Genómica de Xanthomonas en Prunus spp.
Genómica de Xanthomonas en Prunus spp.
Tesis Doctoral
Licenciado en Biología
2016
Departamento de Biotecnología
Tesis Doctoral
Autor
Licenciado en Biología
Director Directora
Presidente
Secretario
Vocal
Vocal
Vocal
Suplente
Suplente
Calificación:
El Presidente El Secretario
Los Vocales
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A Olga Cecilia, José Ángel y Andrés
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“All in all it`s just another brick in the Wall”
(Pink Floyd)
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Reconocimientos
Para este estudio se contó además con la colaboración del Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA) y del Centro de Investigación y Tecnología
Agroalimentaria de Aragón (CITA).
Jerson M. Garita Cambronero, contó para el desarrollo de esta tesis con un contrato de
Formación de Profesorado Universitario (FPU 1000/2012), financiado por el Ministerio
de Educación, Cultura y Deporte del Gobierno de España.
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Agradecimientos
Agradezco al Dr. Jaime Cubero Dabrio y a la Dra. María M. López González por
haberme dado la oportunidad de formar parte de sus grupos de investigación, así como
el haber aceptado dirigir este trabajo. Gracias además por haber compartido su
conocimiento, experiencia y amistad conmigo durante estos años. No tengo palabras
para expresar todo mi agradecimiento. Gracias infinitas.
A Ana Palacio-Bielsa por su amistad, toda su ayuda y su aporte en este trabajo, además
por todas las críticas constructivas y la información que me ha dado durante todos estos
años.
A mis compañeros de laboratorio y amigos, Elisa, Gema, Maite, Marta, Cristina, Pilar,
Iray, Ana y Carlos. Gracias por vuestra compañía y por echarme una mano siempre que
lo necesité en todo aspecto, incluso en lo personal, además por las discusiones y aportes
que siempre ayudaron a que mi vida y trabajo mejorara. Qué habría sido de mi sin
vosotros?.
A mi familia costarricense, Olga, José, Angie, Stuarth y Lubin por las palabras de
ánimo y muestras de cariño que siempre me dieron desde el otro lado del mundo.
A Miguel Cambra e Iabel Berruete, por su amistad y por toda la ayuda que me dieron
durante este trabajo. Por enseñarme la enfermedad en campo, por las fotos de los
síntomas y por enviarme las cepas y estar pendientes de echarme una mano siempre que
lo necesité.
A Pablo López y Javier Peñalver por su amistad y ayuda con las cepas usadas del IVIA
y por la información de las mismas.
A mis colegas y amigos de la Universidad de Costa Rica Axel, Vanessa y Ethel, gracias
por estar siempre pendientes de mí y brindarme su ayuda y amistad.
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Al sistema de educación pública del gobierno de Costa Rica y del Gobierno de España
quienes han permitido que hasta este momento haya podido estudiar toda mi vida
gracias a un sistema de educación gratuito y a diversas becas durante mi formación
universitaria y de posgrado.
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Principales abreviaturas
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MLVA: Análisis del número variable de secuencias repetidas en tandem en multiples
loci ("Moltilocus variable-number tandem repeats analysis")
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Tabla de Contenido
Reconocimientos ...................................................................................ix
Agradecimientos ...................................................................................xi
Principales abreviaturas .................................................................xiii
Resumen....................................................................................................xxi
Abstract...................................................................................................xxiv
Capítulo 1: Introducción............................................................................1
1.1 Descripción y Diversidad en el género Xanthomonas 4
1.2 Mecanismos Asociados al Desarrollo de Enfermedad en
Xanthomonas ..........................................................................................7
1.3 Mecanismos Iniciales de Infección en Xanthomonas 8
1.3.1 Adherencia al tejido vegetal y formación de biopelículas...........................8
1.3.2 Adhesinas fimbrilares y no fimbrilares asociadas a la adherencia
bacteriana................................................................................................................11
1.3.3 El pilus tipo IV y su relación con la adherencia y motilidad bacteriana. 12
1.3.4 Adhesinas no fimbrilares y otros componentes asociados a la adherencia
y formación de biopelículas bacterianas..............................................................14
1.3.5 Sistemas bacterianos de quorum sensing....................................................15
1.3.6 Otros sistemas sensores asociados a la percepción bacteriana de las
condiciones ambientales.........................................................................................18
1.3.7 La quimiotáxis como mecanismo de respuesta ambiental y su relación
con el movimiento celular......................................................................................21
1.3.8 Estructura y función del flagelo bacteriano................................................23
1.3.9 Tipos de movimiento bacteriano relacionados con el flagelo....................26
1.4 Sistemas de secreción y proteínas efectoras asociadas a
procesos tardíos de infección en Xanthomonas ..........................30
1.4.1 Sistema bacteriano de secreción tipo II.......................................................31
1.4.2 Sistema bacteriano de secreción tipo III.....................................................33
1.4.3 Sistema Bacteriano de secreción tipo IV.....................................................39
1.4.4 Sistemas bacteriano de secreción tipo V.....................................................42
1.4.5 Sistema bacteriano de secreción tipo VI.....................................................44
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enfermedad en diversos grupos de plantas de interés
económico .............................................................................................46
1.5.1 Descripción de la especie X. arboricola........................................................46
