Líquido Cefalorraquídeo: Fisiología, Composición y Hallazgos en Los Estados de Enfermedad
Líquido Cefalorraquídeo: Fisiología, Composición y Hallazgos en Los Estados de Enfermedad
[Link] © 2025 UpToDate, Inc. y/o sus filiales. Todos los derechos reservados. ®
Todos los temas se actualizan a medida que se dispone de nuevas pruebas y se completa nuestro proceso de revisión por
pares.
INTRODUCCIÓN
● Producción en el plexo coroideo: el plexo coroideo es producido por el plexo coroideo en los
ventrículos lateral, tercero y cuarto; Se forma tanto por filtración como por transporte activo.
El plexo coroideo consiste en proyecciones de vasos y piamadre que sobresalen en las
cavidades ventriculares como vellosidades en forma de fronda que contienen capilares en el
estroma conectivo laxo. Una capa especializada de células ependimarias llamada epitelio
coroideo se superpone a estas vellosidades.
● Resorción
Moléculas o fármacos que son solubles en lípidos se difunden fácilmente a través del
endotelio vascular y el epitelio del plexo coroideo hacia el líquido intersticial y el líquido
cefalorraquídeo. Por el contrario, las moléculas cargadas iónicamente generalmente
requieren un transporte activo para ingresar al CSF. La entrada del fármaco puede verse
alterada en pacientes con meningitis por la inflamación que la acompaña, y esto puede
cambiar rápidamente con la regresión de la inflamación con el tratamiento. (Véase
"Infección del sistema nervioso central" más abajo).
Volumen y presión del líquido cefalorraquídeo: en adultos normales, el volumen del líquido
cefalorraquídeo es de 90 a 200 ml [6]. Aproximadamente el 20 por ciento del líquido
cefalorraquídeo está contenido en los ventrículos; El resto está contenido en el espacio
subaracnoideo en el cráneo y la médula espinal. La tasa normal de producción de líquido
cefalorraquídeo es de aproximadamente 20 ml por hora [7].
Los procesos patológicos, como infección, hemorragia o neoplasia, pueden alterar la dinámica
del flujo del LCR o el equilibrio entre la producción y la reabsorción del LCR y pueden causar
hidrocefalia y/o hipertensión intracraneal. Las masas de crecimiento lento, como abscesos o
tumores, pueden dar tiempo para que se produzca la compensación entre la secreción y la
absorción del LCR; por lo tanto, es posible que no se produzca un aumento de la presión del
líquido cefalorraquídeo hasta que se supere la distensibilidad normal de las estructuras
intracraneales o se obstruya completamente el flujo del líquido cefalorraquídeo. Por el
contrario, las infecciones agudas, como la meningitis, suelen provocar aumentos rápidos de la
presión del líquido cefalorraquídeo debido a alteraciones en la producción o reabsorción del
líquido cefalorraquídeo o al edema cerebral. (Ver 'Hipertensión o hipotensión intracraneal' más
abajo).
Las pequeñas moléculas solubles en lípidos con una masa molecular inferior a 400 a 600
daltons se transportan fácilmente a través de la barrera hematoencefálica. Por el contrario,
muchos fármacos y otras moléculas más grandes no pueden atravesar este sistema de
barrera [12].
Ambos sistemas de barrera son dinámicos. Las células endoteliales y los astrocitos que
componen la barrera hematoencefálica y las células que forman la barrera sangre-LCR
producen citocinas como el factor de necrosis tumoral y las interleucinas [14]. Además, los
astrocitos pueden actuar como células presentadoras de antígenos que modulan la respuesta
inmunológica a las infecciones del SNC. La liberación de citocinas de las células endoteliales y
los astrocitos probablemente media o genera gran parte de la respuesta inflamatoria del SNC
en afecciones infecciosas y no infecciosas.
También existe una barrera cerebro-líquido cefalorraquídeo en la piamadre. Una capa continua
de astrocitos recubre la membrana basal de las células en la piamadre [15]. Estos astrocitos
están separados por uniones gap que afectan el movimiento de los constituyentes desde el LCR
hasta el cerebro.
El análisis químico y microscópico de los componentes del LCR incluye proteínas, glucosa y, a
veces, células infecciosas, inflamatorias o neoplásicas, que pueden ayudar en el diagnóstico o la
exclusión de muchas afecciones del sistema nervioso central (SNC).
Color
Tan solo 200 glóbulos blancos (WBC)/microL o 400 glóbulos rojos (RBC)/microL harán que el
LCR se vea turbio. El líquido cefalorraquídeo tendrá un aspecto sanguinolento si hay ≥6000
glóbulos rojos/microL [9].
Cell counts
Normal cell counts — The CSF is normally acellular. However, up to five WBCs and five RBCs
are considered normal in adults when the CSF is sampled by nontraumatic lumbar puncture
(LP) [25]. More than three polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)/microL is abnormal in
adults.
Higher cell counts may be regarded as normal in infants and young children. The CSF cell
profiles in neonates and children are discussed separately. (See "Bacterial meningitis in
children older than one month: Clinical features and diagnosis", section on 'Interpretation of
CSF parameters' and "Bacterial meningitis in the neonate: Clinical features and diagnosis",
section on 'Interpretation of CSF parameters'.)
The CSF cell count determination should be performed promptly after collection since the
count may be falsely low if measured more than 60 minutes after the LP is performed. This
spuriously low cell count may be due to settling of the cells in the CSF over time and/or
adherence of RBCs or PMNs to plastic tubes.
[24,26]
WBC pleocytosis — CSF pleocytosis, or increases in the CSF WBC concentration, can occur in
both infectious and noninfectious inflammatory states. A CSF pleocytosis is a somewhat
nonspecific finding, so the numerical count and types of WBCs in the CSF must be correlated
with other diagnostic tests (eg, Gram stain) and/or with clinical findings such as the presence
of fever or meningismus. (See 'CSF in disease states' below.)
