Biotechnology

Computational phospho-mining and related post translational modification analyses using in silico methods is debateable. For some wet lab scientists, it is similar to the twilight zone, where nothing might be quite what it seems. We certainly agree that the wet lab is critical for validation but computational assays rapidly generate preliminary data for assessment and aid wet lab. Zika virus is wrecking a havoc and it is the need of the hour to rapidly assess various phenomenon associated with its pathogenicity and disseminate it to the scientific community for assessment. Phosphorylation assists in viral replication and its association with host receptors. Here, we present a vignette of the phosphorylation potential of Zika virus proteins.

The antimicrobial potential of leaves extract of indigenous Stevia rebaudiana is investigated to treat infectious diseases. For this purpose, leaf extracts were prepared in two solvents, ethanol and water. The crude extract was tested against four bacterial and one fungal strain (Aspergillus flavus). Out of four bacterial strains, two were gram-positive, Staphylococcus aureus and Lactobacillus acidophilus, whereas Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli were gram negatives. Clarithromycin and erythromycin were used as a positive control for bacterial growth. However, Terbinafine was used as a positive control against fungal strain, while DMSO was used as a negative control. Results showed that the ethanolic extract of Stevia showed higher antibacterial activity as compared to water extract against all the bacterial strains. The zone of inhibition against E.coli was 5.66mm. Lactobacillus acidophilus clear zone of inhibition in the ethanolic extract was 9.3mm. Similarly, the ethanolic extract of leaves showed inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi, with an average zone of inhibition (7.33mm and 7.66mm). These findings suggested that leaves extracts have inhibitory activities against bacterial strains, although their antibacterial activities are lower than that of the standard that is Clarithromycin and Erythromycin. Leaves extract of Stevia showed no activity against Aspergillus flavus. It was concluded that Stevia rebaudiana ethanolic extract could be used as an antibacterial agent against selected pathogens due to its significant activity. In contrast, no significant activity against fungal pathogen was observed in both extracts. Keywords: ,Stevia rebaudiana, infectious diseases, Aspergillus flavus, DMSO Highlight:  treatment of infectious diseases through leaf extract of indigenous Stevia rebaudiana  ethanolic extract of Stevia showed higher antibacterial activity as compared to water extract  no significant activity against fungal pathogen 1. Introduction With the advancement in urbanization and globalization, the rate of infectious diseases also increased. These infectious diseases became the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries. The discovery and effectiveness of antimicrobial agents have become a significant issue due to the emergence and dissemination of multidrug-resistant strains (Giamarellou, 2010; Shaik et al., 2014). Most bacterial strains possess the genetic ability to gain and transfer-resistant genes against antimicrobial agents. Bacteria possess several resistant mechanisms like the presence of efflux pumps, site/surface modification, and metabolic inactivation (Hooper, 2001; Yala et al., 2001). The primary reason for developing resistance among the bacterial strains is incorrect and excessive antibiotic usage; therefore, developing alternative drugs or antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant pathogens is in dire need (Elisha et al., 2017). There is a need to develop antimicrobial drugs from medicinal plants to treat several diseases (Clark, 1996; Binutu, and Cordell, 2000).. Using medicinal plants to treat infectious diseases caused by microorganisms is an old practice, and various phytotherapeutic products are also used to treat many infectious diseases. Sometimes an infection in a human causes a severe problem caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. In recent years these infections in the immune-compromised individual have significantly increased, and these infections include many risk factors such as leucopenia, neutropenia, hepatotoxicity, and tissue lesions (Dolande et al., 2002; Mottl and Wheat, 1994). Due to the random use of commercially available antimicrobial drugs to treat infectious diseases, multiple drug resistance (MDR) has been developed (Davis, 1994; Pitt. et al., 1995). Owing to this problem, sometimes antibiotics show harmful effects on the host, such as immune suppression, hypersensitivity, and many allergic reactions (Ahmed et al., 2014). Therefore researchers shifted their interest to low-cost, biocompatible alternatives with the most negligible side effects. Plant-based antimicrobial products can act as an alternative and effective treatment method for different infectious diseases. Medicinal plants consider a valuable source in modern and traditional medicines (Dey et al., 2013). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) 80% of the world population depends on herbal medication (Mukeshwar et al., 2011). Plants naturally contain many phytochemicals and secondary metabolites such as glycosides, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, flavonoids, tannins, quinones, and coumarins which act as natural/plant-derived antimicrobial substances (Danlami, and Elisha., 2017). Due to plants' natural potential, there is a need to explore different species that can combat diseases and have antimicrobial potential.

