This essay provides an overview of research and theory on narrative and its important, functional... more This essay provides an overview of research and theory on narrative and its important, functional role in human experience, including the ways people use media to interrogate their own beliefs and feelings, and derive social meaning. Thought-provoking film, television, and books can help us make meaning of our lives and grow in ways that are important for our successful social functioning. Research reviewed here demonstrates that exposure to fiction can increase empathy and social skills and reduce prejudice. Our connection to
Fan fiction has received minimal attention from psychological researchers. To begin to fill that ... more Fan fiction has received minimal attention from psychological researchers. To begin to fill that gap, we analyzed fan fiction about the TV show Mad Men to investigate how fans use fan fiction to make meaning from the source text. A sample of fan fiction stories was coded for the presence of eudaimonic and hedonic story components, the emotions expressed in the stories, the perspectives adopted by the fan writers, and plots that function as wish fulfillment. Findings indicated that fan fiction writers’ motivations were more eudaimonic than hedonic, the stories often contained mixed or negative emotional content, the writers frequently took the perspective of a female character in their stories, and in some cases the stories enabled characters to achieve positive resolutions denied them by the source text. Taken together, the results point to the many ways in which fans engage with and make sense of a popular TV show. Future psychological research on fan fiction of additional popular culture texts would be valuable for understanding the ways fans grapple with various elements of those texts.
The human voice is a major component of popular media, yet its role in people’s media experiences... more The human voice is a major component of popular media, yet its role in people’s media experiences has received minimal research attention. To address this gap, we investigated how recognition of celebrity voices interacted with perceptions of and engagement with audio-only media. After listening to famous actors reading stories, participants indicated whether they recognized each voice, rated its pleasantness, and completed parasocial interaction and narrative transportation measures. Results indicate that recognized voices were perceived as more pleasant. Additionally, vocal pleasantness was associated with increased parasocial interaction and transportation. Findings partially support the prediction that vocal recognition enhances parasocial interaction.
Black Panther (2018) offers scholars a unique opportunity to measure the potential positive influ... more Black Panther (2018) offers scholars a unique opportunity to measure the potential positive influence of the film on American youth, particularly youth of color. Past research demonstrated that, for African Americans, greater ethnic identity is associated with greater wellbeing and empowerment, findings we replicated here. We also studied the influence of the film on wellbeing and empowerment, considering the roles of ethnicity and character identification. Results showed a main effect of film on empowerment but not wellbeing in the entire sample, with no main effect or interaction with ethnicity. Further analysis by individual ethnic group revealed increased wellbeing for Asian American and Black/African American youth, and increased empowerment for Black/African American youth after film viewing. Identification with the character T'Challa/Black Panther was high across the sample and interacted positively with film on empowerment for Black/African American participants. This study demonstrates the potential for film to enhance and empower youth, particularly Black/African American youth, and raises intriguing questions about how the experience differs by ethnicity.
The purpose of this research was to develop a measure that systematically assesses the various co... more The purpose of this research was to develop a measure that systematically assesses the various components of film and television fan identity and to test its connection to well-being. Across two studies, the multidimensional Fan Identity Scale was developed and validated. The resulting 9-item survey yielded three factors that encompassed both personal and social dimensions of fan identity. In Study 2, the relationship between these dimensions and three facets of well-being was also explored. Results indicated that overall fan identity predicted overall well-being. In addition, social fan identity predicted relational well-being and marginally predicted physical well-being. Avenues for future research involving the Fan Identity Scale are discussed.
