Circuitos I
Circuitos I
Fundamentos de Circuitos
Electrónicos
2. Leyes de Kirchhoff
Nodos, Ramas y lazos
Circuitos serie y paralelo
Equivalente de Thevenin
Equivalente de Norton
Conexiones delta y estrella
Análisis de nodos
Análisis de mallas
3. Teoremas fundamentales
Máxima transferencia de potencia
Teorema superposición.
Teorema de Thevenin
Teorema de Norton
Superposición
Teorema de Tellegen
Redes simétricas
Temario
4.Respuesta transitoria
Transformada de Laplace
Circuitos de primer orden
Circuitos RC / RL
Circuitos de segundo orden
Respuesta natural circuitos RLC
Respuesta completa circuitos RLC
5.-Análisis en el dominio de la
frecuencia
Fasores
Función de red en s
Función de transferencia
Diagramas de Bode
Circuitos resonantes.
Antecedentes:
Algebra lineal.
Transformada de
Laplace.
Ecuaciones
diferenciales.
Temario
Texto:_Fundamentos_de Circuitos
Eléctricos
Charles_Alexander,_Matthew_Sadiku
Tercera edición
Editorial Mc Graw-Hill
Ayudante de curso
2 opciones:
En clase, 1 hora de
exámen
Por la tarde, 2 horas de
exámen
Formación de exámen:
Ocupado-vacío-
ocupado-vacío-…
Etimologías
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
- - -
– Tampoco nos preocupa la cantidad de agua está pasando en cada momento por la orilla
cada segundo.
– Corriente = velocidad del agua * sección transversal de río.
= =
Símbolo: I
Ejemplo 1:
Cable conectado
A la terminal
-0.5 A/cm2
Current Density Example (cont’d)
Ejemplo 2:
Energía=Fuerza*Distancia
Analogía con la Gravitación
• Ejemplo:
H2O
b vab ≡ va - vb
Potencia Eléctrica
• Definición: transferencia de energía por unidad de tiempo.
• Símbolo: p
• Unidades: Joules por segundo ≡ Watts (W)
p = dw/dt = (dw/dq)(dq/dt) = vi
• Concepto:
Atributos:
• Dos terminales (puntos de conexión).
• Se describe matematicamente en términos de corriente
y/o voltaje.
• No puede ser subdividido en otros elementos.
Una nota sobre direcciones de referencia
Un problema como "Encontrar la corriente" o "Encontrar la
tensión" siempre va acompañado por una definición de la
dirección:
i - v +
V1 + V2 +
_ _ V3 _+
V1 + V2 + V3 +
_ _ _
V4 +
_
i i
_
+
v o v
_ +
¿Cómo puede un elemento de circuito absorber el potencia?
→ Mediante la conversión de la energía eléctrica en calor
(resistencias en tostadoras), luz (bombillas), o energía acústica
(altavoces);
→ Mediante el almacenamiento de energía (carga de una batería).
Convención de signo para Potencia
p = vi p = -vi
i i i i
_ _
+ +
v v v v
_ + _ +
+
V1
I1
–
El resistor proporciona
P=VI=10 V * (-0.1 Amps) = -1 Watt potencia??
Convención de signo para Potencia
+
V1
I1
–
Conservación de energía
vi (W)
918
- 810
- 12
- 400
- 224
1116
Resumen
• Corriente = razón de flujo de carga.
– fuente de voltaje
Elementos activos, capaces de
– fuente de corriente generar energía eléctrica
– resistencia
– inductancia Elementos pasivos, incapaces de
– capacitancia generar energía eléctrica
• Ejemplos:
– Batería: química eléctrica
– dínamo (generador/motor): mecánica eléctrica
(Ej. Generador de gasolina, Presa de Bonneville)
Símbolos :
+ + +
vs _ vs=m vx _ vs=r ix _
Símbolos:
is is=a vx i s =b i x
independiente Controlado por voltaje Controlado por corriente
Resistencia Eléctrica
• Resistencia: El campo eléctrico es proporcional a la densidad de
corriente dentro de un material resistivo.
• Por lo tanto, el voltaje es proporcional a la corriente.
