cells were plated onto 24-well plates at a density of
and the TATA binding protein will be investigated in 50 × 103 cells per well for NHEKs and 100 × 103 per well for
the near future through ChIP assays. Chromatin the other cells. Transfection experiments were carried out
conformation modifications are essential to bring a with 1 μg of each construct with TransFast Transfection
distant regulator and promoter into close proximity. Reagent (Promega). All cells were co-transfected with
Forthcoming experiments such as chromosome con- 0.01 μg of pRLTK vector, which contained the Renilla
formation capture also would also help to investigate luciferase gene used to correct for transfection efficiency.
the chromatin events underlying the interaction Six hours after transfection, culture medium was added.
between PIE-S1/-S2 and the PADI1–3 genes. Cells were lysed 72 h later with 100 μl of Passive Lysis
Buffer (Promega) per well. Luciferase activities were
In this work, we have highlighted the cooperative analyzed with the Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System
action of two DNase I hypersensitive sites conserved (Promega) using a Centro LB960 luminometer (Berthold
during evolution, PIE-S1 and PIE-S2, in the long- Technologies, Bad Wildbad, Germany).
range transcriptional activation of PADI1 and PADI3
promoters in differentiated NHEKs. This is an
essential step toward better knowledge of PAD ex- Quantitative DNase I protection assays
pression in the epidermis. Highlighting IG1 as a
genomic region involved in the transcriptional con- DNase protection assays were performed as described
by McArthur et al.23 Proliferative and differentiated
trol of PADI genes may also be critical to under-
NHEKs were incubated in hypotonic buffer (swollen
standing PAD implication in the pathophysiology of cells), then lysed by adding IGEPAL 10%. Nuclei were
diseases characterized by modifications in the isolated with sucrose density gradient, then incubated for
deiminated protein rate, including psoriasis and 5 min at 37 °C with increasing DNase I concentrations and
multiple sclerosis. Recent works have evidenced left overnight with proteinase K. Chromatin was purified
the presence of a single-nucleotide polymorphism using standard phenol/chloroform extraction and ethanol
within a distal enhancer that is associated with a precipitation. Quantifications were performed from 5 ng
subtype of leukemia48 and in tissue-specific long- of DNase I-digested DNA by qPCR assays using a
range enhancers that could be associated with breast SyBr-green-based qPCR mixture (MP Biomedicals, Solon,
cancer risk.49 With this in mind, we included IG1 in a OH) and an ABI7300 system (Applied Biosystems, Foster
City, CA).
recently initiated screen of the PADI locus in the
search for variant haplotypes possibly associated
with rheumatoid arthritis. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay
236
1056 Long-Range PADI3 Gene Regulation
was added to the mix to prevent unspecific binding of 2. Hatton, R. D., Harrington, L. E., Luther, R. J.,
proteins. Binding reactions were performed at room tem- Wakefield, T., Janowski, K. M., Oliver, J. R. et al.
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with a 200-fold molar excess of unlabeled DNA were Ifng gene expression by T cells and NK cells. Immunity,
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conserved noncoding sequences involved in coordi-
ChIP was performed as described previously,50 using nate regulation. Genome Res. 14, 2430–2438.
20 × 106 actively growing or calcium-differentiated NHEKs 6. Pennacchio, L. A., Ahituv, N., Moses, A. M., Prabhakar,
per experiment. Proteins were cross-linked to DNA using S., Nobrega, M. A., Shoukry, M. et al. (2006). In vivo
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ultrasonic processor (Microson, Brussels, Belgium) and sequences. Nature, 444, 499–502.
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Twenty-five micrograms of precleared chromatin was peptidylarginine deiminase type I. Biochem. J. 370,
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peptidylarginine deiminase gene clusters reveals
Accession numbers highly conserved non-coding segments and a new
human gene, PADI6. Gene, 330, 19–27.
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Acknowledgements haplotypes of PADI4, encoding citrullinating enzyme
peptidylarginine deiminase 4, are associated with
rheumatoid arthritis. Nat. Genet. 34, 395–402.
We are indebted to C. Bouchouata for expert
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and to P. Gallinié and J.-P. Chavoin for providing in nucleophosmin/B23 and histones in HL-60 granu-
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International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 2007, 29, 147–168
Review Article
Update on peptidylarginine deiminases and
deimination in skin physiology and severe human
diseases
traductionnel, ainsi qu’au niveau de leur activité. Here, we propose to describe one not well-known
Elles présentent chacune leurs spécificités de subst- modification of proteins, deimination (or citrullina-
rats. Ces principaux aspects biochimiques, géné- tion). First described in hair follicles and the epider-
tiques et fonctionnels des PADs tout comme leurs mis [2], deimination is the calcium-dependent
implications physiopathologiques seront discutés conversion of an arginyl residue, in a (poly)-peptide,
dans cette revue. into a citrullyl residue by a peptidylarginine deimi-
nase (PAD, EC [Link]) (Fig. 1). Five PADs are
known in mammals. Each deimination reaction
Introduction to deimination by PADs
generates a charge loss potentially leading to modi-
fications in the conformation of the PAD substrate
Deimination or citrullination, a post-translational
and subsequently in its interactions.
modification
+
H2N
NH2
HN PAD
H2O
R1 R2
Ca2+
N
H +
O NH4 O
NH2
Arginyl- HN
+ R1 R2
NH3CH3 N
H Figure 1 Schematic representation
H2O O of the citrullination reactions. Pepti-
+ Ca2+ dylarginine deiminase (PAD)-medi-
H2N ated citrullination corresponds to
H2O Citrullyl-
NHCH3 the transformation into a citrullyl
H residue, in the presence of calcium,
of either an arginyl residue or of a
PAD4
mono-methyl-arginyl residue,
releasing ammonia or methylamine,
R1 R2 respectively. To note that, so far
N only PAD4 has been demonstrated
to act on mono-methyl-arginyl-resi-
H
O dues. R1 and R2 refer to amino-acyl
residues involved in a peptide bond
with the targeted (mono-methyl-)
Mono-methyl-arginyl- arginyl residue.
(a) Telomere
8.0 24.0 3.1 85.7
(b)
Telomere
23.9 11.2 2.5 62.0
Figure 2 Schematic representation of the human PADI (a) and mouse Padi (b) loci at 1p35-36 and 4E1, respectively.
For each locus, sizes of the genes and of intergenic regions are indicated in kb at the bottom and top, respectively. The
open arrows represent the transcription direction of each gene. Note that PADI2 (or Padi2) transcription takes place in
the opposite direction to the other PADI genes.
(Fig. 2a). The five genes encode distinct PAD iso- Table I Percentage of homology between primary
types named PAD1-4 and PAD6 (PAD4 was also human peptidylarginine deiminases (PAD) amino-acid
previously designated as PAD5). Actually, the clo- sequences, theoretical isoelectric point (pI) and calculated
ning and the characterization of all PADI genes molecular mass (kDa) of each human PAD
required more than a decade and the investiga-
tions of many research teams. Briefly, cDNAs % homology PAD1 PAD2 PAD3 PAD4 PAD6 pI kDa
encoding the ‘Pad muscle type’ of rat and mouse
were cloned first, corresponding to the Pad2 iso- PAD1 100 65 68 71 59 6.01 74.6
type [4–6]. Next, cDNAs from rodents coding for PAD2 100 67 65 59 5.40 75.3
PAD3 100 68 60 5.25 74.6
the ‘Pad follicle type’, identified as Pad3 isotype,
PAD4 100 61 6.15 74.0
and the ‘Pad epidermis type’, initially defined as PAD6 100 4.97 77.7
Pad1 isotype, were isolated [7–9]. Subsequently, a
new isotype called PAD4 was identified from HL- These data were extracted from the sequences of human PAD1,
60 cells (a human myeloid leukaemia cell line) 2, 3, 4 and 6 corresponding to GenBank accession numbers
[10] and the cDNAs of human PAD1-3 were char- AB033768, AB030176, AB026831, AB017919 and AY422079,
acterized [11–13]. Finally, cDNAs encoding the respectively. Percentages of homology were calculated by Blast
last isotype, PAD6, also known as ePad in mouse, analysis and clustalw program, as previously described [13].