ABSTRACT Mad Men fans speak via social media: what fan voices reveal about the social constructio... more ABSTRACT Mad Men fans speak via social media: what fan voices reveal about the social construction of reality via dramatic fiction abStract Fans of complex television dramas often watch because of eudaimonic motivations – the desire to make meaning from media, to explore their own emotions and to learn about the human experience through the exploration of novel experiences that audiovisual fiction affords. This study analyses the psychology of how fans of Mad Men (2007) construct social realities via online discussions of some of the major relationships and storylines on the show. Our primary goal was to understand how fans create reality from fantasy and our focus was on social relationships and individual character analyses. Using a social science approach, we performed both a computer-automated and an expert-driven thematic analysis on 209 fan comments harvested from social media. The automated analysis revealed common emotional expressions, such as associating hate with the character Betty Draper. The expert analysis revealed that many of fans' social media conversations centred on evaluating Don and Betty Draper as parents, spouses and people, either condemning or defending them in each of these roles. Fans were evenly split between Betty
This chapter explores the way fictional stories impact personal identity. It discusses how identi... more This chapter explores the way fictional stories impact personal identity. It discusses how identity develops with a particular focus on adolescence. Then, it sheds light on how fiction contributes to identity construction as teens gain insight into things like careers, relationships, values, and beliefs through stories and how these insights can impact their choices for their futures. The chapter also looks at the way people’s emotional investments in their favorite stories can cause them to become extensions of themselves and how this may lead them to use these stories as symbols of who they are. Finally, it explores the topic of narrative identity—the internalized, constantly evolving life story each person tells of himself or herself—and how fiction influences and becomes incorporated into people’s life stories.
This chapter provides an overview of how favorite stories impact people and help them learn and g... more This chapter provides an overview of how favorite stories impact people and help them learn and grow throughout their lives. The chapter covers how people’s relationships with stories evolve as they grow older. It discusses how story comprehension develops in childhood and the important role parents can play in introducing children to media of all kinds. It also considers how people’s ability to distinguish fantasy from reality in childhood is a product of knowledge acquisition and whether children of different ages can learn from screen stories. Next, it explores how stories can impact tweens and teens and how this group looks to fictional characters as role models. Finally, the chapter explores how stories can help people cope with the trials and tribulations of adulthood, how people’s story preferences evolve as they age, and the way stories can serve as emotional anchors throughout people’s lives.
Watching or reading a story looks like a passive experience, but actually people’s minds are quit... more Watching or reading a story looks like a passive experience, but actually people’s minds are quite active when they engage with a story. This chapter explores how people construct representations of the various pieces of a story in their minds—from the situation being presented to the characters to the setting—so that they can understand each individual part of the experience. The chapter also explores how people use different kinds of continuity to understand what’s happening in a story and how their pre-existing ideas about real life and fiction impact how they understand a story. Finally, it delves into the different ways a story can seem “real” and whether suspension of disbelief factors into that equation—spoiler alert: According to psychologists, the answer is not so much.
What makes a story timeless? Why are there certain story arcs people want to visit again and agai... more What makes a story timeless? Why are there certain story arcs people want to visit again and again? This chapter examines how the human experience is inextricably linked to stories. It considers how imagination factors into people’s ability to relate stories to their own lives, including through their dreams and daydreams, the elements of a story that make them sit up and pay more attention, and how stories can lead to emotional catharsis. The chapter also delves into the way people’s evolutionary imperatives for reproduction and survival impact the kinds of stories they find compelling and how supernatural elements can make a story easier to remember. The end of the chapter turns things over to a fiction writer for his perspective on crafting fictional stories, including the way Aristotle’s three-act paradigm and Joseph Campbell’s monomyth of the hero’s journey fits into the process.
Is Benedict Cumberbatch arrogant like Sherlock Holmes? Is Robert Downey Jr. really as arrogant an... more Is Benedict Cumberbatch arrogant like Sherlock Holmes? Is Robert Downey Jr. really as arrogant and irreverent as Tony Stark? These are questions fans ask themselves when they’re trying to understand the difference between their favorite actors and the roles they are known for playing. This chapter leads readers through the process that people take to understand each other. Then it discusses how people repeat that process to understand who an actor is and who his or her character is. This process can sometimes lead to the fundamental attribution error—confusing an actor with a role he or she plays. Ultimately, the chapter explores why individuals’ attraction to the actors and their roles makes perfect sense given their drive to understand the people they encounter.