• El elemento de circuito utilizado para modelar este
comportamiento es la resistencia.
• Símbolo Circuital :
R
+
v v
_
i
La pendiente debe ser positivo y la curva característica
debe pasar por el origen.
Conductancia Eléctrica
• Conductancia es el recíproco de la resistencia.
Símbolo: G
Unidades: siemens (S) or mhos ( )W
Ejemplo:
Considere un resistor de 8 W. Cual es su conductancia?
Esquemas de Circuitos
• La ley de Ohm allanó el camino para desarrollar esquemas de
circuitos simples
Un clip (alta resistencia) que conecta las terminales de una batería de 10 voltios
puede representarse esquemáticamente como se muestra a continuación
Ejemplo
• Encuentre la corriente I1
I1
Ejemplo: nodo
lazo
• Encuentre el voltaje V1 y la corriente I2
– R = la corriente no fluye
v v v
i i
R
vs +
_ is
Circuitos Esquemáticos
• Un esquema de circuito es un diagrama que muestra un
conjunto de elementos de circuito interconectados.
– Fuentes de Voltaje.
– Fuentes de Corriente.
– Resistencias.
Rama
No una rama
Terminología: Nodos y Ramas
Terminología: Lazos
• Un lazo se forma mediante el trazado de un camino cerrado en
un circuito a través de elementos de circuito básico
seleccionado, esto sin pasar por ningún nodo intermedio más
de una vez.
6 nodos
7 ramas
3 lazos
Notación: Voltajes en Nodos y Ramas
• Utilice un nodo como la referencia (el nodo "común" o "tierra"),
y etiquétalo con su símbolo.
– v1 +
Ejemplo: a R1 b
+ +
+
va _ vs R2 vb
_ _
c NODO DE REFERENCIA
Leyes de Kirchhoff
• Ley de Corrientes de Kirchhoff (KCL):
– La suma algebraica de todas las corrientes en cualquier nodo de
un circuito es igual a cero.
– "Lo que entra, debe salir“
10 mA
40 mA
50 mA
20 mA
Ley de Corrientes de Kirchhoff
(Carga almacenada en el nodo es cero.)
Formulación 1:
Suma de las corrientes que entran en el nodo
Formulación 3:
La suma algebraica de corrientes saliendo del nodo = 0
• Las corrientes entrando al nodo son incluidas con un signo
menos.
Usando la Ley de Corrientes de Kirchhoff
A menudo estamos considerando corrientes desconocidas y
sólo tenemos direcciones de referencia:
i1+i2=i3+i4
i2
i3 or
i1 i1+i2-i3-i4=0
or
i4 -i1-i2+i3+i4=0
-10 mA
i
5 mA 5+(-10)=15+i
i=-20mA
15 mA
Implicaciones de KCL
• KCL nos dice que todos los elementos a lo largo de una única
trayectoria ininterrumpida llevan la misma corriente
• Decimos estos elementos están conectados en serie.
i1 = i 2
Generalización de KCL
• La suma de las corrientes que entran / salen una superficie
cerrada es cero.
• Las ramas de los circuitos pueden estar dentro de esta
superficie, es decir, la superficie puede incluir más de un nodo.
i2
i3
i4
i1
Examplos de KCL
50 mA
5mA
2mA i
i 50 mA
7mA
Leyes de Kirchhoff
• Ley de Voltajes de Kirchhoff’s (KVL):
– La suma algebraica de todos los voltajes alrededor de
cualquier lazo en un circuito es igual a cero
– "Todo lo que sube tiene que bajar”
+ 20V –
+ +
50V 80=20+50+10
80V –
–
–
10V +
Implicaciones de KVL
• KVL nos dice que cualquier conjunto de elementos que están
conectados por ambos extremos tienen el mismo voltaje.
• Decimos estos elementos están conectados en paralelo.
+ +
va vb
_ _
+ v2 v3
b
+
a c
1 2
+ + +
va vb vc
-
3
Lazo 1: Va=V2+Vb
1V 7V
5V 20A
100V 5A 5A Es válido?