A WBC pleocytosis may also be seen in the setting of a traumatic LP. Accidental trauma to a
capillary or venule may occur during performance of an LP, increasing the number of both
RBCs and WBCs in the CSF. If a traumatic LP is suspected, and the peripheral WBC count is not
abnormally low or high, the formula in the following calculator can be used to determine the
adjusted WBC count in the presence of CSF RBCs (calculator 1) [27,28]. Another strategy for
estimating the adjusted WBC count is to subtract 1 WBC for every 500 to 1500 RBCs measured
in the CSF.
A transient and mild reactive WBC pleocytosis may be seen in patients who undergo repeat
LP, typically within 10 days of the initial study [29].
Other CSF findings in traumatic taps are discussed below. (See 'Elevated RBC count' below.)
Elevated RBC count — The presence of RBCs in a CSF sample indicates recent bleeding. Intra-
axial bleeding, such as from an acute subarachnoid hemorrhage, is an important pathologic
cause of an elevated CSF RBC count. Alternatively, needle trauma during LP frequently causes
a "traumatic tap" and introduces blood into the CSF. Some infections (eg, herpes simplex
meningoencephalitis) and other hemorrhagic intra-axial lesions may also result in bleeding
into the CSF.
The CSF diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage is discussed in greater detail separately. (See
"Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis", section on
'Findings in SAH'.)
Cytology — Cytologic examination and flow cytometry are performed to identify malignancy
involving the CNS ( picture 1) when the cause of a CSF pleocytosis is uncertain or when a
CNS malignancy is suspected clinically [30]. In such instances, at least 10 to 15 mL of fluid
should be sent to the pathology laboratory for prompt examination. Cytology should ideally
be performed within one hour of collection in specialized laboratories with experienced staff
[25].
Repeat testing may be warranted when initial results are negative when clinical suspicion for
malignancy is high. The specificity of CSF cytology for malignancy can approach 100 percent,
but sensitivity is lower. False negatives have been associated with low-volume CSF samples,
delays in processing, and single CSF samples assessed [31].
Cytologic examination of CSF for the diagnosis of tumors of the CSF is discussed in greater
detail in separate topic reviews:
● (See "Clinical features and diagnosis of leptomeningeal disease from solid tumors", section
on 'Cytology'.)
● (See "Primary central nervous system lymphoma: Clinical features, diagnosis, and extent of
disease evaluation", section on 'CSF analysis'.)
● (See "Secondary central nervous system lymphoma: Clinical features and diagnosis",
section on 'CSF cytology'.)
● (See "Acute myeloid leukemia: Involvement of the central nervous system", section on
'Cerebrospinal fluid analysis'.)
Cellular analysis to assess for bacterial or fungal infections in the CSF, including histology and
cell culture, is discussed below. (See 'Central nervous system infection' below.)
Protein — Proteins are largely excluded from the CSF by the blood-CSF barrier. Proteins
gaining access to the CSF primarily reach the CSF by transport within pinocytotic vesicles
traversing capillary endothelial cells or disruption of the blood-CSF barrier in pathologic
processes.
Normal protein levels — The normal CSF total protein concentration ranges from 23 to 38
mg/dL (0.23 to 0.38 g/L) in adults [9]. The extreme lower and upper CSF protein
concentrations in normal individuals have been reported as 9 to 93 mg/dL (0.09 to 0.93 g/L)
[24,26]. Higher CSF protein concentrations are associated with older age, male sex, diabetes
mellitus, spinal stenosis, and arterial hypertension [26].
CSF protein concentrations in premature and term neonates normally range between 20
and 170 mg/dL (0.2 and 1.7 g/L) [32].
Elevations of total protein — Elevations in the CSF protein concentration can occur in
many conditions including infectious and noninfectious conditions and those associated
with obstruction of CSF flow. (See 'Tumors and other structural conditions' below.)
CSF protein can also be elevated due to bleeding, such as by a subarachnoid hemorrhage
or a traumatic LP. The presence of CSF bleeding results in approximately 1 mg of protein/dL
per 1000 RBCs/microL. When assessing the potential effect of CSF bleeding on an elevated
CSF protein concentration, the CSF protein concentration and RBC count should be
performed on the same tube of CSF.
In some cases, the presence of an isolated elevation of the CSF protein is nonspecific and
does not necessarily indicate a pathologic process is present.
Immunoglobulins and oligoclonal bands — Immunoglobulins are typically assessed in
the CSF to identify inflammatory conditions. In healthy persons, immunoglobulins are
present in peripheral blood but are almost totally excluded from the CSF in healthy
individuals (the blood to CSF ratio of immunoglobulin G [IgG] is normally 500:1 or more).
The presence of CSF immunoglobulins is assessed by calculating the IgG index and/or
identifying CSF oligoclonal bands.
● IgG index – The IgG index is a rapid quantitative measurement of intrathecal IgG
synthesis that can be used to support the diagnosis of an inflammatory disorder of the
CNS [33,34]. It is calculated by dividing the CSF/serum IgG ratio by the CSF/albumin ratio.
An IgG index >0.7 is supportive of independent intrathecal production of immunoglobulin
[35].
Examples of other diseases that can cause oligoclonal bands in the CSF include infections
(eg, nervous system Lyme disease), autoimmune diseases, brain tumors, and
lymphoproliferative diseases. However, the diagnostic specificity of this finding alone is
limited because many diseases can result in oligoclonal bands in the CSF.