often basic proteins (or contain basic domains) fied and thus arguing again for the specificity of
whereas PADs themselves are rather acidic accord- each type of PAD [28]. Similarly, some arginyl res-
ing to their theoretical isoelectric point (Table I). idues of the Aa- and Bb-chains of human fibrin-
This probably facilitates the interactions between ogen exhibit different sensitivities to deimination
these enzymes and their substrates. by recombinant PAD2 or PAD4 [29]. Overall,
Deimination by PADs takes place on arginine in these catalytic specificities suggest possible comple-
a peptidyl link, in specific amino-acid environ- mentarities of PAD isotypes to deiminate several
ments and under particular structural constraints. arginines of a particular target. Finally, the recom-
Trichohyalin, mainly helicoidal, is poorly deimi- binant forms of PAD1-3 have shown, on several
nated in vitro by Pad2 whereas filaggrin, less synthetic arginine derivatives, relative activities
structured, is fully modified, as demonstrated by similar to those of PAD1-3 purified from diverse
biophysical data [19]. The substrate specificity of organs [28, 30–33] (Table II). This suggests that
Pad2 is the best known, as a purified Pad2 from PADs do not require eukaryote-specific post-trans-
rabbit muscle has been commercially available for lational modification(s) to be active. Nevertheless,
many years. For this isotype, it has been shown by PADs (at least PAD1-3) were found to be capable
using peptides that an N-terminal arginine is of calcium-dependent ‘auto-deimination’ in an in
poorly deiminated, that proline or glutamic acid vitro assay [M-C Méchin, unpubl. data]. The ques-
contiguous to the arginine are not favourable tions ‘Does auto-deimination happen in vivo?’ and
amino-acids, and that the first of two consecutive if so ‘What is its function?’ remain unanswered.
arginines are better deiminated [19, 26, 27]. The
specificity of purified recombinant human PAD1-3
PAD4, nuclear location and crystal structure
towards nine synthetic arginine-derivatives has
been analysed and shown to differ between these PAD4, mainly expressed in haematopoietic cells,
three isotypes [28]. PAD2, for example, is more carries a functional nuclear localization signal
active on tosyl-l-Arg-O-Me or benzoyl-l-Arg-O-Et (56-PPAKKKST-63, poorly conserved in mouse
than PAD1 and 3. After deimination, the migra- Pad4) as demonstrated by transfection of HeLa
tion of a protein in an sodium dodecyl sulfate-gel cells (a human carcinoma cell line) [34]. In the
can change dramatically, as observed for trichohy- nucleus of MCF-7 cells (a human breast carcinoma
alin and filaggrin [19, 28]. Migration of filaggrin cell line) and murine early-stage embryos, PAD4
is not the same when it is deiminated by PAD1, 2 deiminates arginyl and mono-methyl-arginyl resi-
or 3, suggesting that different arginines are modi- dues on the N-terminal head of histones H3 and
Table II Comparison of the relative activities on synthetic substrates and on protamin of recombinant peptidylarginine
deiminases (PAD)1, 2 and 3 and the corresponding enzymes purified from various tissues and species
Relative
activity (%) Rec1 mEp2 bMu3 Rec1 mEp4 rMu5 mEp6 rabMu7 Rec1 mEp8 rMu9
Bz-l-Arg-O-Et 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Bz-l-Arg-O-Me 88.7 71.4 / 46.5 83.0 77.9 68.3 83.9 57.6 26.8 /
Bz-l-Arg-O-NH2 100.2 150 / 50.5 48.7 51.8 48.7 41.4 73.1 88.4 /
Tos-l-Arg-O-Me 3.2 19.6 / 62.9 51.6 / 63.0 65.9 18.2 27.4 /
Ac-l-Arg-O-Me 105.1 66.7 / 33.0 39.5 44.8 44.7 42.5 26.5 32.1 /
Bz-l-Arg 109.6 102 106 18.7 14.2 18.5 18.4 14.9 19.7 11.6 18.0
Ac-l-Arg 113.2 65.0 / 2.4 13.0 / 3.3 2.6 7.2 11.6 /
l-Arg-O-Me 10.3 14.3 / 2.1 2.8 / 2.0 1.8 5.7 15.3 /
l-Arg 15.7 15.0 7.0 4.9 3.7 0.84 4.0 2.6 4.2 8.9 2.4
Protamin 109.5 37.5 / 115.3 59.0 / / / 218.6 141.1 /
(Rec1), Pure human recombinant PAD 1, 2 and 3 were produced as previously described [28]. (mEp2) and (bMu3), PAD1 was purified
from mouse [33] and bovine [31] epidermis, respectively. (mEp4) and (mEp6), PAD2 was purified from mouse epidermis [32 and 33,
respectively]. (rMu5) and (rabMu7), PAD2 was purified from rat [31] and rabbit [30] skeletal muscles, respectively. (mEp8) and (rMu9),
PAD3 was purified from mouse epidermis [33] and rat hair follicles [31], respectively.
Comparisons were made according to the multiple alignment of primary human and
murine PAD sequences using the multalin program [42]. The human sequences
correspond to GenBank accession numbers given in Table I, the mouse sequences
correspond to GenBank accession numbers NM_011059, NM_008812, NM_011060,
NM_011061 and AB121692 for the mouse Pad 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6, respectively. Amino-acid
numbers are defined on the human PAD4 sequence. If the amino-acids are conserved
between the orthologous sequences, only one letter is indicated at the corresponding
position. When two amino-acids are indicated, the first one is for the human sequence and
the second for the orthologous mouse sequence. Bold letters: identical amino-acids. *: in
the PAD6 sequence two cysteines surround the Ala-676 aligned with the Cys-645 of
PAD4, and in Pad6 one cysteine is situated just before the aligned Ala-665.
Table IV Amino-acids involved in peptidylarginine deiminases (PAD)4 calcium-binding sites are conserved between
PADs.
Ca2+ sites:
1 Q E F L D
2 Q E F L E
3 Q E F L E
4 Q E F L E
6 Q A I L M
1 E D S N
2 E D S D
3 E D S N
4 E D S N/D
6 E D T A/V
1 N D D D D D
2 N D E/D D D D
3 N D D D D D
4 N D D/E D D D
6 N N/S N/A D E/I N
1 D D D D
2 D E/D D D
3 D D D D
4 D D/E D D/N
6 N/S N/A N G
1 D H/A W/H
2 D D K
3 D D H/Y
4 D D E/K
6 D T/S K/Q
Comparisons were made according to the multiple alignment of primary human and murine PAD sequences, as described in Table III.
Amino-acid numbers are defined on the primary human PAD4 sequence. If the amino-acids are conserved between the orthologous
sequences, only one letter is indicated at the corresponding position. When two amino-acids are indicated, the first one is for the human
sequence and the second for the murine sequence. Bold letters: identical amino-acids. Italic letters: homologous amino-acids.
Leu-639 corresponding to Arg-372, Arg-374 and and move widely after calcium binding to become
Arg-639 of PAD4), less conserved (Table III), may closer together (compare Figs 3a,b). In that way,
play a role in the substrate specificity. They are they could constitute a kind of filter for substrates,
clearly located at the entry of the active site cleft some of them being ‘allowed’ to enter whereas
(a) (b)
Figure 3 3D modelling of peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) 1 according to PAD4 crystal-structures. Schematic ribbon
representations of the 3D structure of PAD1 were derived from the following PAD4 atomic co-ordinates available in the
Protein Data Bank [[Link] Ca2+-free PAD4 (PDB accession code 1WD8) and PAD4 complexed to
Ca2+ and benzoyl-l-arginine amide as a substrate (1WDA) [40]. All the 3D modelling structures were produced by the
Bioinformatic Tool Server @TOME (@utomatic Threading Optimization Modeling & Evaluation) at the CBS Informatic
Team [[Link]] [44]. Furthermore, these models have been refined by energy minimization (3000 iterations)
and validated by Ramachandran plot analyses (data not shown) using MSI Insight II modules Biopolymer, CHARMM
and Viewer on an O2 SGI workstation (a and b). Illustrations of the 3D modelling of Ca2+-free PAD1 (derived from
1WD8) and of Ca2+-bound PAD1 complexed to benzoyl-l-arginine amide (derived from 1WDA), respectively. The immu-
noglobulin-like sub-domains 1 (residues 1–121) and 2 (residues 122–298) are in green and purple, respectively, and
the C-terminal domain is in yellow. The seven amino-acids of the active site are shown by using space-filling representa-
tion. The two arginines (Arg-374 and Arg-376) and the leucine (Leu-639) probably involved in the specificity of PAD1
are in green and purple, respectively. Among the four amino-acids directly involved in the deimination reaction, the
two aspartic acids (Asp-352 and Asp-474) are in black, the histidine (His-473) is in blue and the cysteine (Cys-645) in
red. The two structures are roughly superimposable except for particular regions pointed by arrows in the N-terminal-
and arrowheads in the C-terminal domain, respectively. In (b), the five calcium ions are indicated by asterisks.
others would not because of structural constraints recombinant form of PAD6 is active, at least on
and the charge environment. These 3D models of the soya bean trypsin inhibitor [14]. Further-
PAD1 provide structural clues for the fine specifici- more, an anti-ePad antibody has been shown to
ty of PADs and highlight their conservation. inhibit mouse embryonic development before
implantation, with a reduction of the percentage
of blastocyst formation from 90% to 60% [46].