Si
KCL:
Nodo superior izquierdo: I100=10A
Nodo superior derecho: 10A=5A+5A No hay
Nodo inferior : 5A+5A=I100 contradicción
KVL:
Lazo derecho: 100V=V10+V5
Lazo izquierdo: V 5=V5 No hay contradicción
Lazo grande: 100V=V 10+V5
Verificando KCL y KVL
10A
100V 5A 5A Es válido?
Si
KCL:
Nodo superior izquierdo: I100=10A
2 ecuaciones
KVL: 3 incógnitas
Lazo izquierdo: 100V=V10+V5
+ v1 - + v4 -
+ + +
60V v2 i2 v6 i6
- + v3 - - + v5 - -
i3 i5
Ejemplo: KCL y KVL aplicado a circuitos
• Encuentre la corriente a través de laresistencia
• Usando KVL, podemos escribir:
VR V1=VR+V2
20Ω V1=5V
+
V2=3V
+ IR +
IR=VR/20Ω
V1 5V 3V V2
4 ecuaciones
4 “incógnitas”
• Solucionando el circuito, tenemos que:
+ + + V1=ia*80Ω
ig V1 V80 ia V30=1.6A*30Ω
vg
Vg=1.6A*90 Ω
Existen tres lazos, pero sólo uno es necesario para tocar todas las tensiones :
V=V30+Vg
V30=48V ia=2.4A
5 ecuaciones
Vg=144V ig=4A
5 incógnitas
V1=192V
Pregunta
• ¿Cuántas ecuaciones en KCL y KVL se necesitan cubrir cada
rama de voltaje y corriente?
2 KVL, 1 KCL
Nodo superior: I2
I1
I1=I2+I3
Nodo inferior:
I3+I2=I1
I3
Existen otros métodos para solucionar circuitos
– Divisores de corriente.
– Divisores de voltaje.
5Ω
100V 85Ω
10Ω
donde:
5Ω 1/5Ω=0.2℧
1/10Ω=0.1℧
2Ω 1/5Ω=0.2℧
1/2Ω=0.5℧
5V 9V 1V 15V
15Ω 15Ω
Ejemplo – Combinando Resistencias
5Ω
11Ω 20Ω
4Ω
Combinaciones de Fuentes
• Las fuentes de voltaje en serie se combinan en forma aditiva.
Si !
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
Si !
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
No !
Cálculo inverso
• Suponemos hemos combinado varios elementos para comprender el
comportamiento a gran escala.
– Sólo debemos deshacer lo suficiente para obtener los datos que queremos
Ejemplo de Cálculo inverso
• Supongamos que queremos saber el voltaje en la resistencia
de 40Ω
R=15 W +15 W = 30 W
I
15
6 1/R=1/30+1/6=1/5 S
15
+ R=5 W R=25 W +15
30 V 10
W
1/R=1/50+1/50=2/50 S
50 = 30 W
40 R=25 W
R=10 W +40 W = 50 W
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
+
30 V 30
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω Req
10Ω
• Haga de cuenta que hay una fuente de algún tipo entre los
circuitos
• Realice el algoritmo de combinación paralelo/serie como se
mostró anteriormente
10Ω 10Ω
10Ω 5Ω 25Ω
10Ω 10Ω
10Ω
Se puede tomar otro par de terminales
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
5Ω
Combine estas
resistencias paralelas
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
R=5 W +1 W =6
W ¿Existen elementos del
R=6 W circuito en paralelo?
Si !
No !
Req=14.4 W
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
serie
Paralelo
Serie
serie
Paralelo
Usando Resistencias Equivalentes
1/R=1/5+1/20
R=4 W
1/R=1/5+1/20=1/2 S
R=4 W +1 W =5
R=2 W
W
R=4 W +2W =6
1/R=1/6+1/9+1/18=6/18 S
W R=3 W
Req=8 W +3 W = 11 W
The Node Voltage Technique
• We’ll next talk about a general technique
that will let you convert a circuit schematic
with N nodes into a set of N-1 equations
• These equations will allow you to solve for
every single voltage and current
• Works on any circuit, linear or nonlinear!