● Treponemal and nontreponemal tests for syphilis (see "Neurosyphilis", section on 'Spinal
fluid examination')
● Autoantibody testing in multiple sclerosis (see "Evaluation and diagnosis of multiple
sclerosis in adults", section on 'Autoantibody testing')
● Anticuerpos contra la encefalitis autoinmunitaria ( tabla 1) (ver "Introducción a los
síndromes paraneoplásicos del sistema nervioso", sección "Cribado con anticuerpos")
Además, se pueden identificar varias proteínas del SNC en algunas afecciones traumáticas,
neuroinflamatorias o neurodegenerativas. Las proteínas comunes del SNC que se pueden
encontrar en el líquido cefalorraquídeo en algunas afecciones incluyen:
● Proteína tau
● Proteína 14-3-3
● Conversión inducida por terremotos en tiempo real (RT-QulC)
● S100B
● Enolasa neuronal específica
Niveles normales de glucosa: se ha informado que los niveles normales típicos de glucosa
en LCR en adultos son de 45 a 80 mg/dL (2,5 a 4,4 mmol/L) [36]. Sin embargo, el nivel de
glucosa en LCR varía con la glucosa sérica y muestra grandes variaciones diurnas horarias
relacionadas con la ingesta de alimentos [37]. La relación normal entre LCR y glucosa sérica
oscila entre 0,5 y 0,8 [38-40].
Por el contrario, la concentración de glucosa en el LCR suele ser normal durante las
infecciones virales del SNC, aunque se han reportado concentraciones bajas en pacientes
con algunas formas de meningoencefalitis viral. (Véase "Infección del sistema nervioso
central" más abajo).
Glucosa elevada en LCR: las concentraciones elevadas de glucosa en LCR solo ocurren en
el contexto de hiperglucemia. Los intentos de "corregir" la concentración de glucosa en el
LCR para la hiperglucemia deben tener en cuenta el hecho de que la glucosa sérica tarda
varias horas en equilibrarse con la glucosa en el LCR; Por lo tanto, el momento de la última
comida y/o la administración de insulina o hipoglucemiante oral pueden ser relevantes [37].
Los niveles de glucosa en LCR rara vez superan los 300 mg/dL (16,7 mmol/L), incluso en
pacientes con hiperglucemia grave.
Lactato: la concentración de lactato en el LCR puede estar elevada en varias afecciones, como
la meningitis infecciosa, la hemorragia subaracnoidea y la lesión cerebral hipóxico-isquémica
[51-54].
Los niveles normales de lactato en LCR son de 16 a 49 mg/dL (0,9 a 2,7 mmol/L), pero los
umbrales específicos pueden variar un poco según el laboratorio [40].
Se ha sugerido que el lactato en LCR es una prueba útil para diferenciar la meningitis aguda
bacteriana de la viral. El lactato suele estar elevado en la meningitis bacteriana aguda no
tratada (>6 mmol/L) y normal en la meningitis viral (<2 mmol/L) [55]. Dos metaanálisis que
incluyeron 25 estudios (1692 pacientes) y 31 estudios (1885 pacientes) que evaluaron las
características diferenciadoras en la meningitis bacteriana y aséptica concluyeron que la
precisión diagnóstica del lactato en LCR fue excelente (área bajo la curva 0,98), superior a la
del recuento de leucocitos en LCR, glucosa y concentración de proteínas [56,57], aunque la
sensibilidad fue menor en los pacientes que recibieron tratamiento antimicrobiano previo a la
LP [57].
Infección del sistema nervioso central: los glóbulos blancos (WBC) elevados en el líquido
cefalorraquídeo hacen sospechar de un proceso infeccioso. Los neutrófilos polimorfonucleares
(PMN) predominan precozmente en el LCR de los pacientes con meningitis infecciosa. Las PMN
se encuentran en hasta dos tercios de los pacientes con meningitis debida a enterovirus; Un
cambio a predominancia linfocítica generalmente ocurre dentro de las 12 a 24 horas [58,59].
Los linfocitos rara vez predominan en las primeras fases de la meningitis bacteriana no tratada.
(Ver "Meningitis aséptica en adultos").
CSF eosinophilia may occur in parasitic infestations but also in infections due to other
microorganisms, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Rickettsia
rickettsii, some fungi, and in noninfectious conditions, such as lymphomas, leukemias of various
types, selected autoimmune conditions, subarachnoid hemorrhage, obstructive hydrocephalus,
and chemical meningitis.
CSF findings seen in central nervous system (CNS) meningeal infections depend upon the
specific condition:
● Acute bacterial meningitis – Typical CSF findings in bacterial meningitis include [60,61]:
• Elevated WBC count <250/microL (and almost always <2000/microL), usually with a
lymphocytic predominance;
• Elevated protein <150 mg/dL (and almost always <220 mg/dL);
• Normal or modestly low glucose typically >50 percent of serum glucose. However,
moderately reduced values are occasionally seen with mumps, enteroviruses, lymphocytic
choriomeningitis (LCM), herpes simplex, and herpes zoster viruses [62-66].
● Fungal meningitis – CSF findings in fungal meningitis are variable: in some cases, the
chemical and cellular findings resemble that of bacterial meningitis; in other cases, only
modest elevations in WBC count and protein occur, and the CSF glucose concentration is
normal [67]. (See "Candida infections of the central nervous system", section on 'CSF analysis'
and "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in
patients without HIV", section on 'Cerebrospinal fluid'.)
● Encefalitis viral: los hallazgos del LCR en la encefalitis viral suelen ser similares a los de la
meningitis viral, especialmente cuando la infección está presente en ambas regiones del SNC
(es decir, meningoencefalitis). Sin embargo, las anomalías del líquido cefalorraquídeo pueden
variar ampliamente en pacientes con encefalitis viral dependiendo del virus causante, así
como de la gravedad y la duración de la enfermedad. En algunos casos, el recuento de
glóbulos blancos del LCR puede estar solo ligeramente elevado o incluso normal [68-70]. (Ver
"Encefalitis viral en adultos", sección sobre "Hallazgos en líquido cefalorraquídeo").