1.5.2 Diversidad genética de X. arboricola...........................................................46
1.5.3 Factores de virulencia de X. arboricola.......................................................48
1.5.4 Xanthomonas arboricola pv. corylina: agente causal de la podredumbre
bacteriana del avellano..........................................................................................49
1.5.5 Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis: Agente causal de la podredumbre
bacteriana, la necrosis apical y la chancrosis del nogal......................................51
1.5.6 Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni: agente causal de la mancha
bacteriana en frutales del género Prunus.............................................................54
1.5.7 Diversidad genética y estructura poblacional.............................................54
1.5.8 Interacción huésped-patógeno-ambiente en el contexto de la mancha
bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y el almendro...............................................56
[Link] El patógeno.................................................................................................56
[Link] El huésped...................................................................................................57
[Link] El ambiente.................................................................................................60
1.5.9 Distribución geográfica e impacto económico de X. arboricola pv. pruni:
................................................................................................................................. 61
1.5.10 Sintomatología asociada a la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del
género Prunus.........................................................................................................63
1.5.11 Epidemiología de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género
Prunus......................................................................................................................65
1.5.12 Diagnóstico y control de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género
Prunus......................................................................................................................66
1.5.13 Condición fitosanitaria de X. arboricola pv. pruni...................................70
Capítulo 2: Secuenciación y características generales del genoma de
cinco cepas de X. arboricola aisladas de Prunus spp. en España.......71
2.1 Introducción......................................................................................................73
2.2 Draft genome sequence of Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni strain Xap33,
causal agent of bacterial spot disease on almond................................................78
2.2.1 Abstract..........................................................................................................78
2.2.2 Genome announcement.........................................................78
2.2.3 Nucleotide sequence accession numbers..............................79
2.2.4 Acknowledgments..................................................................79
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2.3 Draft genome sequence for virulent and avirulent strains of Xanthomonas
arboricola isolated from Prunus spp. in Spain.....................................................81
2.3.1 Abstract..........................................................................................................81
2.3.2 Keywords.......................................................................................................81
2.3.3 Introduction...................................................................................................81
2.3.4 Organism information..................................................................................83
2.3.4 Genome sequencing information.................................................................87
2.3.5 Genome properties........................................................................................89
2.3.6 Insights from the genome sequence.............................................................92
2.3.7 Conclusions....................................................................................................94
2.3.8 Acknowledgements........................................................................................94
2.4 Draft genome sequence of two strains of Xanthomonas arboricola isolated
from Prunus persica which are dissimilar to strains that cause bacterial spot
disease on Prunus spp............................................................................................95
2.4.1 Abstract..........................................................................................................95
2.4.2 Genome announcement................................................................................95
2.4.3 Accession numbers........................................................................................96
2.4.4 Acknowledgments.........................................................................................97
Capítulo 3: Comparación genómica y caracterización fenotípica de
cepas patógenas y no patógenas de X. arboricola revela aspectos
relacionados con el proceso de infección de la mancha bacteriana de
los frutales de hueso.................................................................................71
3.1 Abstract...........................................................................................................101
3.2 Introduction....................................................................................................101
3.3 Results.............................................................................................................103
3.3.1 Molecular characterization using multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA),
genome based phylogeny and genome comparison...........................................103
3.3.2 Carbon sources utilization and chemotaxis profile..................................107
3.3.3 Flagella, fimbrial and non-fimbrial adhesins associated with motility and
attachment in X. arboricola.................................................................................110
3.3.4 Pathogenicity tests and genomic components associated with late stages