• Much more efficient than the kitchen sink
Definition: Node Voltage and Ground Node
• Remember that voltages are always defined
in terms of TWO points in a circuit
• It is convenient to label one node in our
circuit the “Ground Node”
– Any node can be “ground”, it doesn’t matter
which one you pick
• Once we have chosen a ground node, we
say that each node has a “node voltage”,
which is the voltage between that node and
the arbitrary ground node
• Gives each node a universal single valued
voltage level
Node Voltage Example
a 5Ω b V5=10V
+ + V85=170V
200V 85Ω V10=20V
d c
+
10Ω
• Pick a ground, say the bottom left node.
• Label nodes a, b, c, d. Node voltages are:
– Vd=voltage between node d and d=0V
– Vc=voltage between node c and d=V10=20V
– Vb=voltage between node b and d=V85+V10=190V
– Va=voltage between node a and d=200V
iClicker #4: Node Voltages
a 5Ω b V5=10V
+ + V85=170V
200V 85Ω V10=20V
d c What is Va?
+
10Ω
A. 200V
Va=V5+V85=180V
B. 20V
C. 160V
D. 180V
Relationship: Node and Branch Voltages
• Node voltages are useful because:
– The branch voltage across a circuit element is simply
the difference between the node voltages at its
terminals
– It is easier to find node voltages than branch voltages
Example:
a 5Ω b Vd=V
+ Vc=20V
+
Vb=190V
200V 85Ω
Va=200V
d c
+
V85=Vb-Vc=190V-20V=170V
Why are Node Voltages Easier to Find?
a b
4A
200V 85Ω
d c
10Ω
• When we try to write KCL at node a, what
happens?
• How do we get around this?
– Write fixed node voltage relationship:
Va=Vd+200
Full Node Voltage Method
• Assign a ground node
• For every node (except the ground node):
– If there is no voltage source connected to that node,
then write the equation given by KCL in terms of the
node voltages
– If there is a voltage source connecting two nodes,
write down the simple equation giving the
difference between the node voltages
– Be very careful about reference directions (comes
with practice)
• This gives you a set of N-1 linearly independent
algebraic equations in N-1 unknowns
• Solvable using whatever technique you choose
More Examples Next Time!
Summary (part one)
• There are five basic circuit elements
– Voltage Sources
– Current Sources
– Resistors
– Capacitors
– Inductors
• Circuit schematics are a set of interconnect ideal
basic circuit elements
• A connection point between elements is a node, and
a path that connects two nodes is a branch
• A loop is a path around a circuit which starts and
ends at the same node without going through any
circuit element twice
Summary (part two)
• Kirchoff’s current law states that the sum of the
currents entering a node is zero
• Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the sum of the
voltages around a loop is zero
• From these laws, we can derive rules for
combining multiple sources or resistors into a
single equivalent source or resistor
• The current and voltage divider rules are simple
tricks to solve simple circuits
• The node voltage technique provides a general
framework for solving any circuit using the
elements we’ve used so far
Nodal Analysis: Example
R1
R5
R3 I1
V R2 R4 V2
1
c a R5
R3 I1
V R2 R4 V2
1
b
One equation, one unknown
With Node Voltage:
Nodal Analysis: Example
R1
c a R5
R3 I1
V R2 R4 V2
1
vs +_ vs(x) +_
independent dependent
5V 40Ω
Dependent Sources
• Dependent sources allow us to decouple
the controller from the controlled
– Acceleration of the engine affect by gas pedal
– Gas pedal not affected by engine acceleration
100Ω
100V
20Ω
Direct Substitution Method for
Dependent Sources
Node Voltage With Dependent Source
100Ω
? ?
100V
20Ω
?
Indirect Substitution Method for
Dependent Sources
100Ω
Node voltage vs. dummy source
I
100V
20Ω
Node voltage vs. controlling current
Real source vs. dummy source
Summary So Far
•
Useful Resistive Circuits
• Wheatstone Bridge
– Used for measuring unknown resistances
• Strain Gauge
– Used for measuring weight
Wheatstone Bridge
• Named for Charles Wheatstone
• Used for measuring resistance of an
unknown resistor R R2
1
• Parts: +
– Known resistors R1 and R2 V
–
R3 Rx
– Adjustable resistor R3
– Unknown resistance Rx
0.384Ω
If carrying 10 amps, how much power dissipated?