El análisis químico y el cultivo del líquido cefalorraquídeo también son una parte integral de la
evaluación de los pacientes con sospecha de meningitis o encefalitis. La tinción de Gram
( imagen 2 y foto 3 y foto 4 y foto 5 y foto 6) y el cultivo de líquido cefalorraquídeo
pueden ayudar a identificar el agente causal de las infecciones bacterianas y fúngicas. (Ver
"Características clínicas y diagnóstico de la meningitis bacteriana aguda en adultos" y
"Encefalitis viral en adultos" y "Meningitis aséptica en adultos").
● Otros trastornos inflamatorios primarios del SNC: un patrón de proteína elevada con un
recuento elevado de glóbulos blancos es común en varios otros trastornos inflamatorios del
SNC. Los hallazgos específicos pueden ayudar a distinguir estos trastornos de la esclerosis
múltiple y otros trastornos. Sin embargo, hay una variabilidad considerable en los hallazgos
del LCR.
• Mielitis transversa: algunos pacientes tienen una proteína de LCR elevada y una
pleocitosis linfocítica de leucocitos, mientras que otros tienen hallazgos leves e
inespecíficos. La concentración de glucosa suele ser normal. (Ver "Mielitis transversa:
etiología, características clínicas y diagnóstico", sección "Punción lumbar").
● Síndrome de cefalea y déficits neurológicos con linfocitosis del LCR (HaNDL): el síndrome
de HaNDL se caracteriza por una pleocitosis linfocítica de leucocitos en el análisis del LCR. El
recuento de leucocitos puede ser de >100 células/microL. La concentración de proteínas
puede estar elevada, pero los niveles de glucosa son normales y los cultivos deben ser
negativos. La presión de apertura del LCR evaluada durante la punción lumbar (PL) también
puede estar elevada. (Ver "Síndrome de cefalea transitoria y déficits neurológicos con
linfocitosis del líquido cefalorraquídeo (HaNDL)", sección sobre "Punción lumbar").
● Hidrocefalia obstructiva: las lesiones masivas que alteran la circulación del LCR pueden
provocar hidrocefalia obstructiva que puede causar disfunción neurológica progresiva. Por lo
general, la hidrocefalia se identifica en neuroimágenes. La PL está contraindicada en
pacientes con hidrocefalia obstructiva, pero el análisis del líquido cefalorraquídeo puede
realizarse como parte de la ventriculostomía diagnóstica o terapéutica. En este contexto, los
hallazgos del LCR incluyen presiones elevadas. La composición del líquido cefalorraquídeo
varía dependiendo de la causa subyacente. (Ver "Evaluación y tratamiento de la presión
intracraneal elevada en adultos", sección "Monitorización de la PIC").
● Cerebral venous thrombosis – Inflammatory CSF findings in cerebral venous thrombosis are
nonspecific and may include elevations of protein concentration as well as both WBC and RBC
counts. Elevated pressure may also be documented in some patients with cerebral venous
thrombosis due to impaired circulatory outflow. (See "Cerebral venous thrombosis: Etiology,
clinical features, and diagnosis".)
● Primary or metastatic brain tumors – CSF findings in primary and metastatic brain tumors
are often normal or nonspecific unless the leptomeningeal surface or intraventricular space is
involved, in which case cytology may be helpful. Elevated intracranial pressure may also be
noted in some patients. (See "Uncommon brain tumors", section on 'Choroid plexus tumors'.)
● Froin syndrome from spinal tumors – Spinal neoplasms or other extra-axial lesions such as
abscesses that block CSF circulation can produce xanthochromia, dramatically elevated
protein concentrations (>500 mg/dL), and hypercoagulated CSF [71-74]. Stagnation of CSF
caudal to the spinal site of blockage leads to hyperproteinosis.
● Prion diseases – Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease and other human prion diseases may feature
elevated Tau protein and/or the presence of the 14-3-3 protein or a positive real-time quaking
induced conversion test (RT-QuIC). In addition, assays to detect disease-associated prion
protein have also been developed. (See "Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease", section on 'Cerebrospinal
fluid protein markers'.)
● Alzheimer disease and other dementias – CSF findings in common causes of dementia are
typically nonspecific, but elevated Tau protein and low levels of amyloid beta peptides may be
found in some patients with Alzheimer disease. (See "Clinical features and diagnosis of
Alzheimer disease", section on 'Role of biomarkers'.)
Others — Other conditions that have been associated with abnormal CSF findings include:
Acute seizure – Up to one-third of patients with a seizure may have mild abnormalities in CSF
parameters, most typically a mildly elevated protein or lymphocytic WBC pleocytosis [75-77].
CSF lactate may also be elevated, but hypoglycorrhachia is uncommon.
● Medications – Several medications can rarely cause aseptic meningitis. CSF findings
classically include an elevated protein concentration with a lymphocytic WBC pleocytosis and
normal glucose, although findings may vary. Agents include:
Intrathecal contrast agents and medications delivered into the intrathecal space may also
cause a chemical inflammatory response leading to a CSF pleocytosis in some patients [93-
96].
SUMMARY
● CSF physiology – Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced continuously within the choroid plexus
and circulates throughout the intracranial ventricular system as well as the cranial and spinal
subarachnoid spaces before being resorbed into venous system via the arachnoid villi
( figure 1). (See 'Circulation' above.)
● CSF volume and pressure – The typical CSF volume in adults is 90 to 200 mL. The normal rate
of CSF production is approximately 20 mL per hour. The normal CSF pressure as measured
with a manometer in a patient lying flat in the lateral decubitus position with the legs
extended is between 6 and 20 to 25 cm H2O. (See 'CSF volume and pressure' above.)