of infection in Prunus-associated strains............................................................114
3.4 Discussion........................................................................................................118
3.5 Materials and Methods..................................................................................125
3.5.1 Bacterial strains and culture conditions...................................................125
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3.5.2 Multi Locus Sequence Analysis (MLSA)..................................................126
3.5.3 Genomic Analysis........................................................................................127
3.5.44 Carbon sources utilization analysis and environmental sensors profile 128
3.5.5 Chemotaxis assay and repertoire of methyl accepting chemotaxis
proteins..................................................................................................................129
3.5.6 Motility in solid and semisolid surfaces and surfactant activity.............130
3.5.6 Pathogenicity tests on Prunus spp.............................................................131
3.6 Acknowledgments..........................................................................................133
3.7 Author contributions.....................................................................................133
Capítulo 4: El análisis pan genómico ha permitido diferenciar cepas
no patógenas y patógenas de Xanthomonas arboricola que cohabitan
en Prunus spp. así como elucidar los factores de la virulencia
bacteriana................................................................................................101
4.1 Abstract...........................................................................................................137
4.2 Introducción....................................................................................................138
4.3 Materials and Methods..................................................................................139
4.3.1 1 Bacterial strains and classification using multilocus sequence analysis 139
4.3.2 Study of the type III secretion system and type III effectors gene
repertory...............................................................................................................144
4.3.3 Pathogenicity tests.......................................................................................145
4.3.4 Genome sequencing and comparison........................................................146
4.3.5 A molecular tool to differentiate X. arboricola pv. pruni from atypical
strains of X. arboricola associated with Prunus spp..........................................149
4.3.6 Specificity of the real-time PCR test..........................................................149
4.3.7 Sensitivity of the real-time PCR test..........................................................150
4.4 Results.............................................................................................................151
4.4.1Characterization of atypical strains of X. arboricola associated with
Prunus spp.............................................................................................................151
4.4.2 T3SS and T3Es repertoire in Xap-look-a-like strains:.............................152
4.4.3 Pathogenicity of the Xap-look-a-like strains.............................................153
General features of whole genomes of X. arboricola strains CITA 14 and
4.4.4
CITA 124:.............................................................................................................155
4.4.5 Genes associated with pathogenicity in X. arboricola strains..................159
4.4.6 The real-time PCR test for xopE3 permitted to differentiate Xap from
atypical strains of X. arboricola isolated on Prunus spp...................................163
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4.5 Discussion........................................................................................................165
4.6 Acknowledgments..........................................................................................173
Capítulo 5: Discusión general...............................................................136
Capítulo 6: Conclusiones.......................................................................136
Bibliografía..................................................................................................1
Material Suplementario..........................................................................136
Material suplementario, capítulo 3.....................................................................227
Material suplementario, capítulo 4.....................................................................230
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Resumen
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Además, la comparación de los diferentes genomas permitió encontrar diferencias en los
genes relacionados con mecanismos implicados en los estados iniciales de la infección,
tales como transportadores TonB-dependientes (TBDTs), sensores del sistema regulador
de dos componentes (STCRs) y proteínas aceptoras de grupos metilo (MCPs).
Asimismo, se observó en el patovar pruni la presencia de adhesinas no fimbrilares,
como FhaB2, que no estaban presentes en las cepas no patógenas. De la misma manera,
se encontró variación en cuanto al contenido de genes asociados al pilus tipo IV entre
ambos grupos bacterianos.
Respecto a la estructura del flagelo, tanto las cepas patógenas como las no patógenas
presentaron el mismo perfil en aquellos genes relacionados con su estructura y
biogénesis, sin embargo, se observó un cambio en la secuencia de aminoácidos de la
proteína flagelina de X. arboricola pv. pruni, la cual podría estar relacionada con la
respuesta de la bacteria frente a los mecanismos de defensa de la planta.
Se seleccionó además el gen xopE3, que solamente está presente en el patovar pruni y
se desarrolló un protocolo de PCR tiempo real que permitió aumentar la especificidad
del protocolo de diagnóstico para la mancha bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y el
almendro, al permitir diferenciar de manera específica y sensible las cepas causantes de
la enfermedad de aquellas cepas no patógenas que cohabitan los frutales del género
Prunus.