Basic Principle
• Pull on resistor:
• L=L0+ΔL
• A=A0-ΔA
• V=LA [constant]
• Length wins the battle
to control resistance
• R=R0+ΔR
Define strain
Our Circuit
Vx(ε)
Microcontroller
Using Strain to Measure Weight
ε
Microcontroller
vx ADC
vx_to_delRr0(vx)
delRr0 calc_eps(delRr0)
• As strain varies,
so will vx
One Possible Design
•
Improvement #1: Half Bridge
Procedure:
1. Determine contribution due to one independent
source
• Set all other sources to 0:
• Replace independent voltage source by
short circuit
• independent current source by open
circuit
2. Repeat for each independent source
3. Sum individual contributions to obtain desired voltage
or current
Easy Example
• Find Vo 12 W 4V
+–
+
4A 4 W Vo
–
12 W 4V
+–
+
4 W Vo
–
Voltage Divider: -1V
Easy Example
• Find Vo 12 W 4V
+–
+
4A 4 W Vo
–
12 W
+
4A 4 W Vo
–
Current Divider: -(3A*4Ω)=-12V
Easy Example
• Find Vo 12 W 4V
+–
+
4A 4 W Vo
–
V0=-12V-1V=-13V
Equivalent resistance:
3+2+(3||2) = 5+(3*2)/(3+2)=6.2V
Current is 10A
VT
Vo
But algebra is
easier if we pick
a better ground
Example
VT
VB
Example
Vo=-12V Vo=12V
Note on Dependent Sources
• You can use superposition in circuits with
dependent sources
• However, DON’T remove the dependent
sources! Just leave them there.
Equivalent Resistance Review
• If you add a source to any two terminals in
a purely resistive circuit
– The added source will “see” the resistive
circuit as a single resistor
10Ω
1A 1A
10Ω
10Ω 25Ω
25V 10Ω 25V
Alternate Viewpoint
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
Slope: 1/25Ω
v
i
Equivalent Resistance
• Let’s consider the IV characteristic of the
following circuit:
αV2 R1 I
+
V2 R2 V
-
Equivalent Resistance
αV2) R1 I
+
V2 R2 V
-
Equivalent Resistance
αV2 R1 I
+
V2 R2 V
-
v
= 1/Req
10V V
Equivalent Resistance Summary So Far
5Ω I
10V V
20V 10Ω V
i
Equivalent Circuits
10Ω
20V 10Ω
10V
Thevenin Equivalents
• We saw before that we can replace a network of
resistors (and dependent sources) with a single
equivalent resistance
• Now, we have that we can replace any circuit
we can build so far with a single voltage
source and resistor
– Not proven, but it’s true, trust me
• This two element network is known as a Thevenin
equivalent
• Generalization of the idea of equivalent resistance
8A
2Ω
12Ω
12V 6Ω
8A
2Ω
12Ω
12V 6Ω
b b
vTh RN
iL iL iN
RTh RL RN RL
voc vTh
RN RTh ; iN isc
isc RTh
Circuit Simulation
• Automated equation solvers use our
algorithm:
– Choose a ground node
– Assign node voltage labels to all nodes
– Write out a system of N-1 linear equations
– Solve (using standard linear algebra
techniques)
• One pretty handy tool is falstad.com’s
circuit simulator
• Let’s try a live demo
Extra Slides
Delta-Wye Conversion
Equivalent Resistances
R4 R5 No
No
What do we do?
1. Be clever and find I-V characteristic directly
2. Apply weirder transformation rules than series or parallel
Y-Delta Conversion
• These two resistive circuits are equivalent for
voltages and currents external to the Y and D
circuits. Internally, the voltages and currents
are different.