PAD6, the isotype involved in embryonic develop-
Surprisingly, in this paper, it is proposed that
ment
Pad6 is an extra-cellular protein released from
PAD6 is the latest (and the last) isotype of the cortical granules when they undergo exocytosis.
family to be identified and the most divergent. Its As a signal peptide is predicted for the mouse
cDNA has been cloned from a human ovary lib- Pad6 but not for its human ortholog, this
rary and a human foetal brain library [3, 45]. A remains to be demonstrated. Finally, a patent has
proteomic approach has evidenced Pad6 (or ePad) been taken out on PAD6 for its putative contra-
expression in murine oocytes, where its action ceptive usefulness [14].
during remodelling of filamentous cytoskeletal
structures has been suggested [15]. Pad6 has
Regulation of PADs and deimination:
been detected in the cytoplasm and weakly in the
multilock control points
nucleus of murine blastocytes [15]. This isotype
presents a short lysine-rich motif in its N-terminal
Calcium
part (132-SDKQAKKK-139, conserved in PAD6),
but its role in the nuclear addressing of Pad6 It has long been well documented that the cata-
remains to be tested. The amino-acids of the lysis of deimination by PADs is absolutely depend-
catalytic site defined for PAD4 are partially con- ent on the presence of calcium. As the PAD4
served in the PAD6 sequence (Table III). In crystal structure is available, this calcium depend-
particular, the Cys-645 of PAD4 is not aligned ence can be better understood at the ‘atomic’ level
with any cysteine of PAD6 but with an alanine [40, 41]. No bivalent cation among eight (mag-
surrounded by two cysteines. Nevertheless, a nesium, manganese, cobalt, strontium, barium,
nickel, zinc and copper) was able to replace Calcium therefore appears as a major regulator
calcium in a rabbit muscle Pad2 activity assay. of PADs as it acts at both the activity and tran-
Some inhibition was even observed with mangan- scriptional levels.
ese (80%), nickel (65%) or cobalt (25%) [30].
PAD1–3 need 1- to 2.5-mM calcium to be fully
Oestrogens and other hormones
efficient in vitro on human purified filaggrin, and 4
to 20 mM on benzoyl-l-Arg-O-Et [28]. Even if Several in vivo experiments in rodents have shown
amino-acids of the calcium-binding sites are lar- an oestrogen-modulation of Pad2 activity in
gely conserved (Table IV), calcium sensitivity of the pituitary gland and the uterus (during the
PAD1–3 differs from one isotype to another and oestrous cycle). This was also observed in the
depends on the nature of substrate (small synthetic MtT/S rat cell line (derived from pituitary cells)
arginine-derivatives vs. structured proteins) [28]. cultured in vitro [53–59]. PAD activity is low in
Surprisingly, the calcium concentration used to the uterus of ovariectomized rats and restored to a
determine PAD activity (usually 10 mM) is consid- normal level in 4 days after injections of oestra-
erably higher than the intracellular physiological diol, but not of testosterone or progesterone [53].
calcium concentration (around 100 nM) of non- Moreover, when injected simultaneously, prog-
activated cells. It has been suggested that high cal- esterone antagonizes the induction by 17-b-oestra-
cium concentrations could occur locally in cells or diol-3-benzoate of PAD activity in the uterus of
in extreme situations like apoptosis or necrosis ovariectomized mice [57]. In MtT/S cells, insulin
(For a review see Ref. [47]). This hypothesis treatment (1 ng mL)1) over 15 h increases PAD
encouraged the research of deiminated proteins activity and mRNA level [56]. This increase could
after a calcium-ionophore treatment of cultured also depend on oestrogen as it is not observed in
cells. A 70-kDa nuclear protein and vimentin were the presence of steroid-depleted culture medium.
detected as targets of PADs in these in vitro models Clearly, oestrogen and other hormones – at least
[48, 49]. More recently, the overexpression of progesterone and insulin – regulate the activity of
PAD4 in cultured haematopoietic cell lines has Pad2 and maybe that of the other PAD isotypes.
been shown to induce a cell death programme
involving (i) the increase of p53 and p21, leading
Other molecules involved in cell differentiation
to cell-cycle arrest, (ii) a deregulation of the Bax/
Bcl2 balance, (iii) a large release of cytochrome c Both the transcription of genes encoding PAD and
from mitochondria to cytosol and (iv) the activa- PAD activity have been shown to be modulated by
tion of the apoptosome/caspase cascade [50]. Sur- molecules inducing differentiation of different cell
prisingly, no deiminated protein could be detected types. Moreover, each PADI gene seems to be inde-
in this model. So, the mechanism of PAD action in pendently controlled. In many cultured cells, like
apoptosis should be analysed in detail to be fully haematopoietic cells or keratinocytes, no deiminat-
understood. ed proteins could be detected without treatments
Calcium also seems to play a role in the regula- with vitamin D3, retinoic acid derivatives, or cal-
tion of the expression of PADI genes. When nor- cium-ionophores (as mentioned above). The active
mal human keratinocytes are cultured at low form of vitamin D3 (Vit D), 1, 25-dihydroxyvita-
(0.15 mM) or high (1.2 mM) calcium concentra- min D3, is known to act on the differentiation of
tions, the PADI2 and PADI3 relative mRNA levels keratinocytes, osteoblasts and chondrocytes, and
are weakly but significantly increased (two fold) at to play a major function in the control of calcium
the high calcium concentration, as shown by real and phosphate metabolism. By microarray analy-
time polymerase chain reaction [51, 52]. Sp1 and sis, Vit D treatment (10)7 M) of cultured keratino-
Sp3 bind to the minimal promoter of PADI2 as cis- cytes has been shown to regulate a complex
acting factors. They have been involved in its differentiation network [60]. The expression of 98
basal transcription and the Sp1/Sp3 ratio may genes, among 12 600 analysed, was modified by
constitute a basal mechanism to control PADI2 Vit D; 82 were up-regulated and 16, down-regula-
transcription. The basal- and calcium-induced ted. The major components induced in this net-
activity of the minimal promoter of PADI3 also work involved transcriptional factors (e.g. Klf-4
depends on the ratio of Sp1 and Sp3, and involves and Fos), structural proteins (e.g. involucrin), pro-
the NF-Y transcription factor. teases (several kallikreins), protease inhibitors
(several B-serpins) and post-translational modifica- respectively [64]. In line with these observations,
tion enzymes like PAD1-3 [60]. PAD activity has also been described as positively
In haematopoietic cells, as HL-60 cells, PAD4 influenced by the presence of reducing agents,
expression and activity are detected only when especially dithiothreitol. In general, PAD activity
they are induced to differentiate in granulocytes reaches a plateau at 2–10 mM of DTT depending
by all-trans-retinoic acid (10)6 M) or in mono- on the isotype considered [30, 33, 64]. Three
cytes by Vit D (10)7 M) after 2–5 days of treat- inhibitors of PADs have been identified recently,
ment [10]. Treatment of the cells with a phorbol namely paclitaxel (a taxol derivative), 2-chloroace-
ester (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) at tamidine, and fluoro-amidine [65–67]. Paclitaxel
10 ng mL)1 fails to induce this expression. Induc- carries a long chemical side arm similar to a
tion of PAD activity by retinoic acid (0.5 10)6 M) frequently used synthetic arginine derivative sub-
has also been observed in a newborn rat keratino- strate, the a-N-benzoyl-l-arginine-ethyl-ester. The
cyte cell line [61]. direct binding of micellar-tritiated paclitaxel to a
PAD2 and PAD4 are expressed in cells of both purified bovine Pad2 has been demonstrated with
peripheral blood and synovial fluid of rheumatoid an IC50 of 5 mM. The small 2-chloroacetamine
arthritis patients and their expression seems to be has been defined as an irreversible inhibitor of
finely regulated according to the differentiation PAD4 with an IC50 of 3 mM. F-amidine, a com-
state of the cells. PADI2 and PADI4 mRNA were pound similar to the PAD synthetic substrate a-N-
reported to be expressed in monocytes [CD14-pos- benzoyl-l-arginine-amide, appears as the most
itive peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs)] potent inhibitor of PAD4 with an IC50 of 20 lM
but PADI4 mRNA could not be detected in macr- when pre-incubated with calcium, and an IC50 >
ophages (obtained by a 7-days culture of adherent 200 lM without calcium. These molecules inter-
PBMCs) where PADI2 mRNA was observed [62]. act with the catalytic site of PADs producing irre-
Surprisingly, in that study, PAD4 protein has been versible inhibitions. Particularly, all the
immunodetected not only in monocytes, but also compounds able to covalently modify the SH
in macrophages. In contrast, PAD2 has been group of cysteinyl residues probably inhibit the
immunodetected only in macrophages [62]. enzyme via modification of the highly conserved
Although it was not investigated whether mRNA cysteinyl residue (Cys-645 in PAD4) of the cata-
stability or translation efficiency was affected, a lytic site, which has been proposed to initiate the
luciferase gene reporter approach has shown that citrullination reaction by nucleophilic attack of the
the long 3¢ UTR of the PADI2 mRNA (>2 kb) Cf atom of peptidyl-arginine [40]. Accordingly,
probably plays a role in the regulation of the pro- two potential mechanisms of PAD4 inactivation
tein production [62]. In the same way, PAD2 have been recently proposed, both directly invol-
expression in optic nerve cells seems to be regula- ving the catalytic Cys-645 residue [68].