● CSF composition
• Color – CSF is typically clear and colorless. As few as 200 white blood cells (WBCs)/microL or
400 red blood cells (RBCs)/microL will cause CSF to appear turbid. CSF will appear grossly
bloody if ≥6000 RBCs/microL are present. RBCs lyse rapidly in CSF, leading to a yellow or
pink discoloration of the CSF known as xanthochromia. (See 'Xanthochromia' above.)
• Cells – The CSF is normally acellular. However, up to five WBCs and five RBCs are considered
normal in adults when the CSF is sampled by lumbar puncture (LP). More than three
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)/microL is abnormal in adults. (See 'WBC pleocytosis'
above.)
• Cytology – Cytologic examination and flow cytometry are typically used to evaluate for
malignancy involving the central nervous system (CNS) ( picture 1) and may be
performed when the cause of a CSF pleocytosis is uncertain or when a CNS malignancy is
suspected clinically ( picture 2). (See 'Cytology' above.)
• Chemistry – CSF evaluation commonly includes protein level and glucose concentration.
Patterns of abnormal protein and/or glucose levels are associated with specific disease
states. Specialized testing to identify specific proteins or other chemical constituents (eg,
IgG index or oligoclonal bands) may be performed in selected patients. (See 'Chemical
composition' above.)
- Normal CSF total protein concentrations typically range from 23 to 38 mg/dL (0.23 to 0.38
g/L) in adults, although concentrations as high as 93 mg/dL (0.09 to 0.93 g/L) have been
reported in some healthy individuals. (See 'Protein' above.)
- Normal CSF glucose levels in adults typically range from 45 to 80 mg/dL (2.5 to 4.4
mmol/L). However, the CSF glucose level varies with serum glucose and can demonstrate
large hourly diurnal variations related to food intake. The normal CSF-to-serum glucose
ratio ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. (See 'Glucose' above.)
• CNS infection – CSF evaluation is an integral part of the evaluation of patients with
suspected meningitis or encephalitis. Although there is some overlap, specific findings may
help differentiate bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. (See 'Central nervous system
infection' above.)
• Autoimmune and inflammatory conditions – CSF analysis may help identify several CNS
inflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis (elevated protein and WBC pleocytosis
with oligoclonal bands) and Guillain-Barré syndrome (albuminocytologic dissociation). In
addition, CSF pleocytosis may be found in some systemic conditions that can cause CNS
complications (eg, neurosarcoidosis). (See 'Autoimmune and inflammatory conditions'
above.)
• Intracranial hypertension and hypotension syndromes – Conditions characterized by
abnormal (high or low) intracranial pressure often feature a normal CSF composition unless
due to the underlying cause (eg, bacterial or fungal meningitis). (See 'Intracranial
hypertension or hypotension' above.)
CSF findings in primary and metastatic brain tumors are often normal or nonspecific.
Certain medications or acute seizures may produce a mildly elevated protein or lymphocytic
WBC pleocytosis. (See 'Others' above.)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The UpToDate editorial staff acknowledges Kimberly S Johnson, MD, who contributed to earlier
versions of this topic review.
REFERENCES
2. Iliff JJ, Goldman SA, Nedergaard M. Implications of the discovery of brain lymphatic
pathways. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14:977.
3. McKnight CD, Rouleau RM, Donahue MJ, Claassen DO. The Regulation of Cerebral Spinal
Fluid Flow and Its Relevance to the Glymphatic System. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2020;
20:58.
4. Louveau A, Smirnov I, Keyes TJ, et al. Structural and functional features of central nervous
system lymphatic vessels. Nature 2015; 523:337.
5. Pulous FE, Cruz-Hernández JC, Yang C, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid can exit into the skull bone
marrow and instruct cranial hematopoiesis in mice with bacterial meningitis. Nat Neurosci
2022; 25:567.
6. Leinonen V, Vanninen R, Rauramaa T. Cerebrospinal fluid circulation and hydrocephalus.
Handb Clin Neurol 2017; 145:39.
7. McComb JG. Recent research into the nature of cerebrospinal fluid formation and
absorption. J Neurosurg 1983; 59:369.
8. Whiteley W, Al-Shahi R, Warlow CP, et al. CSF opening pressure: reference interval and the
effect of body mass index. Neurology 2006; 67:1690.
9. Hasbun R. Cerebrospinal fluid in central nervous system infections. In: Infections of the Cen
tral Nervous System, 4th edition, Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Marra CM (Eds), Lippincott William
s, 2014. p.4.
10. Wang F, Lesser ER, Cutsforth-Gregory JK, et al. Population-Based Evaluation of Lumbar
Puncture Opening Pressures. Front Neurol 2019; 10:899.
11. Pardridge WM, Oldendorf WH, Cancilla P, Frank HJ. Blood-brain barrier: interface between
internal medicine and the brain. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105:82.
12. Pardridge WM. CNS drug design based on principles of blood-brain barrier transport. J
Neurochem 1998; 70:1781.
13. Liddelow SA. Development of the choroid plexus and blood-CSF barrier. Front Neurosci
2015; 9:32.
14. Abbott NJ, Patabendige AA, Dolman DE, et al. Structure and function of the blood-brain
barrier. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37:13.
15. Feurer DJ, Weller RO. Barrier functions of the leptomeninges: a study of normal meninges
and meningiomas in tissue culture. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1991; 17:391.
16. Edlow JA, Bruner KS, Horowitz GL. Xanthochromia. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2002; 126:413.
17. UK National External Quality Assessment Scheme for Immunochemistry Working Group.
National guidelines for analysis of cerebrospinal fluid for bilirubin in suspected
subarachnoid haemorrhage. Ann Clin Biochem 2003; 40:481.