Rc a b
a b
R1 R2
Rb Ra
R3
c
c
RbRc RaRc RaRb
R1 = R2 = R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc
D-Y and Y-D Conversion Formulas
c
Circuit Simplification Example
Find the equivalent resistance Rab:
2W 2W
a a
18W 12W
6W
≡
9W 4W
b
9W 4W
b
RaRb
R3 = =6
Rb=18 Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra=12 R2=2
Rc=6 3
General Versions of Thevenin Slides
Equivalent Resistance Summary So Far
• Purely resistive networks have an I-V
characteristic that look just like their
equivalent resistance
• Networks which include dependent
sources also act like resistors
• Let’s see what happens with a circuit with
a source R I
1
Vs V
Equivalent Resistance Summary So Far
R1 I
Vs V
Vs R2 V
i
R1
Vs R2
Vs
I 2W 1W
+
30 V 4W Vo
–
The Need for Dependent Sources
•
Vout
Vin RL
Vin RL
On the board:
b
Negative Feedback Op-Amp Circuit
Assuming A is very big…
Op-Amp Circuit
Where ε represents
some tiny number b
The Voodoo of Analog Circuit Design
For large A:
•
Consequence of Negative Feedback
•
Approach to Op-Amp Circuits
•
“Summing-point
constraint”
Example using the Summing-Point Constraint
b
Summing-Point Constraint
• You don’t have to use the summing-point
constraint
• However, it is much faster, albeit trickier
• This is where building your intuition helps,
so you can see where to go next
Op-Amp Circuits
• There are a bunch of archetypical circuits,
the one we’ve studied today is the “non-
inverting amplifier”
Inverting amplifier
Voltage follower
For Next Time
• Lots more op-amp circuits
• Useful for abstractions for analyzing and
designing op-amp circuits
• Before we go, a couple of questions
Pacing
• Class Pacing
A. Way too slow
B. Too slow
C. Just right
D. Too fast
E. Way too fast
Blackboard
• PowerPoint vs. chalkboard
A. Almost always prefer PowerPoint
B. PowerPoint is slightly preferable
C. Whatever is fine
D. Chalkboard is a bit better
E. I’d prefer little to no PowerPoint
Extra Slides
Voltage Sources and the Node Voltage Method
• I didn’t point this out explicitly, but whenever
you have a voltage source that connects two
nodes, and neither of those nodes are ground,
e.g.
3V
va
e.g. A=1/1000
One Problem
• The “open loop gain” A is:
– Hard to reliably control during manufacturing
– Typically very large (A > 1,000,000)
– Fixed for a single device
• Negative feedback helps us overcome
these issues
Simple Op-Amp Circuit with Negative Feedback
On the board:
b
Negative Feedback Op-Amp Circuit
Assuming A is very big…
Op-Amp Circuit
Where ε represents
some tiny number b
The Voodoo of Analog Circuit Design
For large A:
•
The Voodoo of Analog Circuit Design
For large A:
b
Summing-Point Constraint
• You don’t have to use the summing-point
constraint
• However, it is much faster, albeit less
familiar and thus a little tricky at first
Op-Amp Circuits
• There are a bunch of archetypical circuits,
the one we’ve studied so far is the “non-
inverting amplifier”
Inverting amplifier
Voltage follower
Board Problems Time
• Let’s go through some problems on the
board
And then we were done…
• We did some op-amp problems in class
and then called it a day here, next slides
will appear on Friday
Op-Amps – How Good Are They Exactly?
• Of course, Op-Amps aren’t perfect
– You can’t drive every device in the universe
from one op-amp
• How do we measure how good a voltage
source is?
– Looking at its Thevenin equivalent
– Lower Thevenin resistance is better
Measuring the Quality of a Source
•
Vout
Vin RL
2/3Ω a
1/1000V
+
–
RL=99*2/3Ω=66Ω
b 66Ω load gets 99% of VTH
Thevenin Equivalents of Op-Amp circuits
• Can look at Thevenin equivalent of an op-
amp circuit at its output terminals:
RTH vo
VTH +
–
1/1000V +
–
Op-Amp Saturation
• Remember those power ports we’ve been
ignoring?