ted at the translational level [63]. To date, nothing
has been published about PAD6 regulation.
PADs in skin physiology
Altogether, these data show that the regulation
of PADs is highly complex with multilock control
The known substrates of PADs in the epidermis
points at transcriptional, translational and activity
are cytoskeletal proteins and filaggrin, a crucial
levels.
protein for the moisturizing of the stratum cor-
neum
Modulators of PAD activity
During the nineties, three major substrates of
Given the importance of calcium for PAD activity, PADs were identified in mouse, rat, guinea pig or
calcium chelators such as EDTA or EGTA obvi- human epidermis [17, 18, 69, 70]. The presence
ously constitute early recognized PAD inhibitors. of deiminated proteins mainly in the stratum
Other inhibitors of PAD were mentioned long ago. corneum (SC) already suggested a function for
For example, agents that covalently modify cystei- deimination during terminal differentiation of
nyl residues such as monoiodoacetamide and keratinocytes. In a urea/2-mercaptoethanol-
p-chloromercuribenzoate inhibited a rat epidermal soluble-fraction of human epidermis, two deimina-
Pad preparation with a concentration inducing ted proteins have been identified as keratin 1 (K1)
50% of inhibition (IC50) of 100 lM and 1 lM, and keratin 10 (K10) [17, 18, 69, 70]. Later, the
arginine of the murine sequence GSSGGGRGGSS of placenta, prostate, spleen, testis and thymus [13].
the V2-subdomain in the non-helicoidal tail of K1 High levels of PAD1 are immunodetected in the
was defined as a deimination site [18]. The third cytoplasm of living keratinocytes – with an
substrate to be identified was filaggrin [17, 69, increasing intensity of staining from the stratum
70]. Filaggrin is a basic protein found in abun- basale to the stratum granulosum – as well as in
dance in the epidermis. It is synthesized by kera- all layers of the SC [13, 28] (Fig. 4a). PAD2, the
tinocytes of the granular layer as a large precursor most ubiquitous PAD according to RT-PCR analy-
(400 kDa in man) called profilaggrin, an essential sis, shows a cytoplasmic labelling in all the living
component of type F keratohyalin granules (KHG). layers of the epidermis with a pericellular staining
During the granular keratinocyte to corneocyte of granular keratinocytes [78]. PAD3, also in the
transition, profilaggrin is proteolysed into filaggrin cytosol, has been detected in the granular layer
units (in man, profilaggrin contains 10–12 filag- and the deeper layers of the SC [78, 28] (Fig. 4b).
grin units). These histidine- and arginine-rich PAD3 mRNA has been detected from prostate,
units associate with the keratin IFs facilitating small intestine, testis, thymus, lung, kidney, pan-
their aggregation and the resulting formation of creas, skin and epidermis [78]. At the mRNA level,
the intracorneocyte fibrous matrix. After its deimi- PAD4 and PAD6 have not been detected in
nation in the stratum compactum, each filaggrin human epidermis. PAD1 and 3 are co-located with
unit is thought to dissociate from the matrix and profilaggrin on KHG (Figs 4c and 5) [28]. Until
to be fully proteolysed to generate free amino-acids now, deiminated proteins have not been immuno-
of the Natural Moisturizing Factor (NMF), a com- detected in human and mouse epidermal KHG,
plex mixture of osmotic agents essential to main- and guinea pig profilaggrin has been shown to
tain 10–15% water in the SC [71] (For review see be devoid of citrulline [79]. This suggests that
Refs [72, 73]). The NMF is composed of glycerol, deimination by PADs is prevented in the granules,
urea, lactate, ions and free amino-acids (52%), of e.g. by a low local concentration of calcium.
which two derivatives have been characterized: Interestingly in this context, profilaggrin and
pyrrolidone carboxylic acid and trans-urocanic other components of the KHG contain active
acid. Pyrrolidone carboxylic acid derived from glu- calcium-binding sites of the EF-hand type in their
tamine is the most hygroscopic amino-acid, and amino-terminus, the function of which is not
trans-urocanic acid derived from histidine contri- known. One may speculate about a possible chela-
butes to photoprotection by partially absorbing tion of calcium by these molecules that in turn
ultraviolet radiation. The amino-acids of NMF are inactivates the PADs. However, perinuclear gran-
nearly all produced from the degradation of filag- ules of buccal mucosa cells and cytoplasmic gran-
grin, their relative proportion being closely related ules of cultured epidermis keratinocytes contain
to the filaggrin composition [71]. Recently, profi- deiminated proteins immunologically and bio-
laggrin variants, with non-sense mutations (e.g. chemically related to profilaggrin [80, 81]. These
R501X, 2282del4) have been defined as very data show that deimination may occur on KHG
strong pre-disposing factors for atopic dermatitis during keratinocyte terminal differentiation
(OMIM # %603165) and causative factors of programs related to but different from epidermis
ichtyosis vulgaris (OMIM # 146700) [74, 75]. differentiation, in particular when keratinocytes
We have demonstrated the capacity of purified are kept in a highly humid environment. PAD1
recombinant PADs to deiminate human filaggrin and 3 are also located in the cytoplasmic matrix of
in vitro with different calcium and pH sensitivities the deeper corneocyte layers (Figs 4c and 5),
according to the isotype of the used enzyme [28]. where deimination of filaggrin takes place. They
These differences could regulate filaggrin deimina- have therefore been proposed to deiminate filag-
tion in vivo as calcium- and pH-gradients are grin in vivo [28]. PAD1 isotype is also the best
known to exist in the SC [76, 77]. candidate for keratin deimination because it is the
only isotype which persists up to the top of the SC
where K1 and K10 are probably modified [28, 82]
PAD1–3 location, expression and function in
(Figs 4a and 5). It is not really known whether fil-
epidermis differentiation
aggrin and keratin deiminations are co-ordinated
At the mRNA level, PAD1 has been shown to be or separate events in the SC, but the latter seems
preferentially expressed in human epidermis, to be delayed. Also the role of keratin deimination
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4 Immuno-electron microscopy observations of peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD)1 (a) and PAD3 (b–c) in the
human stratum corneum (SC) and on keratohyalin granules (KHG). (a) Arrows indicate the small gold-particle (5-nm
diameter) labelling of PAD1 from the deeper (C1) to the upper (C6) layer of corneocytes in the SC. (b) PAD3 (gold-parti-
cles 5-nm diameter pointed with arrows) and filaggrin (gold-particles 10-nm diameter) labelling does not persist from
the third layer of corneocytes (C3). (c) Zoom on a KHG showing the presence of PAD3 (gold-particles 5-nm diameter
pointed with arrows) and profilaggrin (gold-particles 10-nm diameter). Bar ¼ 200 nm (a and b) and 100 nm (c).