18. Beetham R, UK NEQAS for Immunochermistry Working group. Recommendations for CSF
analysis in subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75:528.
19. Chu K, Hann A, Greenslade J, et al. Spectrophotometry or visual inspection to most reliably
detect xanthochromia in subarachnoid hemorrhage: systematic review. Ann Emerg Med
2014; 64:256.
20. Vermeulen M, van Gijn J, Blijenberg BG. Spectrophotometric analysis of CSF after
subarachnoid hemorrhage: limitations in the diagnosis of rebleeding. Neurology 1983;
33:112.
21. Morgenstern LB, Luna-Gonzales H, Huber JC Jr, et al. Worst headache and subarachnoid
hemorrhage: prospective, modern computed tomography and spinal fluid analysis. Ann
Emerg Med 1998; 32:297.
22. Dougherty JM, Roth RM. Cerebral spinal fluid. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1986; 4:281.
23. Vermeulen M, van Gijn J. The diagnosis of subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry 1990; 53:365.
24. Fishman RA. Cerebrospinal Fluid in Diseases of the Nervous System, 2nd ed, Saunders, Phil
adelphia 1992.
25. Rahimi J, Woehrer A. Overview of cerebrospinal fluid cytology. Handb Clin Neurol 2017;
145:563.
26. Fautsch KJ, Block DR, Graff-Radford J, et al. Population-Based Evaluation of Total Protein in
Cerebrospinal Fluid. Mayo Clin Proc 2023; 98:239.
27. Tunkel AR. Approach to the Patient with Central Nervous System Infection. In: Mandell, Dou
glas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 8th ed., Bennett JE, Dolin
R, Blaser MJ (Eds), Elsevier, Philadelphia 2015. Vol 1, p.1091.
28. Bonadio WA. The cerebrospinal fluid: physiologic aspects and alterations associated with
bacterial meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 11:423.
29. Schmidauer M, Föttinger F, Berek K, et al. Reactive Pleocytosis After Repeated Lumbar
Puncture-Implications for Clinical Practice. Eur J Neurol 2025; 32:e70117.
30. Marton KI, Gean AD. The spinal tap: a new look at an old test. Ann Intern Med 1986;
104:840.
31. Glantz MJ, Cole BF, Glantz LK, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid cytology in patients with cancer:
minimizing false-negative results. Cancer 1998; 82:733.
32. Sarff LD, Platt LH, McCracken GH Jr. Cerebrospinal fluid evaluation in neonates: comparison
of high-risk infants with and without meningitis. J Pediatr 1976; 88:473.
33. Mayringer I, Timeltaler B, Deisenhammer F. Correlation between the IgG index, oligoclonal
bands in CSF, and the diagnosis of demyelinating diseases. Eur J Neurol 2005; 12:527.
34. Jones HD, Urquhart N, Mathias RG, Banerjee SN. An evaluation of oligoclonal banding and
CSF IgG index in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis. Sex Transm Dis 1990; 17:75.
35. Zheng Y, Cai MT, Yang F, et al. IgG Index Revisited: Diagnostic Utility and Prognostic Value in
Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1799.
36. Hegen H, Auer M, Deisenhammer F. Serum glucose adjusted cut-off values for normal
cerebrospinal fluid/serum glucose ratio: implications for clinical practice. Clin Chem Lab
Med 2014; 52:1335.
37. Verbeek MM, Leen WG, Willemsen MA, et al. Hourly analysis of cerebrospinal fluid glucose
shows large diurnal fluctuations. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2016; 36:899.
38. FISHMAN RA. STUDIES OF THE TRANSPORT OF SUGARS BETWEEN BLOOD AND
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID IN NORMAL STATES AND IN MENINGEAL CARCINOMATOSIS. Trans
Am Neurol Assoc 1963; 88:114.
39. Nigrovic LE, Kimia AA, Shah SS, Neuman MI. Relationship between cerebrospinal fluid
glucose and serum glucose. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:576.
40. Leen WG, Willemsen MA, Wevers RA, Verbeek MM. Cerebrospinal fluid glucose and lactate:
age-specific reference values and implications for clinical practice. PLoS One 2012;
7:e42745.
41. Conly JM, Ronald AR. Cerebrospinal fluid as a diagnostic body fluid. Am J Med 1983; 75:102.
42. Spanos A, Harrell FE Jr, Durack DT. Differential diagnosis of acute meningitis. An analysis of
the predictive value of initial observations. JAMA 1989; 262:2700.
49. Kuzak N, Brubacher JR, Kennedy JR. Reversal of salicylate-induced euglycemic delirium with
dextrose. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2007; 45:526.
50. COTTON EK, FAHLBERG VI. HYPOGLYCEMIA WITH SALICYLATE POISONING. A REPORT OF
TWO CASES. Am J Dis Child 1964; 108:171.
51. Lindgren C, Koskinen LO, Ssozi R, Naredi S. Cerebrospinal fluid lactate and neurological
outcome after subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Clin Neurosci 2019; 60:63.
52. Abassi M, Bangdiwala AS, Nuwagira E, et al. Cerebrospinal Fluid Lactate as a Prognostic
Marker of Disease Severity and Mortality in Cryptococcal Meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 2021;
73:e3077.
53. Son SH, In YN, Md, et al. Cerebrospinal Fluid Lactate Levels, Brain Lactate Metabolism and
Neurologic Outcome in Patients with Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest. Neurocrit Care 2021;
35:262.
54. Taylor J, Parker M, Casey CP, et al. Postoperative delirium and changes in the blood-brain
barrier, neuroinflammation, and cerebrospinal fluid lactate: a prospective cohort study. Br J
Anaesth 2022; 129:219.