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Este estudio ha permitido conocer una serie de componentes genéticos que podrían estar
asociados con el desarrollo de la enfermedad de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del
género Prunus. De la misma manera ha permitido profundizar en el conocimiento sobre
la diversidad biológica de X. arboricola y ha generado datos que pueden marcar las
pautas de cómo ha podido ser la evolución de la patogenicidad y especificidad de
huésped en esta especie de bacterias. Los datos generados han permitido además el
desarrollo de un nuevo método de diagnóstico de esta enfermedad más preciso basado
en PCR en tiempo real.
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Abstract
In this work, a group of Spanish strains of X. arboricola, isolated from Prunus spp. has
been characterized using molecular and phenotypic approaches. An initial molecular
characterization, conducted by using a multilocus sequence type analysis, determined
that there were two groups of strains that cohabited in these hosts. The first one was
composed by strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni and the second one by atypical strains
that did not belong to any of the nine well-stablished pathovars of X. arboricola. In
addition, according to the phenotypic analysis, none of the atypical strains were able to
cause disease on Prunus spp.
Based on these results, two pathogenic strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni, CITA 33 and
IVIA 2626.1, isolated from peach and plum respectively, and three non-pathogenic
strains of X. arboricola, CITA 14, isolated from P. mahaleb and CITA 44 and CITA
124, both isolated from peach, were selected for whole genome sequencing. The
genome comparative analysis of these strains permitted to find those genomic characters
that could be associated with the development of bacterial spot disease of stone fruits
and almond.
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Additionally, according to the gene content comparison, variants in the genes related to
the different stages of the disease process were found. For instance, both groups showed
a different repertoire of genes associated with the sensing of the environmental stimuli,
such as those related to the Ton-B dependent transporters (TBDTs), the sensors of the
two-component regulatory system (STCRs) and the methyl accepting chemotaxis
proteins (MCPs). Beside this, in X. arboricola pv. pruni, some non-fimbrial adhesins,
like FhaB2, as well as some components related to the type IV pilus that were absent in
the non-pathogenic strains, were found.
According to the gene content associated with the flagella structure and regulation, no
differences among gene profile of both groups of organisms were elucidated, however,
in the pathovar pruni, a variant in the flagellin protein sequence. This variant could be
associated with the ability of this bacterial group to avoid the initial steps of the plant
defence process.
In the same way, variations in the gene content of some key characters related to late
stages of the disease process were found. One of the differences was the dissimilar
profile of cell wall degrading enzymes between pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains.
Moreover, the most important difference observed between these two groups was found
in the gene content associated with the type III secretion system and its related effectors.
Plant pathogenic strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni harboured all the genetic
components related to the structure and regulation of the type III secretion system as
well as in a repertoire of 21 type III effectors. Nevertheless, non-pathogenic strains
CITA 44 and CITA 124 did not harbour this secretion system or none of the type III
effectors described in Xanthomonas. In the case of the non-pathogenic strain CITA 14,
this contained all the genes related to a functional type three secretion system but a
reduced profile of effectors composed by only six genes was determined.
In addition, the gene xopE3, which is present only in X. arboricola pv pruni, was
selected and used to design a real-timer PCR protocol which permitted to improve the
specificity of the available protocol to identify the bacteria associated to the spot disease
of stone fruit and almond. This protocol allowed to perform a specific and sensitive
differentiation of the disease-associated strains from those non-pathogenic strains that
cohabited on Prunus spp.
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This study provides a global overview of the genetic components that could be
associated with the development of the bacterial spot disease of Prunus. At the same
time, it reveals new insights in some other elements of the biology of this bacterial
group such as its biological diversity and the potential process associated with the
evolution of pathogenicity and host specificity. All the data generated in this
investigation has also permitted to develop a new and more accurate real time PCR
diagnostic tool for this disease.
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Capítulo 1: Introducción
El dominio Bacteria está conformado por organismos unicelulares procariotas, con una
membrana compuesta por lípidos, predominantemente diésteres de diacilglicerol y con
ribosomas que contienen un ARN ribosomal (ARNr) de tipo eubacteriano (Woese et al.,
1990; Winker & Woese, 1991). Estos organismos son ubicuos, altamente abundantes y
no solo contribuyen al flujo de nutrientes en el planeta, sino que además constituyen una
proporción significativa de los nutrientes existentes en la biomasa viva. Debido a que
los estudios sobre bacterias se han basado principalmente en aquellas que son
cultivables, solamente se conoce aproximadamente el 1% de su diversidad total, que se
especula podría alcanzar los 10 billones de especies. Recientemente, y como
consecuencia de los estudios de metagenómica se ha avanzado considerablemente en el
conocimiento sobre la diversidad taxonómica y metabólica de estos organismos en el
ecosistema (Horner-Devine et al., 2004; Xu, 2006).