is not known. We can only suppose that deimina- myoepithelial cells of sweat glands. PAD1 and 3
tion of keratins is involved in modifications of the have been immunodetected in the hair follicles:
corneocyte cytoplasmic matrix, as observed at the PAD1 in the companion layer between the inner
ultrastructural level, as both events are concomit- and outer root sheaths, and in the Huxley layer
ant [28]. and the non-cornified part of the cuticle of the
inner root sheath (IRS); PAD3 in the non-corni-
fied Henle and Huxley layers, and IRS cuticle and
PADs in cutaneous appendages
in the medulla. No PADs have been detected in
We have also analysed PAD1–3 expression and sebaceous glands. Deiminated proteins have been
the presence of deiminated proteins in several only detected in the IRS after cornification
human skin appendages, especially in anagen occurs, first in the Henle layer then in the cuticle
hair follicles (i.e. the growth phase of the follicles) and finally in the Huxley layer, and also in the
[83]. PAD1 and 2 have been immuno-localized in medulla. Trichohyalin, a known PAD substrate,
arrector pili muscles and in secretory and and PAD3 are co-located in the medulla. These
Figure 5 Schematic representation of the effects of filaggrin and keratin deimination, and peptidylarginine deiminases
(PAD) localization in the human epidermis. Left panel, PAD1, PAD2 and PAD3, as shown by their respective number,
are located on an ultrastructural schematic view of the epidermis. Right panel, Filaggrin (Fil) is produced in the upper
granular layer from its precursor profilaggrin, a major constituent of the keratohyalin granules (KHG). Profilaggrin,
firstly phosphorylated (p) is then dephosphorylated and proteolysed in a first step at the level of its peptide linkers. The
N-terminal domain of profilaggrin, carrying two EF-hand calcium-binding sites, translocates to the nucleus, and 10–12
filaggrin units (in man) are released. These basic filaggrin units interact with keratin intermediate filaments (KIF).
PAD1 and 3, located in the stratum granulosum and the lower stratum corneum, have been proposed to deiminate fil-
aggrin at multiple sites (Cit). The deimination alters filaggrin charges, modifies filaggrin/KIF interactions and induces fil-
aggrin dissociation from KIF. Then, in the upper SC deiminated filaggrin can be fully proteolysed to produce free amino-
acids of the NMF. In the upper SC also, keratin K1 and K10 are deiminated by PAD1.
data and previous analyses [20, 84] strongly sug- responsible for its unfolding and solubilization
gest that, in the medulla, deimination of the from trichohyalin granules allowing its subse-
highly helicoidal trichohyalin by PAD3 could be quent cross-linking by transglutaminases.
explored as the presence of its corresponding putative RA-associated PADI4 haplotype remains
mRNA in peripheral blood leukocytes suggests to be explored. The association of RA with vari-
expression of the protein by the numerous haema- ants of the other PADI genes, particularly those
topoietic cells infiltrating the rheumatoid ST. It encoding isotypes expressed in the rheumatoid ST,
would be interesting to investigate whether PAD also deserves further testing.
expression in the ST is correlated with the degree
of ST inflammation in both RA and control
Multiple sclerosis and other neurodegenerative dis-
patients with inflammatory and non-inflammatory
eases
rheumatism. Such a correlation can indeed be sus-
pected in view of the fact that deimination of fibrin Multiple sclerosis (MS, OMIM # 126200) is one of
in the ST is observed during a variety of syno- the most common neurodegenerative diseases, des-
vitides [92] and deiminated proteins of still troying the axon-surrounding myelin sheath
unknown identity are detectable in several other formed by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells,
inflamed non-synovial tissues such as the muscle with a progressive loss of motility sometimes lead-
of patients with polymyositis, the colon of patients ing to the patient’s death. Autoantibodies to mye-
with inflammatory bowel disease or the lung of lin basic protein (MBP), the major protein of the
individuals with interstitial pneumonia [97, 98]. axonal sheath, are detected in the cerebrospinal
How extra-cellular proteins such as fibrin or fibro- fluid of MS patients, but they are associated with
nectin can become PAD substrates whereas PADs various other neurodegenerative diseases and
are intra-cellular enzymes with no secretory signal therefore are not specific for MS (for reviews, see
peptide also remains to be precisely determined Refs [111, 112]). MBP undergoes several post-
though apoptosis and/or necrosis of cells of the translational modifications like phosphorylation,
inflammatory infiltrate have been proposed as methylation and deimination [113]. The extent of
events leading to the release of PADs in the extra- the latter is increased in the brain of MS patients
cellular milieu. and seems to be linked to the severity of the dis-
Given that PADs are involved in the generation ease. In a normal situation, 20% of MBP is deimi-
of the antigenic targets of ACPA in the ST and as nated. This amount is increased to 45% for the
systematic genome analyses (linkage studies) in chronic and even to 90% for the fulminating
French and Japanese populations have revealed a (Marburg’s variant) form of MS [114]. The deimi-
possible RA genetic factor in the region of chromo- nation induces a dramatic conformational change
some 1 encompassing the PAD locus [99–104], of MBP, alters many of its properties, and may be
PADI genes constitute major RA candidate genes involved in the pathogenesis of MS. This has been
not only functionally, but also positionally. The extensively reviewed in a recently published paper
first direct investigation of this hypothesis was [115], so we simply focus on some examples here.
reported in 2003. Single nucleotide polymorphisms In vitro, the slightly deiminated forms of MBP (6
(SNPs) of the genomic region encompassing the Cit/19 Arg, MBP-Cit6) are less degraded than the
PADI1-4 genes were explored in a case–control highly deiminated MBP (18Cit/19 Arg, MBP-
study within the Japanese population, leading to Cit18) by the metalloproteinase Stromelysin-1
the discovery of an association between RA and a [116] and the aspartic endoprotease cathepsin D
PADI4 haplotype [93]. The genetic association was [117, 118], two proteases involved in the genera-
confirmed in a replicate study from Japan [105], tion of MS lesions. MBP is normally associated
in a Korean population [106] and in a Caucasian with the lipids of the myelin membrane and pro-
population from North America [107], but was motes actin polymerization. In vitro, these interac-
not reproduced in Caucasian populations from the tions are disrupted after deimination of MBP or
U.K., France or Spain [108–110]. In the initial using a mutant of MBP carrying substitutions of
study, in vitro results indicated that the presence glutamines instead of citrullines to mimic deimina-
of the PADI4 haplotype could lead to a more stable tion [119–121]. Interestingly, unlike the control
mRNA and the authors suggested that PAD4 ‘MBP C1 component’, the deiminated ‘MBP C8
expression was increased in the ST of RA patients component’ [122], dispensed to Lewis rats by s.c.
leading to enhanced levels of citrullinated proteins boost with complete Freund adjuvant, increased
[93]. Whether a relation exists between the levels the clinical severity of experimental autoimmune
of PAD4 expression in vivo and the presence of the encephalomyelitis [an animal model of MS induced
by immunization of susceptible animals with pep- of Hg). Therefore, deimination could play an
tides or proteins from the central nervous system important role in the onset and/or progression of
(CNS)] [123]. All these data suggest the involve- several neurodegenerative human diseases.