Monosodium glutamate is made up of nutritionally indispensable amino acids and used as flavour enhancer worldwide. Monosodium glutamate is believed to be associated with different health problems. This study is aimed to shed light on the available literature from last 25 years about different clinical trials which had been carried out on animal and human models regarding possible effects of monosodium glutamate. Google scholar, NCBI, PUBMED, EMBASE, Wangfang databases, and Web of Science databases were used to retrieve the available studies. Literature showed that monosodium glutamate was associated with adverse side-effects particularly in animals including induction of obesity, diabetes, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic and genotoxic effects. Different reports revealed increased hunger, food intake, and obesity in human subjects. Limited studies have been carried out on humans to check possible hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, and genotoxic effects of monosodium glutamate. Available literature showed that increased consumption of monosodium glutamate may be associated with harmful health effects. So, it is recommended to use common salt instead of it. Furthermore, intensive research is required to explore monosodium glutamate-related molecular and metabolic mechanisms.

Educative system classification proposal, comprising formal, non-formal and informal education, their features and relations at the level of concepts and practical utilization is presented. Considering the problems arising from formal education, alternatives that displace the "center of gravity" from formal, to non-formal education processes are herein advanced, with regard to the advantages offered by the latter. The aspects relating to the creation of non-formal systems and their perspectives are also analyzed in the search for solutions to our current educational problems.

Although Reclus' "Voyage to New Orleans" and letters from Louisiana were written when he was no more than twenty-five years old, they give abundant evidence of the direction that his political and social thought was to take over the next half century. The descriptions of his passage through the Caribbean and up the Mississippi exhibit a deep sensitivity to the natural world. His acute perceptiveness concerning nature is expressed through precise scientific observations of phenomena as well as evocative, poetic depictions. 1 His comments on topics such as slavery, political corruption, and the growing dominance of economic values reveal to us an incisive social critic inspired by a passion for freedom and a love of humanity, and outraged by all oppression and injustice. All of these qualities of the young Reclus were to come to fruition in his mature work as he developed into one of the foremost scientists of his age, a prophetic exponent of ecological balance, and a major theorist of human liberation.

Measure of the ability of a body or system to do work or produce a change, expressed usually in joules or kilowatt hours (kWh). No activity is possible without energy and its total amount in the universe is fixed. In other words, it cannot be created or destroyed but can only be changed from one type to another. The two basic types of energy are (1) Potential energy: Potential energy or stored energy is the ability of a system to do work due to its position or internal structure. For example, gravitational potential energy is a stored energy determined by an object's position in a gravitational field while elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a spring. It is associated with the nature, position, or state (such as chemical energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy).

The world is created for the peace and not for the destruction but the modern world has become full of violence, tension, hatred, unrest, injustices, disrespect for human rights and the situation of lawlessness within society. It is leading towards the creation of a less peaceful and unsafe environment for the present as well as the future generations.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a leading-edge technology with thousands of applications, from finding the quickest travel path to determining the impact of urban population growth. With a year-long thesis project that involves working with employers to design and implement a real-world GIS project, you get hands-on experience that will prepare you for an exciting career in GIS.

Acknowledgement We would like to thank ALLAH almighty who has given us strength to complete this assignment. We'd like to thank to our parents for their unending love & prayers. We also would like to thank our teacher in completing this task & to giving us chance to learn from the given topic.

Proteins are the building blocks of life and formed by the polypeptide chains of amino acids. Twenty amino acids are exists in nature which gives infinite variety of protein. Protein has four types of structures. Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. Proteins are very sensitive because there are week forces among proteins due to which proteins can easily be denatured.

At the height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of the Islamic world was under colonial rule with the exception of a few regions such as the heart of the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and certain parts of Arabia. But even these areas were under foreign influence or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat. After the First World War with the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, a number of Arab states such as Iraq became independent, others like Jordan were created as a new entity and yet others like Palestine, Syria and Lebanon were either mandated or turned into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was at this time that Saudi Arabia became finally consolidated. As for other parts of the Islamic world, Egypt which had been ruled by the descendents of Muhammad Ali since the 19th century became more independent as a result of the fall of the Ottomans, Turkey was turned into a secular republic by Ataturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty began a new chapter in Persia where its name reverted to its eastern traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest of the Islamic world remained under colonial rule. Arab It was only after the Second World War and the dismemberment of the British, French, Dutch and Spanish empires that the rest of the Islamic world gained its independence. In the Arab world, Syria and Lebanon became independent at the end of the war as did Libya and the sheikdoms around the Gulf and the Arabian Sea by the 1960's. The North African countries of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria had to fight a difficult and, in the case of Algeria, long and protracted war to gain their freedom which did not come until a decade later for Tunisia and Morocco and two decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine did not become independent but was partitioned in 1948 with the establishment of the state of Israel. India In India Muslims participated in the freedom movement against British rule along with Hindus and when independence finally came in 1947, they were able to create their own homeland, Pakistan, which came into being for the sake of Islam and became the most populated Muslim state although many Muslims remained in India. In 1971, however, the two parts of the state broke up, East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh.