55. Cunha BA. Distinguishing bacterial from viral meningitis: the critical importance of the CSF
lactic acid levels. Intensive Care Med 2006; 32:1272.
56. Huy NT, Thao NT, Diep DT, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid lactate concentration to distinguish
bacterial from aseptic meningitis: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 2010;
14:R240.
57. Sakushima K, Hayashino Y, Kawaguchi T, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of cerebrospinal fluid
lactate for differentiating bacterial meningitis from aseptic meningitis: a meta-analysis. J
Infect 2011; 62:255.
58. Rice SK, Heinl RE, Thornton LL, Opal SM. Clinical characteristics, management strategies,
and cost implications of a statewide outbreak of enterovirus meningitis. Clin Infect Dis
1995; 20:931.
59. Feigin RD, Shackelford PG. Value of repeat lumbar puncture in the differential diagnosis of
meningitis. N Engl J Med 1973; 289:571.
60. Delannoy Q, Pean-de-Ponfilly G, Mesnil C, et al. Validation of the Bacterial Meningitis Score
in adults consulting at an emergency department: a retrospective multicentric study. Eur J
Emerg Med 2020; 27:447.
61. Hasbun R. Progress and Challenges in Bacterial Meningitis: A Review. JAMA 2022; 328:2147.
62. Cao LJ, Zheng YM, Li F, et al. Varicella-zoster virus meningitis with hypoglycorrhachia: A
case report. World J Clin Cases 2023; 11:7101.
63. Kincaid JE. Hypoglycorrhachia with viral meningitis, probably lymphocytic choriomeningitis.
Mich Med 1967; 66:966.
64. Cintado Bueno C, Aguilera Llovet MA, Menéndez Ruiz M, et al. [Hypoglycorrhachia in
mumps meningitis (author's transl)]. An Esp Pediatr 1978; 11:547.
65. Singer JI, Maur PR, Riley JP, Smith PB. Management of central nervous system infections
during an epidemic of enteroviral aseptic meningitis. J Pediatr 1980; 96:559.
66. Mikati MA, Krishnamoorthy KS. Hypoglycorrhachia in neonatal herpes simplex virus
meningoencephalitis. J Pediatr 1985; 107:746.
67. Fernandez M, Moylett EH, Noyola DE, Baker CJ. Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year
review. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31:458.
68. Saraya AW, Wacharapluesadee S, Petcharat S, et al. Normocellular CSF in herpes simplex
encephalitis. BMC Res Notes 2016; 9:95.
69. Soares CN, Cabral-Castro MJ, Peralta JM, et al. Review of the etiologies of viral meningitis
and encephalitis in a dengue endemic region. J Neurol Sci 2011; 303:75.
70. Chen JH, Wu J, Yang XY, et al. Diagnostic Value of the Electroencephalogram and
Cerebrospinal Fluid in Viral Encephalitis. Neurologist 2022; 27:225.
71. Nizam A, Sivakumar K, Yacoub H. Froin Syndrome, a Rare Complication of Multiple
Myeloma. Neurologist 2021; 26:83.
72. Garispe A, Naji H, Dong F, et al. Froin's Syndrome Secondary to Traumatic and Infectious
Etiology. Cureus 2019; 11:e6313.
73. Mantese CE, Lubini R. Froin's syndrome with tuberculosis myelitis and spinal block. Rev
Assoc Med Bras (1992) 2022; 68:10.
74. Decramer T, Wouters A, Kiekens C, Theys T. Froin Syndrome After Spinal Cord Injury. World
Neurosurg 2019; 127:490.
75. Langenbruch L, Wiendl H, Groß C, Kovac S. Diagnostic utility of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
findings in seizures and epilepsy with and without autoimmune-associated disease. Seizure
2021; 91:233.
76. Süße M, Gag K, Hamann L, et al. Time dependency of CSF cell count, lactate and blood-CSF
barrier dysfunction after epileptic seizures and status epilepticus. Seizure 2022; 95:11.
77. Zisimopoulou V, Mamali M, Katsavos S, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis after unprovoked
first seizure. Funct Neurol 2016; 31:101.
78. Bihan K, Weiss N, Théophile H, et al. Drug-induced aseptic meningitis: 329 cases from the
French pharmacovigilance database analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2019; 85:2540.
79. Auriel E, Regev K, Korczyn AD. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs exposure and the
central nervous system. Handb Clin Neurol 2014; 119:577.
80. Bruner KE, Coop CA, White KM. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-induced aseptic
meningitis-not just another sulfa allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2014; 113:520.
81. Agabawi S. Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole-Induced Aseptic Meningitis: A Rare
Presentation of Commonly Used Antibiotic. Case Rep Infect Dis 2019; 2019:4289502.
82. Turk VE, Šimić I, Makar-Aušperger K, Radačić-Aumiler M. Amoxicillin-induced aseptic
meningitis: case report and review of published cases . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2016;
54:716.
83. Creel GB, Hurtt M. Cephalosporin-induced recurrent aseptic meningitis. Ann Neurol 1995;
37:815.
84. Orbach H, Katz U, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse effects and
safe administration. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2005; 29:173.
85. Nettis E, Calogiuri G, Colanardi MC, et al. Drug-induced aseptic meningitis. Curr Drug
Targets Immune Endocr Metabol Disord 2003; 3:143.
86. Wang DY, Chong WS, Pan JY, Heng YK. First Case Report of Aseptic Meningitis Induced by
Adalimumab Administered for Treatment of Chronic Plaque Psoriasis. J Investig Allergol
Clin Immunol 2017; 27:183.
87. Shah R, Shah M, Bansal N, Manocha D. Infliximab-induced aseptic meningitis. Am J Emerg
Med 2014; 32:1560.e3.