ment of deiminated proteins in the chronicity and
the autoimmunity of the demyelination process
Psoriasis and bullous congenital ichthyosiform
occurring in the human disease. Concerning the
erythroderma
PAD involved in the deimination of MBP, it should
be mentioned that PAD2 is the only one to be Although deiminated proteins are detected in nor-
expressed at a high level in the CNS [78, 115]. mal epidermis, surprisingly little is known about
Therefore, it probably corresponds to the PAD iso- deimination in cutaneous diseases. Psoriasis vul-
type involved in the deimination of MBP in physio- garis (OMIM #177900) is a chronic dermatitis
logical conditions. In pathological situations such that affects around 2% of the population. It is
as MS, other isotypes may be (additionally?) characterized by red, scaly skin lesions that are
involved. Like in RA, PADI genes constitute candi- usually found on the scalp, elbows and knees, and
date genes in MS as suggestive evidence of linkage may be associated with severe arthritis. The aetiol-
for the 1p36 locus of chromosome 1 was obtained ogy of the disease is unknown but hyperprolifera-
in MS patients [124, 125]. Up to now, only one tion and abnormal differentiation of keratinocytes,
report has been published on the direct evaluation and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the der-
of the association of PADI genes with susceptibility mis and epidermis are suspected to play a major
to MS. This family-based study revealed no role in lesion formation. By immunohistochemical
association between variants of the PADI4 gene analysis, a decrease of deiminated proteins, in par-
and MS in a French Caucasian population [126]. ticular K1, has been observed in the hyperprolifer-
Interestingly, experimental autoimmune encephal- ative epidermis of psoriasic lesions comparatively
omyelitis induction is not impaired in Padi2 knock to non-lesional or normal epidermis [82]. In bul-
out mice even if a dramatic reduction of deiminat- lous congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (BCIE,
ed proteins could be observed in the CNS of these OMIM # 113800) decreased amount of deiminated
mice in comparison with the wild type animals K1 has also been shown [128]. In nearly all
[127]. patients with BCIE, skin lesions appear during the
In addition, GFAP is heavily deiminated in unaf- first year of life and 75% of patients already have
fected white and grey matter from secondary pro- lesions at birth. There is notable early mortality
gressive MS patients, when compared with age- from epidermal erosions and infections. At the
matched patients without known neurological dis- keratinocyte level, a formation of clumps and peri-
eases [21]. GFAP is a major IF protein of astro- nuclear shells because of an abnormal arrange-
cytes, the structural and nutritive cells of the ment of keratin tonofibrils mainly involving K1
nervous system. Recently, the accumulation of dei- and K10 has been previously described [129,
minated GFAP and vimentin has been evidenced 130]. Of course, the abnormal deimination of K1
in hippocampal extracts from patients with Alzhei- in psoriasis and BCIE could be a consequence of
mer’s disease (AD, OMIM # 104300), the most the disease rather than its origin. Nevertheless, it
common form of progressive dementia in the is interesting to note that Vit D induces the expres-
elderly [22]. GFAP, deiminated proteins and PAD2 sion of PADI1-3 mRNA in cultured keratinocytes
have been co-localized in the astrocytes of AD hip- [60], and is currently used as an efficient drug in
pocampus. More recently, by a proteomic psoriasis [131].
approach, PAD2 and protein deimination have
also been implicated in the pathogenesis of human
Cancers
glaucoma (primary open-angle glaucoma, POAG,
OMIM # 137760). PAD2 and deimination appear Immunohistological analysis of cryosections of an
to be more abundant in POAG optic nerves than extramammary Paget’s tumour (OMIM #167300)
in the controls, and MBP has been identified as has shown the expression of a non-epidermal PAD
the major deiminated protein [63]. The authors protein in neoplastic cells [132]. Later, the cDNA
have also observed an induction of deiminated encoding PAD2 was cloned from human cutane-
proteins and PAD2 expression in cultured astro- ous squamous carcinoma cells (HSC-1) and PAD
cytes subjected to an increased pressure (40 mm activity was detected in extracts of HSC-1 cells
cultivated for 7 or 10 days [12]. Another more Asahikawa Medical College, Japan where the
recent immunochemical analysis has revealed an immunomicroscopy analysis was performed by
ectopic expression of PAD4 in epithelial cells of R. Nachat. This study was supported by grants
various adenocarcinomas compared with normal from the CNRS, Toulouse III University, INSERM,
tissues with a concomitant increase in deiminated the ‘Association de Recherche sur la Polyarthrite’
proteins [133]. In these cells, PAD4 has appeared (ARP), the ‘Société Française de Dermatologie’
as co-located with the haematopoietic progenitor (SFD), ‘Société de Recherche Dermatologique’ (SRD),
cell marker, CD34, and with keratins K8, K18 and the European Social Fund (ESF), the European
K19. Therefore, PAD4 could be highly expressed Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Pierre
in cancer cells. Fabre Research Institute.
Conclusion References
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[Link]/journals/jods
UMR 5165, CNRS-University Toulouse III, Faculty of Medicine Purpan, 37 allées J. Guesde,
31073 Toulouse, France
Contents
0923-1811/$30.00 # 2006 Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2006.07.004
261
64 S. Chavanas et al.
Fig. 1 Representation of the transformation of an argi- Fig. 2 The locus of the genes encoding human PADs. The
nine (a-left) and a methyl-arginine residue (b-left) into a locus of the five PADI genes is located in position p35-36 on
citrulline residue (a- and b-right). These conversions are chromosome 1. Transcription direction is indicated by an
catalyzed in the presence of calcium (Ca2+) by a peptidy- open arrow. Genomic distances are indicated in kilobases
larginine deiminase (PAD) including PAD4. (kb).
262
Peptidylarginine deiminases and deimination in biology and pathology 65
1.2. PAD4 crystal structure at a resolution granulocyte line [20,21], is likely to alter the struc-
of 2.3 Å ture of chromatin and DNA sensitivity to fragmenta-
tion. These findings show that deimination at least
PAD4 is folded into two domains: an N-terminal associates with, and may be is a signal for, apoptosis.
domain from Met1 to Pro300 which is further divided
into two immunoglobulin-like sub domains, and a C-
terminal domain with the active site cleft. PAD4 is a 2. Deimination in non cutaneous
head-to-tail dimer. Three calcium ion binding sites diseases
are positioned in the subdomain 2 in proximity to the
C-terminal domain, and two calcium ion binding 2.1. Nervous system disorders
sites were observed in the C-terminal domain near
the active site. They all differ from the canonical PAD2 has been detected at high levels in the grey
EF-hand motif. Calcium binding induces conforma- matter and hypothalamus [22], as well as in hippo-
tional changes that generate the active site cleft campus, and in rat glial cells, especially astrocytes
and are necessary for recognition of the substrate [23—25], microglial cells [10,25], and oligodendro-
moiety. The high sequence identity of the C-term- cytes [26]. PAD4 has also been detected in extracts of
inal domains of all PADs suggests that their struc- mouse brain and spinal cord [27]. The brains of
tures are similar [13]. patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) show increased
levels of deiminated myelin basic protein (MBP) and
1.3. Deimination and gene expression of deiminated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).
The level of deimination is proportional to disease
Post-translational modifications of histones associate severity [28,29]. MBP is synthesized by oligodendro-
with local transcriptional induction or repression. cytes and is a major component of the myelin sheath
Deimination has been shown to antagonize the tran- surrounding the axons of nerve cells. Deimination of
scriptional induction mediated by histone bound MBP enhances its sensitivity to proteolysis and weak-
arginine methylation [14,15]. In human HL-60 gran- ens its interactions with the phospholipids of the
ulocytes, the deimination of aminoterminal arginines myelin sheath which becomes unstable. Accordingly,
in histones H3 and H4 by PAD4 prevents their methy- in a MS mouse model, experimental autoimmune
lation by the methyltransferase CARM1. PAD4 was encephalomyelitis, hypercitrullination of MBP and
also shown to regulate histone arginine methylation GFAP occurs in spinal cord during the development
levels by converting monomethyl-arginine to citrul- of the disease [27,30]. Also, enhanced levels of PAD2
line in a demethylimination reaction (Fig. 1b). Con- and abnormal accumulation of deiminated vimentin
versely, dimethylation of arginines prevents and glial fibrillary acidic protein were detected in
deimination. Consistently, PAD4 recruitment and hippocampus from patients with Alzheimer’s disease
activity is linked to the transcriptional down-regula- (AD) but not in controls [31]. It has been proposed
tion of estrogen-responsive genes in MCF-7 cells. that PAD2 may be activated upon increase of local
Moreover, PAD4-mediated demethylimination also calcium level under hypoxic conditions or other neu-
alter the activity of the p300 coactivator complex rodegenerative changes [31]. Together, these find-
necessary for transcription activation by hormone ings disclosed an important role for PAD2 in the onset
nuclear receptors [16]. These results pointed out and progression of neurodegenerative human disor-
PAD activity as a novel mechanism contributing to ders, at least AD and MS. In addition, a role for PAD2
the epigenetic control of gene expression. and MBP deimination was proposed in primary open-
angle glaucoma optic nerve damage [32].
1.4. Deimination and apoptosis
2.2. Rheumatoid arthritis
A nuclear 70 kD protein and vimentin had been
found to be selectively deiminated during calcium Deimination appears to be a key factor in the
ionophore-induced apoptosis in rat epidermal ker- pathophysiology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the
atinocytes and in mouse peritoneal macrophages most frequently encountered human inflammatory
grown in vitro, respectively [17,18]. In a recent rheumatism. The conflict between autoantibodies
study [19], inducible expression of exogenous directed against citrullinated proteins and extra-
PAD4 in transfected Jurkat and HL-60 cells induces vascular deposits in the synovial tissue of deimi-
apoptosis through cell cycle arrest, via increased nated fibrin may be responsible for the self
levels of p53, and mitochondria-mediated pathway. maintaining of joint inflammation in patients [33].