Lovers of fiction share enthusiasm for their favorite stories and characters. Many remember iconi... more Lovers of fiction share enthusiasm for their favorite stories and characters. Many remember iconic moments, such as Darth Vader revealing that he is Luke Skywalker’s father or Rose and Jack sailing carefree on the bow of the Titanic. These shared experiences create common ground and social connection. This chapter explores the psychology of why the stories that become shared cultural touchstones are so meaningful and how people’s favorite stories can help fulfill their psychosocial needs. It discusses what motivates people to immerse themselves in stories and what the outcomes of engaging with different stories can be. Finally, the chapter investigates the lessons people can learn from their favorite story worlds.
When it comes to race, gender, sexual orientation, and other social categories, current research ... more When it comes to race, gender, sexual orientation, and other social categories, current research continues to document a lack of inclusion and a tendency to stereotype in film and television. However, there are also signs for hope. The recent success of films like Wonder Woman, Black Panther, Crazy Rich Asians, and Love, Simon is sending a message to Hollywood that audiences are more than ready for underrepresented categories. For example, Grace and Frankie is a successful show that busts stereotypes about women in their 70s and tells stories about a family that includes an older gay couple, a Black son, a recovered drug addict, and other diverse characters. This chapter examines how stories like this help bring change and reduce prejudice. In addition, it discusses the recent accusations against famous people, including Bill Cosby, and how fans cope when a beloved celebrity falls from grace.
This book explores a basic paradox about fiction: Whether the fiction in question is a book, film... more This book explores a basic paradox about fiction: Whether the fiction in question is a book, film, or television show, fiction is simultaneously unreal and real. Fiction is a simulation of our real social lives. As such, watching a film or television show or reading a book gives people an opportunity to think about who they are, what they value, who they’re connected to, and what really matters to them. Whether they consider themselves a fan of the entire Harry Potter series or they just remember the moment in the story when Harry stood up to his nemesis, people can derive inspiration from a compelling character making choices and facing consequences. Whether they love Game of Thrones, Stranger Things, or another title, when people get lost in a story, they can find themselves.
Being a fan of a popular film, television, or book franchise is something most of us enjoy. But, ... more Being a fan of a popular film, television, or book franchise is something most of us enjoy. But, we may not be familiar with the scientific study of fictional narrative or of fandom. In this book, two media psychologists reveal the sometimes-paradoxical idea that fiction helps us find truth in our real lives. Whether you consider yourself a fan or whether you find yourself thinking of a particular fictional scene for inspiration, you are not alone. Perfectly sane people regularly admit that their favorite stories are important to them. Although journalists sometimes assume that the interest in the fictional world is a sign of trouble, the authors enthusiastically disagree. Because story worlds are social simulations, people use them to work out their values, decide how to handle similar situations, and even decide what kind of person they want to be. Although films and shows are widely spoken of as diversions or as escapism, there are many ways that they aren’t trivial at all. In th...
This essay provides an overview of research and theory on narrative and its important, functional... more This essay provides an overview of research and theory on narrative and its important, functional role in human experience, including the ways people use media to interrogate their own beliefs and feelings, and derive social meaning. Thought-provoking film, television, and books can help us make meaning of our lives and grow in ways that are important for our successful social functioning. Research reviewed here demonstrates that exposure to fiction can increase empathy and social skills and reduce prejudice. Our connection to
Fan fiction has received minimal attention from psychological researchers. To begin to fill that ... more Fan fiction has received minimal attention from psychological researchers. To begin to fill that gap, we analyzed fan fiction about the TV show Mad Men to investigate how fans use fan fiction to make meaning from the source text. A sample of fan fiction stories was coded for the presence of eudaimonic and hedonic story components, the emotions expressed in the stories, the perspectives adopted by the fan writers, and plots that function as wish fulfillment. Findings indicated that fan fiction writers’ motivations were more eudaimonic than hedonic, the stories often contained mixed or negative emotional content, the writers frequently took the perspective of a female character in their stories, and in some cases the stories enabled characters to achieve positive resolutions denied them by the source text. Taken together, the results point to the many ways in which fans engage with and make sense of a popular TV show. Future psychological research on fan fiction of additional popular culture texts would be valuable for understanding the ways fans grapple with various elements of those texts.