Genetic polymorphisms constitute one of the reasons behind the racial variation in prostate cancer occurrence. Published studies regarding genetic associations of glutathione S-transferase mu 1 (GSTM1) and glutathione S-transferase theta 1 (GSTT1) null deletion polymorphisms with prostatic carcinoma have generated inconsistent results among different populations. To date, even a single meta-analysis is not available representing the association of these genes with prostate cancer in different ethnic groups. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to provide a clear picture of GSTM1 and GSTT1 null deletion and risk of prostate cancer among different ethnic groups (i.e. Asians, Europeans, Americans, Africans and Eurasians). A systematic search was performed with the help of various search engines to find out the all the recent studies (2004 to 2015) evaluating the role of GSTM1 and GSTT1 deletion in prostate cancer development. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence interval (CI) o...

Cytoskeletal rearrangement occurs in variety of cellular processes and involves a wide spectrum of proteins. Gelsolin super family proteins control actin organization by severing and capping filament ends and nucleating actin assembly. Gelsolin is the founding member of this family and plays important role in pathogenesis of human neoplasia.This study aimed to investigate the germline mutations and expressional profile of Gelsolin in human breast cancer tissues. For germ line screening PCR-SSCP technique was used while expression was analyzed through quantitative real time PCR. Different types of mutations were observed in Gelsolin coding regions on exons 4, 10, 11, 14 and 15. These mutations include 3 missense nonsynonymous substitution mutations, 2 deletions, 1 insertion and 1 synonymous substitution mutation. Gelsolin transcript level was found significantly lower in breast tumor tissues compared to control samples (p=0.03). Low level of Gelsolin was found in metastatic patients ...

OGG1 (The human 8-oxoguanine glycosylase 1) is the primary enzyme in BER (base excision repair) pathway, responsible for the excision of 7, 8-dihydro-8oxoguanine (8-oxoG), a mutagenic base byproduct that occurs as a result of exposure to reactive oxygen species. OGG1 gene is highly polymorphic among humans and is mutated in cancer cells. In this case control study, all exons of OGG1 gene and its exon/intron boundaries were amplified in 210 laryngeal cancer cases and 210 matched controls and then analyzed by single stranded conformational polymorphism. Amplified products showing altered mobility patterns were sequenced and analyzed. Two silent (Gln718Gln, His699-700His) and three missense (Ala597, Thr608-610Pro and Glu707Lys) mutations were observed in exon 2. In addition to this one missense mutation (1578G [ A) was also observed in 3 0 UTR region. We found a significant association between OGG1 mutations and laryngeal cancer and observed that His699-His700, silent mutation exhibited an enhanced risk of *9.0 folds (OR = 9.07, 95 % CI = 4.73-17.39) and 1578G [ A, missense mutation *0.4 folds (OR = 0.37, 95 % CI = 0.15-0.90). Furthermore, a positive association of OGG1 mutations with smoking was observed in laryngeal cancer cases when compared to controls. Heavy smokers have higher incidence of OGG1 mutations when compared to light smokers in present study. Our results demonstrate that OGG1 mutations are associated with an increased risk of laryngeal cancer. OGG1 mutations were found to accumulate more of 8-OHdG in smokers, which may serve as a biomarker for early diagnosis of laryngeal cancer.

CYP1A1 is the phase I enzyme that detoxifies the carcinogen or converts it into a more electrophilic form, metabolized by phase II enzymes like GSTP1. These detoxifying genes have been extensively studied in association with head and neck cancer (HNC) in different ethnic groups worldwide. The current study was aimed at screening genetic polymorphisms of genes CYP1A1 and GSTP1 in 388 Pakistani HNC patients and 150 cancer-free healthy controls, using PCR-SSCP. No already known variants of either gene were found, however a novel frameshift mutation due to insertion of T (g.2842_2843insT) was observed in the CYP1A1 gene. A statistically significant number (5.4%) of HNC cases, with the mean age of 51.75 (±15.7) years, presented this frameshift mutation in the conserved domain of CYP1A1. Another novel substitution mutation in was found in the GSTP1 gene, presenting TA instead of AG. The g.2848A > T polymorphism causes a leucine-to-leucine formation, whereas g.2849G > A causes alanine-tothreonine formation at amino acid positions 166 and 167, respectively. These exonic mutations were found in 9.5% of the HNC patients and in none of the controls. In addition, two intronic deletions of C (g.1074delC and g.1466delC) were also found in 11 patients with a mean age of 46.2 (±15.6) years. In conclusion, accumulation of mutations in genes CYP1A1 and GSTP1 appears to be associated with increased risk of developing HNC, suggesting that mutations in these genes may play a role in the etiology of head and neck cancer.