Also, the deimination of histones H2A, H3, H4 and Based on previous studies indicating linkage
nucleophosmin/B23 by PAD4, as observed in HL-60 between RA and chromosome 1p36 [34], a genetic
263
66 S. Chavanas et al.
screen of variants of the PAD locus in a Japanese deiminated cytokeratins in most adenocarcinoma
panel disclosed a strong association between a func- and some non-adenocarcinoma tissue samples [45].
tional haplotype of the gene PADI4 and the RA
phenotype, including increased levels of autoanti-
body against deiminated proteins [8]. The suscept- 3. Expression, location and roles of
ibility haplotype contains 4 exonic variants of PADI4 PADs in skin
and enhanced the stability of the PADI4 transcripts
in vitro. Supporting results were obtained in panels 3.1. Epidermis
from Korea [35], Japan [36], North America (Eur-
opean origin [37]), and through a recent meta-ana- Only products of the PADI1, 2 and 3 genes have been
lysis [38] although no associations were found detected in skin or epidermis [4,6,9,46]. We inves-
between the PADI4 variant haplotype and the dis- tigated PAD expression by confocal microscopy on
ease in several European panels [39—42]. frozen sections of non-fixed human and mouse skin,
using anti-peptide antibodies highly specific for
2.3. Experimental obstructive each PAD isoform. PAD1 immunostaining was cyto-
nephropathy plasmic and spread throughout the whole epidermis
with an intensity gradient from the basal to the
In rat kidney, deimination preferentially occurs in granular layer (Fig. 3). PAD2 was mainly detected
Bowman’s capsule, the outer epithelium of the in both the spinous and granular layers with a more
glomerular corpuscle. Both PAD2 expression and intense staining of the latter. PAD2 is located in the
citrullinated protein content increase markedly in cytoplasm of spinous cells and at the periphery of
obstructive nephropathy experimentally induced by granular keratinocytes (Fig. 4). PAD3 was detected
unilateral ureteral ligation. One of the major dei- in the granular layer (Figs. 5 and 6). Double labelling
minated proteins was identified as actin. Since a showed the co-location of PAD3 with both profilag-
ureter-bladder anastomosis to release the obstruc- grin and filaggrin (Fig. 6). Further, immunoelectron
tion rapidly decreases the amount of citrullinated microscopy analyses showed that PAD1 was
proteins, it was speculated that PAD activation expressed all the way up to the surface of the
occurs in response to mechanical stress to glomeruli epidermis whereas PAD3 could not be detected
[43]. beyond the third or fourth corneocyte layer, i.e.
at the same area as filaggrin. Immunoblotting car-
2.4. Cancer ried out on samples of cornified layers, obtained
using adhesive tape stripping, confirmed that only
Neoplastic cells from extramammary Paget’s dis- PAD1 persists in the superficial corneocytes. In the
ease were found immunoreactive to antibodies granular keratinocytes, PAD1 was observed in asso-
against a PAD, which, on the basis of the absence ciation with both the cytokeratin intermediate fila-
of staining of normal epidermis, could be PAD4 or ments and keratohyalin granules, and PAD3 only was
PAD6 [44]. A recent study revealed that PAD4 is found within keratohyalin granules. These two PADs
significantly expressed and co-located with CD34 were also detected in the intracorneocyte fibrous
(a marker of haematopoietic progenitor cells) and matrix [9,46,47].
Fig. 3 Localization of PAD1 in human epidermis by confocal microscopy. Cryosections of human skin were analysed by
confocal microscopy with DG3.10, a monoclonal antibody specific for desmoglein 1 and 2 (Dsg1—2), and with anti-PAD1
antibodies. The merge image clearly shows the granular distribution of PAD1 in the cytoplasm of the upper spinous and
granular keratinocytes.
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Peptidylarginine deiminases and deimination in biology and pathology 67
Fig. 4 Localization of PAD2 in human epidermis by confocal microscopy. Cryosections of human skin were analysed by
confocal microscopy with DG3.10, a monoclonal antibody specific for desmoglein 1 and 2 (Dsg1—2), and with anti-PAD2
antibodies. The merge images (Dsg1—2/PAD2) show the distribution of PAD2 in the cytoplasm of the upper spinous
keratinocytes and at the periphery of granular keratinocytes.
Deiminated proteins were detected for the first To ensure efficient barrier function, the cornified
time nearly thirty years ago within hair follicles layer must be cohesive (through the corneodesmo-
[48]. We recently documented the expression of somes), waterproof (due to the intercorneocyte
PADs in the anagen hair follicles [49]. PAD1 was lipid lamellae) and moisturized. Healthy cornified
detected within Huxley’s layer, the IRS cuticle and layer must contain 10—15% of water; otherwise it
the companion layer. PAD3 was present within the becomes rigid and cracks. The Natural Moisturizing
inner root sheath (IRS) and the medulla. These Factor (NMF) is an osmotic agent that allows water
data suggest that PAD1 and 3 are associated with retention. It contains a combination of glycerol,
the differentiation of hair follicles. PAD1 and 3 urea, lactate, and aminoacids of which two deriva-
could have a role in the control of the mechanical tives: trans-urocanic acid (derived from histidine)
resistance of the root sheath cells through the and the most hygroscopic aminoacid, pyrolidone
deimination of trichohyalin (Fig. 7). Indeed, carboxylic acid (derived from glutamine). These
citrullination of this protein allows its solubiliza- amino acids and derivatives are nearly all produced
tion from granules and its association with hair from the degradation of filaggrin [50]. Filaggrin is a
keratins through covalent interactions carried out basic protein that is synthesized by granular layer
by one or several transglutaminases. Both PADs keratinocytes as a 400 kDa large precursor, profilag-
may also be involved in the deimination of kRT1- grin, an essential component of type F keratohyalin
c29 and its human ortholog, the inner root sheath- granules. During transition to corneocyte, profilag-
specific type-I keratin 25Cirs3. After deimination, grin is proteolyzed into a dozen of filaggrin sub-
these keratins are cross-linked to trichohyalin and units. The latter, rich in histidine and other basic
other cornified envelope components [2]. PAD1 amino acids, associate with cytokeratin intermedi-
and 2 were detected in secretory and myoepithe- ate filaments, facilitating their aggregation and the
lial cells of sweat glands and in arrector pili formation of the intracorneocyte fibrous matrix
muscles. So far, no PAD was detected in sebaceous [51]. In the upper part of the stratum compactum,
glands. filaggrin separates from the intracorneocyte matrix
Fig. 5 Localization of PAD3 in mouse and human epidermis. Cryosections of mouse (a, b) and human (c) skin were
analysed with anti-PAD3 antibodies, without (a, c) and with (b) pre-absorption on the peptide used to affinity purified the
antibodies. The images show the specific distribution of PAD3 in the granular keratinocytes. Scale bar, 10 mm.
265
68 S. Chavanas et al.
Fig. 6 Co-localization of PAD3 and (pro)filaggrin in human epidermis by confocal microscopy. Cryosections of human
skin were analysed by confocal microscopy with anti-PAD3 antibodies, with AHF2, a monoclonal antibody directed against
profilaggrin and filaggrin ((pro)filaggrin), and with AHF7, a monoclonal antibody specific for filaggrin. The merge images
show the co-location of PAD3 with profilaggrin in the cytoplasm of the granular keratinocytes, and filaggrin in the lower
corneocytes, respectively.
and is completely degraded into amino acids that deiminated, and this is believed to be necessary
constitute the NMF. Two recent reports in Nature for its dissociation from the matrix and subsequent
Genetics reinforced the importance of filaggrin in proteolysis. In vitro, filaggrin could be deiminated
epidermal barrier. Indeed, they demonstrated that by recombinant PAD1, 2 and 3, with an efficacy that
the loss-of-function mutations R510X and 2282del4 varied depending on the isoform [47]. The enzy-
in the gene encoding profilaggrin underlie ichthyosis matic properties of PAD1 and 3 and their co-locali-
vulgaris (OMIM 146700) and are strong predisposing zation with filaggrin within the fibrous matrix of
factors for atopic dermatitis (OMIM %603165) deep corneocytes strongly suggest that they are
[52,53]. In the stratum compactum, filaggrin is responsible for the deimination of this protein
Fig. 7 Co-localization of PAD3 in human hair follicles by confocal microscopy. Cryosections of human scalp skin were
analysed by confocal microscopy with anti-PAD3 antibodies, and with AE16, a monoclonal antibody specific for
trichohyalin and kindly provided by Prof. T.-T. Sun. The merge images show the co-location of PAD3 with thrichohyalin
in the inner root sheath and in the medulla cells at the periphery of trichohyalin granules (arrows).