88. Oishi K, Nakao M, Maeda S, et al. A case of aseptic meningitis without neck rigidity
occurring in a metastatic melanoma patient treated with ipilimumab. Eur J Dermatol 2017;
27:193.
89. Stein MK, Summers BB, Wong CA, et al. Meningoencephalitis Following Ipilimumab
Administration in Metastatic Melanoma. Am J Med Sci 2015; 350:512.
90. Simms KM, Kortepeter C, Avigan M. Lamotrigine and aseptic meningitis. Neurology 2012;
78:921.
91. Boot B. Recurrent lamotrigine-induced aseptic meningitis. Epilepsia 2009; 50:968.
92. Dang CT, Riley DK. Aseptic meningitis secondary to carbamazepine therapy. Clin Infect Dis
1996; 22:729.
93. Patel M, Atyani A, Salameh JP, et al. Safety of Intrathecal Administration of Gadolinium-
based Contrast Agents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Radiology 2020; 297:75.
94. Bensmail D, Peskine A, Denys P, et al. Aseptic meningitis after intrathecal baclofen injection.
Spinal Cord 2006; 44:330.
95. Codipietro L, Maino P. Aseptic arachnoiditis in a patient treated with intrathecal morphine
infusion: symptom resolution on switch to ziconotide. Neuromodulation 2015; 18:217.
96. Chauvet E, Moineuse C, Navaux F, et al. Pseudo-septic meningeal reaction after intradural
glucocorticoid therapy for sciatica. Joint Bone Spine 2002; 69:95.
97. Zarrouk V, Vassor I, Bert F, et al. Evaluation of the management of postoperative aseptic
meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:1555.
Topic 1285 Version 37.0
GRAPHICS
Comparison between the structure of the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) and the blood-CSF barrier. (A) BBB
separates the lumen of the brain capillaries from the brain parenchyma. The main contribution to the
BBB property of reduced permeability comes from the tight junctions (drawn in violet) among endothelial
cells lining the capillaries. The so-called neurovascular unit also comprises the pericytes, a basement
membrane surrounding both pericytes and endothelial cells and astrocyte end-feet processes from
nearby astrocytes. As well as the undisputed role of the tight junctions in sealing the interendothelial
cleft, all the elements of the neurovascular unit are likely to contribute to some extent to the augmented
selectivity of the BBB. That said, their role is still controversial; (B) The Blood-CSF barrier is found in the
choroid plexus of each ventricle of the brain. Unlike the endothelium in the brain parenchyma, capillaries
of the choroid plexus have no tight junctions and are fenestrated. However, the choroid plexus is
delimited overall by a monolayer of tight-junctioned epithelial cells. This particular epithelium is in direct
continuity with the ependymal layer lining the ventricle, though the rest of the ependymal layer is much
more permeable. Therefore, unlike the BBB, the blood-CSF barrier is located at epithelial level, while
capillaries are relatively leaky and permeable to small molecules, thus allowing, among other processes,
the rapid delivery of water through the bloodstream to the surrounding epithelial cells for CSF
production in the choroid plexus. Similarly, to what can be found in other tissues of the body, also in the
choroid plexus pericytes and a basement membrane wrap around the endothelial cells. Although in
principle both the barriers serve the same defensive purpose for the CNS, their distinct structure allows
the interchange of different substances between bloodstream and brain.
From: D'Agata F, Ruffinatti FA, Boschi S, et al. Magnetic Nanoparticles in the central nervous system: Targeting principles,
applications and safety issues. Molecules 2017; 23:9. Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Available at: [Link]
3049/23/1/9 (Accessed on April 1, 2024). Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0.
The two cells seen in this figure are carcinoma cells that establish the diagnosis of leptomeningeal
metastases.
Sex, a
Antibody Likely Frequency
Neurologic related
(alternative pathogenic of cancer Usual tumors
phenotypes oth
name) mechanism (%)
specifi
* Antibodies to mGluR2 are not listed as there is an insufficient number of cases to determine risk of
cancer association.
Adapted from: Graus F, Vogrig A, Muñiz-Castrillo S, et al. Updated diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes.
Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2021; 8:e1014. Copyright © The Authors. Available at:
[Link] (Accessed on March 28, 2022). Adapted under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0.
Infectious causes
Noninfectious causes
* Etiologies reported to cause severe hypoglycorrhachia, generally defined as cerebrospinal fluid glucose
level ≤10 mg/dL.
Original figure modified for this publication. Chow E, Troy SB. The differential diagnosis of hypoglycorrhachia in adult patients. Am
J Med Sci 2014; 348:186. Table used with the permission of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Gram stain of cerebrospinal fluid (x1000) shows inflammatory cells and gram-positive diplococci.
Streptococcus pneumoniae grew from this specimen.
Gram stain of cerebrospinal fluid (×1000) shows inflammatory cells and kidney-shaped, gram-negative
diplococci (arrows). Neisseria meningitidis grew from this specimen.
Gram stain of cerebrospinal fluid (x1000) shows inflammatory cells and small, gram-positive rods and
coccobacilli. Culture of this specimen revealed moderate-sized beta-hemolytic colonies composed of
small, motile gram-positive rods, confirmed to be Listeria monocytogenes.
Gram stain of cerebrospinal fluid (x1000) shows inflammatory cells and small, pleomorphic, gram-
negative coccobacilli. Haemophilus influenzae grew from this specimen.
Gram stain of cerebrospinal fluid (x1000) shows likely yeast forms, a few with cell walls and budding.
These forms can be confused with host cells on Gram stain and are more easily identified by India ink.
The most definitive procedures are testing for cryptococcal antigen and culture. Cryptococcus neoformans
grew from this specimen.
Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these are
addressed by vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for references to be
provided to support the content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all authors and must
conform to UpToDate standards of evidence.