The human voice is a major component of popular media, yet its role in people’s media experiences... more The human voice is a major component of popular media, yet its role in people’s media experiences has received minimal research attention. To address this gap, we investigated how recognition of celebrity voices interacted with perceptions of and engagement with audio-only media. After listening to famous actors reading stories, participants indicated whether they recognized each voice, rated its pleasantness, and completed parasocial interaction and narrative transportation measures. Results indicate that recognized voices were perceived as more pleasant. Additionally, vocal pleasantness was associated with increased parasocial interaction and transportation. Findings partially support the prediction that vocal recognition enhances parasocial interaction.
Black Panther (2018) offers scholars a unique opportunity to measure the potential positive influ... more Black Panther (2018) offers scholars a unique opportunity to measure the potential positive influence of the film on American youth, particularly youth of color. Past research demonstrated that, for African Americans, greater ethnic identity is associated with greater wellbeing and empowerment, findings we replicated here. We also studied the influence of the film on wellbeing and empowerment, considering the roles of ethnicity and character identification. Results showed a main effect of film on empowerment but not wellbeing in the entire sample, with no main effect or interaction with ethnicity. Further analysis by individual ethnic group revealed increased wellbeing for Asian American and Black/African American youth, and increased empowerment for Black/African American youth after film viewing. Identification with the character T'Challa/Black Panther was high across the sample and interacted positively with film on empowerment for Black/African American participants. This study demonstrates the potential for film to enhance and empower youth, particularly Black/African American youth, and raises intriguing questions about how the experience differs by ethnicity.
The purpose of this research was to develop a measure that systematically assesses the various co... more The purpose of this research was to develop a measure that systematically assesses the various components of film and television fan identity and to test its connection to well-being. Across two studies, the multidimensional Fan Identity Scale was developed and validated. The resulting 9-item survey yielded three factors that encompassed both personal and social dimensions of fan identity. In Study 2, the relationship between these dimensions and three facets of well-being was also explored. Results indicated that overall fan identity predicted overall well-being. In addition, social fan identity predicted relational well-being and marginally predicted physical well-being. Avenues for future research involving the Fan Identity Scale are discussed.
ABSTRACT Mad Men fans speak via social media: what fan voices reveal about the social constructio... more ABSTRACT Mad Men fans speak via social media: what fan voices reveal about the social construction of reality via dramatic fiction abStract Fans of complex television dramas often watch because of eudaimonic motivations – the desire to make meaning from media, to explore their own emotions and to learn about the human experience through the exploration of novel experiences that audiovisual fiction affords. This study analyses the psychology of how fans of Mad Men (2007) construct social realities via online discussions of some of the major relationships and storylines on the show. Our primary goal was to understand how fans create reality from fantasy and our focus was on social relationships and individual character analyses. Using a social science approach, we performed both a computer-automated and an expert-driven thematic analysis on 209 fan comments harvested from social media. The automated analysis revealed common emotional expressions, such as associating hate with the character Betty Draper. The expert analysis revealed that many of fans' social media conversations centred on evaluating Don and Betty Draper as parents, spouses and people, either condemning or defending them in each of these roles. Fans were evenly split between Betty
This chapter explores the way fictional stories impact personal identity. It discusses how identi... more This chapter explores the way fictional stories impact personal identity. It discusses how identity develops with a particular focus on adolescence. Then, it sheds light on how fiction contributes to identity construction as teens gain insight into things like careers, relationships, values, and beliefs through stories and how these insights can impact their choices for their futures. The chapter also looks at the way people’s emotional investments in their favorite stories can cause them to become extensions of themselves and how this may lead them to use these stories as symbols of who they are. Finally, it explores the topic of narrative identity—the internalized, constantly evolving life story each person tells of himself or herself—and how fiction influences and becomes incorporated into people’s life stories.