266
Peptidylarginine deiminases and deimination in biology and pathology 69
Fig. 8 Role of PADs in the epidermis: a model. See text for details.
[47]. Therefore, these two isoforms participate in, 5. Conclusions and perspectives
and possibly control, the production of the NMF
(Fig. 8), and therefore play a major role in the Due to their importance in physiology and patho-
stratum corneum homeostasis. physiology, as shown in this review, PADs are now
In the epidermis, the extremities of cytokeratin K1 considered as potential drug targets. Paclitaxel, a
and K10 are also deiminated in the upper cornified molecule used in cancer therapy, was the first
layer [47,54] where only PAD1 has been detected noncompetitive inhibitor of PADs to be reported
[47,54]. PAD1 is therefore the isoform responsible [59]. More recently, two acetamidine-based (2-
for K1 and K10 deimination. The importance of this chloroacetamidine and N-a-benzoyl-N5-(2-fluoro-
deimination in the late stages of the cornification 1-iminoethyl)-L-ornithine amide) were shown to
process is not known. It is concomitant with and inhibit PAD4, probably through an irreversible inac-
therefore could be involved in the ultrastructural tivation of the active site [60,61]. This opens the
modifications of the intracorneocyte fibrous matrix way to the fine characterization of biochemical
[55] (Fig. 8). The epidermal targets and the function pathways in which deimination is involved, and
of PAD2 in the epidermis have still not been identified. to the design of new therapeutic molecules focus-
ing on PADs.
Decreased level of cytokeratin deimination was The authors would like to thank Prof. H. Takahara and
observed in the epidermis of patients with bullous T. Senshu for their contributions to the research
congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (OMIM discussed in this review. Anti-modified citrulline anti-
113800) and psoriasis (OMIM 177900) ([56], M. Simon, body and monoclonal antibody AE16 were kind gifts of
unpublished data). Noteworthy, vitamin D increases Prof. T. Senshu and Prof. T.-T. Sun, respectively. The
the expression of PADI1—3 in keratinocytes grown in confocal microscopy was performed at the ‘‘Centre
vitro [57] and derivatives of this vitamin are bene- Européen de Recherche sur la Peau et les Epithéliums
ficial in the treatment of psoriasis. Therefore, it is de Revêtement’’ (Hôtel Dieu, Toulouse). The authors’
tempting to speculate that the 3 PADs expressed in the laboratory was supported in part by the CNRS, the
epidermis are possible therapeutic targets in psoria- Toulouse III University, the INSERM, the ‘‘Société de
sis. Surprisingly enough in this context, the PAD inhi- Recherche Dermatologique’’, the European Social
bitor paclitaxel has been shown, in a prospective Funds (ESF), the European Regional Development
phase II pilot study, to improve severe psoriasis [58]. Funds (ERDF) and the Pierre Fabre Research Institute.
267
70 S. Chavanas et al.
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type 4 (PAD4) in various tumors. Mol Carcinog 2006;45:183— Stéphane Chavanas, 37, trained in a
96. french grande école, INSA, Lyon, France.
[46] Nachat R, Méchin MC, Takahara H, Chavanas S, Charveron M, He was a PhD student in the laboratory of
Serre G, et al. Peptidylarginine deiminase isoforms 1—3 are Skin Biology and Pathophysiology in Nice
expressed in the epidermis and involved in the deimination Medical School, Nice, France, from 1995
of K1 and filaggrin. J Invest Dermatol 2005;124:384—93. to 1998 (Dr. Meneguzzi), and he spent 3
[47] Méchin MC, Enji M, Nachat R, Chavanas S, Charveron M, months in the Department of Cutaneous
Ishida-Yamamoto A, et al. The peptidylarginine deiminases Biology, Jefferson University, Philadel-
expressed in human epidermis differ in their substrate phia, USA, in 1996 (Pr Uitto). He received
specificities and subcellular locations. Cell Mol Life Sci his PhD degree with high honours from
2005;62:1984—95. the University of Nice-Sophia Antipolis, in 1998. He was appointed
[48] Rogers G, Taylor L. The enzymic derivation of citrulline as a Marie-Curie fellow by the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human
residues from arginine residues in situ during the biosynth- Genetics, University of Oxford, UK, from 1998 to 2000. He was
esis of hair proteins that are cross-linked by isopeptide recruited as a tenured scientist by the french National Institute
bonds. Adv Exp Med Biol 1977;86A:283—94. for Health and Medical Research (INSERM, France) in 2000. He has
[49] Nachat R, Méchin MC, Charveron M, Serre G, Constans J, been working in Pr Serre’s laboratory, University of Toulouse,
Simon M. Peptidylarginine deiminase isoforms are differen- France, since 2003. Stéphane Chavanas has characterized the
tially expressed in the anagen hair follicles and other human molecular and genetic aetiology of inherited skin disorders such
skin appendages. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125:34—41. as epidermolysis bullosa variants and Netherton disease. His
269
72 S. Chavanas et al.
group currently investigates the control of gene expression during went to Toulouse, France, in the University P. Sabatier (Prof.
epidermal keratinocyte differentiation. He characterized the G. Serre), where he characterized rheumatoid arthritis-asso-
peptidylarginine deiminase gene locus, and now studies the ciated autoantibodies, the so-called anti-keratin or anti-filaggrin
control of the differentiated expression of the PAD genes in antibodies. He was recruited as a tenured scientist by the
the epidermis using genetic and epigenetic approaches. National Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM,
France) in 1998. He currently heads a team focused on the
Dr Michel Simon got his PhD degree from characterization of the late steps in keratinocyte terminal dif-
the University of Geneva, Switzerland in ferentiation: function and properties of corneodesmosin, invol-
1988. Then he moved to the Department vement of proteases of the kallikrein family in desquamation,
of Ontogenesis and Molecular Genetic proteomic analysis of lamellar bodies, role, and regulation of the
(Prof. R.M. Tanguay) of Laval University expression of new therapeutic targets, the peptidylarginine dei-
in Quebec, Canada. In 1990, Dr Simon minases.
270
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Fonctions et régulation des peptidyl-arginine désiminases dans l’épiderme et au cours de la cicatrisation
cutanée
Les peptidyl-arginine désiminases (PADs) catalysent une modification post-traductionnelle appelée désimination
ou citrullination. Le rôle physiologique de la désimination est encore mal compris mais les Pads sont
associées à de nombreuses pathologies. Dans l’épiderme, seules les PAD1, 2 et 3 sont exprimées. La
désimination de la filaggrine par les PAD1 et 3 joue un rôle majeur dans les fonctions de barrière épidermique,
alors que le rôle de la PAD2 n’est pas encore connu.
Nous avons mis en évidence une régulation complexe de la désimination, en particulier post-transcriptionnelle.
A l’aide de modèles in vitro et in silico, nous avons montré que les PADs sont capables d’auto-désimination et
que celle-ci réduit leur activité. Nous avons ensuite analysé l’expression des Pads et des protéines désiminées in
vivo, au cours de la cicatrisation cutanée chez la souris. La Pad3 est co-localisée avec la (pro)filaggrine dans les
kératinocytes du néo-épiderme et pourrait être impliquée dans le rétablissement de la barrière épidermique. Dans
le caillot fibrino-plaquettaire, la fibrine est désiminée par la Pad4, une isoforme normalement absente de
l’épiderme et spécifique des cellules du sang. Enfin, l’analyse du phénotype cutané des souris Padi2-/- a montré
que l’absence de Pad2 ne modifie pas le taux des protéines désiminées et la différenciation des kératinocytes, et
n’influence ni la cicatrisation ni la désimination des protéines du caillot.
Peptidylarginine deiminase functions and regulation in the epidermis and during cutaneous wound
healing
Mots-Clés
Citrulline
Modification post-traductionnelle
Epiderme
Peptidyl-arginine désiminases
Cicatrisation cutanée
Désimination
Peau
Filaggrine