Op-Amp Saturation Example
•
Vin Vo
12V
-5 V -12V
4V
-1V -3V
-4V
2V 6V
-12V
1,512,312V 12V
Positive Feedback
On the board
Another Op-Amp Model Revision
•
Common Mode Signal
V1
+
- + 10V
_
-10V
•
0V
New Term
Common Mode Signal
V1
+
- + 10V
_
-10V
•
Example of using CMRR
•
One of many Op-Amp parameters
• Typical CMRR is 35,000 (~90 dB)
– Usually measured in db
• CMRRdb=20*log10(CMRR)
• In real life, Op-Amps come with multipage
data sheets (as do everything else)
How are you feeling about…
• How are you feeling about Node Voltage
and solving basic circuits?
– A. Completely lost
– B. A little behind
– C. Alright
– D. Pretty good
– E. Feel like I’ve attained mastery
How are you feeling about…
• How are you feeling about I-V
characteristics and Thevenin and Norton
equivalents?
– A. Completely lost
– B. A little behind
– C. Alright
– D. Pretty good
– E. Feel like I’ve attained mastery
How are you feeling about…
• How are you feeling about Op-Amp
circuits?
– A. Completely lost
– B. A little behind
– C. Alright
– D. Pretty good
– E. Feel like I’ve attained mastery
How are you feeling about…
• How are you feeling about the midterm?
– A. Terrified
– B. A little scared
– C. Neutralish
– D. Feel prepared
– E. Feel like I will do excellently
Make up Labs
• Do you need a make up lab?
• A. Yes
• B. No
• This is where we stopped
UNIT 2
+
-
-
The Capacitor
Lots of current Zero current
+
-
-
Zero VC VC=VS
VC=VS Zero VC
iClicker
Lots of current
Zero current
Acts like a:
A. Short circuit
+
-
-
B. Open circuit
Zero VC VC=VS C. Resistor
D. Voltage source
E. Current source
Lots of current Zero current
High VC Zero VC
Extreme Corner Case
•
How much energy is stored?
•
Strictly speaking we shouldn’t use t as our integration variable and also the limit that we’re
integrating to, but you know what I mean…
Practical Capacitors
• A capacitor can be constructed by interleaving the plates
with two dielectric layers and rolling them up, to achieve
a compact size.
ic
dQ dvc
ic C +
dt dt vc
–
ic
+
vc
dQ dvc –
ic C
dt dt
Node Voltage with Capacitors
ic
+
vc
dQ dvc –
ic C
dt dt
ODEs
B( t )
+
v( t )
(Wikipedia)
Inductor Basics (1)
• When we connect a voltage source to a
wire, current clearly takes a little time to
get moving
• Thus, the magnetic field builds to some
maximum strength over time
B( t )
+
v( t )
Inductor Basics (2)
B( t )
+
v( t )
– ODEs are:
Preview of Unit 2
•
RC Circuits
• Taking the Live Demo risk, let’s check out
a quick qualitative circuit simulation
The Capacitor
• The basic idea is pretty simple
– Imagine you have two parallel metal plates,
both of which have equal and opposite excess
charges
– Plates are separated by an insulating layer
(air, glass, wood, etc)
+
-
-
The Capacitor
Lots of current Zero current
+
-
-
Zero VC VC=VS
High VC Zero VC
Capacitor
+
Symbol: or C
Electrolytic (polarized)
C C capacitor
Units: Farads (Coulombs/Volt) These have high capacitance and cannot
support voltage drops of the wrong polarity
(typical range of values: 1 pF to 1 mF; for “supercapa-
citors” up to a few F!)
Current-Voltage relationship:
ic
dQ dvc
ic C +
dt dt vc
–
ic
dQ dvc
ic C +
dt dt vc
–
• On board
Ordinary Differential Equations
• Inductors, too, give us a simple 1st order
relationship between voltage and current
• Node Voltage with memoryless circuits
gave us algebraic equations
• Node voltage with elements with memory
will give us Ordinary Differential Equations
(ODEs)
• Next week will be a bunch of setting up and
solving 1st and 2nd order linear ODEs
• Higher order and especially nonlinear
ODEs are tough to solve. For example…
Chua’s Circuit
– ODEs are:
Chua’s Circuit
• Despite simplicity of ODEs
• Exhibits chaos!
Invented by current
UC Berkeley EECS
professor Leon
Chua in 1983
Capacitors
• Useful for
– Storing Energy
– Filtering
– Modeling unwanted capacitive effects,
particularly delay