This chapter provides an overview of how favorite stories impact people and help them learn and g... more This chapter provides an overview of how favorite stories impact people and help them learn and grow throughout their lives. The chapter covers how people’s relationships with stories evolve as they grow older. It discusses how story comprehension develops in childhood and the important role parents can play in introducing children to media of all kinds. It also considers how people’s ability to distinguish fantasy from reality in childhood is a product of knowledge acquisition and whether children of different ages can learn from screen stories. Next, it explores how stories can impact tweens and teens and how this group looks to fictional characters as role models. Finally, the chapter explores how stories can help people cope with the trials and tribulations of adulthood, how people’s story preferences evolve as they age, and the way stories can serve as emotional anchors throughout people’s lives.
Watching or reading a story looks like a passive experience, but actually people’s minds are quit... more Watching or reading a story looks like a passive experience, but actually people’s minds are quite active when they engage with a story. This chapter explores how people construct representations of the various pieces of a story in their minds—from the situation being presented to the characters to the setting—so that they can understand each individual part of the experience. The chapter also explores how people use different kinds of continuity to understand what’s happening in a story and how their pre-existing ideas about real life and fiction impact how they understand a story. Finally, it delves into the different ways a story can seem “real” and whether suspension of disbelief factors into that equation—spoiler alert: According to psychologists, the answer is not so much.
What makes a story timeless? Why are there certain story arcs people want to visit again and agai... more What makes a story timeless? Why are there certain story arcs people want to visit again and again? This chapter examines how the human experience is inextricably linked to stories. It considers how imagination factors into people’s ability to relate stories to their own lives, including through their dreams and daydreams, the elements of a story that make them sit up and pay more attention, and how stories can lead to emotional catharsis. The chapter also delves into the way people’s evolutionary imperatives for reproduction and survival impact the kinds of stories they find compelling and how supernatural elements can make a story easier to remember. The end of the chapter turns things over to a fiction writer for his perspective on crafting fictional stories, including the way Aristotle’s three-act paradigm and Joseph Campbell’s monomyth of the hero’s journey fits into the process.
Is Benedict Cumberbatch arrogant like Sherlock Holmes? Is Robert Downey Jr. really as arrogant an... more Is Benedict Cumberbatch arrogant like Sherlock Holmes? Is Robert Downey Jr. really as arrogant and irreverent as Tony Stark? These are questions fans ask themselves when they’re trying to understand the difference between their favorite actors and the roles they are known for playing. This chapter leads readers through the process that people take to understand each other. Then it discusses how people repeat that process to understand who an actor is and who his or her character is. This process can sometimes lead to the fundamental attribution error—confusing an actor with a role he or she plays. Ultimately, the chapter explores why individuals’ attraction to the actors and their roles makes perfect sense given their drive to understand the people they encounter.
Lovers of fiction share enthusiasm for their favorite stories and characters. Many remember iconi... more Lovers of fiction share enthusiasm for their favorite stories and characters. Many remember iconic moments, such as Darth Vader revealing that he is Luke Skywalker’s father or Rose and Jack sailing carefree on the bow of the Titanic. These shared experiences create common ground and social connection. This chapter explores the psychology of why the stories that become shared cultural touchstones are so meaningful and how people’s favorite stories can help fulfill their psychosocial needs. It discusses what motivates people to immerse themselves in stories and what the outcomes of engaging with different stories can be. Finally, the chapter investigates the lessons people can learn from their favorite story worlds.
When it comes to race, gender, sexual orientation, and other social categories, current research ... more When it comes to race, gender, sexual orientation, and other social categories, current research continues to document a lack of inclusion and a tendency to stereotype in film and television. However, there are also signs for hope. The recent success of films like Wonder Woman, Black Panther, Crazy Rich Asians, and Love, Simon is sending a message to Hollywood that audiences are more than ready for underrepresented categories. For example, Grace and Frankie is a successful show that busts stereotypes about women in their 70s and tells stories about a family that includes an older gay couple, a Black son, a recovered drug addict, and other diverse characters. This chapter examines how stories like this help bring change and reduce prejudice. In addition, it discusses the recent accusations against famous people, including Bill Cosby, and how fans cope when a beloved celebrity falls from grace.
This book explores a basic paradox about fiction: Whether the fiction in question is a book, film... more This book explores a basic paradox about fiction: Whether the fiction in question is a book, film, or television show, fiction is simultaneously unreal and real. Fiction is a simulation of our real social lives. As such, watching a film or television show or reading a book gives people an opportunity to think about who they are, what they value, who they’re connected to, and what really matters to them. Whether they consider themselves a fan of the entire Harry Potter series or they just remember the moment in the story when Harry stood up to his nemesis, people can derive inspiration from a compelling character making choices and facing consequences. Whether they love Game of Thrones, Stranger Things, or another title, when people get lost in a story, they can find themselves.
Being a fan of a popular film, television, or book franchise is something most of us enjoy. But, ... more Being a fan of a popular film, television, or book franchise is something most of us enjoy. But, we may not be familiar with the scientific study of fictional narrative or of fandom. In this book, two media psychologists reveal the sometimes-paradoxical idea that fiction helps us find truth in our real lives. Whether you consider yourself a fan or whether you find yourself thinking of a particular fictional scene for inspiration, you are not alone. Perfectly sane people regularly admit that their favorite stories are important to them. Although journalists sometimes assume that the interest in the fictional world is a sign of trouble, the authors enthusiastically disagree. Because story worlds are social simulations, people use them to work out their values, decide how to handle similar situations, and even decide what kind of person they want to be. Although films and shows are widely spoken of as diversions or as escapism, there are many ways that they aren’t trivial at all. In th...
This is the story of the Mad Men fan phenomenon: how the show and its fans distinguished themselv... more This is the story of the Mad Men fan phenomenon: how the show and its fans distinguished themselves in a market where it’s hard to make an impression, not unlike the driven ad execs at the center of the show. In this book, four media psychologists who also just happen to be dedicated Mad Men fans explore how the show’s viewers make meaning from fictional drama. The authors also interviewed several contemporary advertising industry professionals, getting their inside view of the business in its modern guise and what they make of the show’s vision of their past. The result is cutting-edge psychological research that crunches and codes online fan commentary to understand the ways that people use the show to debate complex social issues, from sex and alcohol to gender roles, parenting, and advertising itself. What do the 1960s mean to us today, and how well does the twenty-first century measure up against that famously turbulent decade? Which characters do fans identify with—and which ones do they love to hate? How would fans unfurl the Mad Men storylines if they were in charge? What makes a good man, and has it changed over time? How should husbands and wives treat each other, and how should parents treat their children?
In answering these questions, the authors explore not just the online commentary but also Mad Men fans’ fan fiction, cosplay, cocktail making, and vintage furniture collecting. Whether tweeting as one of the main characters (or just a lowly mail clerk), setting Peggy up with the man who’ll treat her right, or figuring out just which “Mad Man” they are at heart, fans integrate the show into their lives and use it to make sense of their own choices in work, leisure, and love.
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In answering these questions, the authors explore not just the online commentary but also Mad Men fans’ fan fiction, cosplay, cocktail making, and vintage furniture collecting. Whether tweeting as one of the main characters (or just a lowly mail clerk), setting Peggy up with the man who’ll treat her right, or figuring out just which “Mad Man” they are at heart, fans integrate the show into their lives and use it to make sense of their own choices in work, leisure, and love.