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existen descritos al menos 39 géneros bacterianos que contienen organismos patógenos
en huéspedes vegetales, destacando dentro de estos como los más diversos, los géneros
Pseudomonas y Xanthomonas.
Las bacterias de este género no son capaces de crecer en un pH menor a 4,5 y su rango
de crecimiento se encuentra entre los 4 y los 37 ºC (Vauterin et al., 1995). Su
crecimiento se ve inhibido a concentraciones de NaCl superiores al 6% y de glucosa al
30%, así como al 0,01% de verde de metilo, 0,01% de tionina, 0,01% de acetato, 0,1%
de trifenitetrazólio cloruro. Los miembros de este género suelen ser susceptibles a la
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eritromicina y a la tetraciclina. Producen espermidina en cantidades detectables y
algunas cepas además cadaverina. Por último, el género Xanthomonas contiene nueve
ácidos grasos, de los cuales tres, el 11:0 iso, el 11:0 iso 3OH y el 13:0 iso 3OH son
característicos del género, por lo que son utilizados para su diferenciación de otros
grupos bacterianos (Vauterin et al., 1995).
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utilizado hoy en día por la dificultad que aún entraña la obtención de genomas
completos, pero sin duda en un futuro se convertirá en una metodología de gran
importancia.
Las diversas cepas descritas dentro del género Xanthomonas, presentan como
característica su restringida gama de huéspedes (Jacques et al., 2016). Además se han
descrito grupos sub-infraespecíficos con una gama de huésped aún más limitada, la cual
en algunos casos como en X. oryzae, llega a presentarse a nivel de tejido dentro del
mismo huésped (Niño-Liu et al., 2006). Se ha creado una clasificación basada en el
término patovar, término que según “The Committee on the Taxonomy of Plant
Pathogenic Bacteria” (Vauterin et al., 2000), se refiere a una cepa o un grupo de cepas
con características fenotípicas similares y diferentes a nivel sub-infraespecífico de otras
cepas de la misma especie o subespecie, que presentan una patogenicidad distinta en
una o más plantas huésped. Actualmente, se han descrito patovares en al menos 14
especies de Xanthomonas, las cuales contienen entre dos (X. alfalfae, X. gardneri, X.
melonis y X. sacchari) y 56 (X. axonopodis) patovares (Jacques et al., 2016).
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Al caracterizar estas cepas, se ha observado que forman parte de poblaciones
heterogéneas y muchas de ellas no pueden ser clasificadas en ninguna de las categorías
taxonómicas existentes en este género, constatándose la amplia diversidad de este grupo
bacteriano hasta ahora subestimada (Vauterin et al., 1996; Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015;
Jacques et al., 2016).
Los daños que las bacterias del género Xanthomonas producen en el huésped, se
manifiestan en gran variedad de síntomas, entre los que se incluyen chancros, pústulas,
podredumbres, manchas y estriados foliares, marchitez, hipertrofia, hiperplasia e incluso
la muerte del huésped (Ryan et al., 2011; Jacques et al., 2016).
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penetrando por aperturas naturales, tipo estomas, hidátodos, lenticelas y nectarios o a
través de heridas. Una vez en la zona del apoplasto, las bacterias utilizan una serie de
sistemas de secreción para liberar enzimas degradadoras, fitotoxinas y proteínas
efectoras que desempeñan diversas funciones asociadas a la patogénesis. Durante todo
este proceso, las bacterias deben de enfrentar y superar los sistemas de defensa con los
que cuenta la planta.
Las bacterias fitopatógenas, y entre ellas las del género Xanthomonas, producen gran
cantidad de polisacáridos extracelulares, que pueden estar formados por un solo tipo de
carbohidrato o por complejos de varios azúcares ordenados en unidades repetidas
(Denny, 1995). En Xanthomonas, es especialmente importante y característica la
producción del xanthano. Estructuralmente, este compuesto está formado por una
columna vertebral de unidades de D-glucosa unidas entre sí mediante enlaces β-1,4; a
esta columna vertebral se unen cadenas laterales formadas por manosa-(β-1,4)-ácido
glucurónico-(β-1,2)-manosa. Dichas cadenas laterales se unen de manera alterna a los
residuos de glucosa que conforman la columna vertebral por medio de enlaces α-1,3.
Los residuos de manosa están acetilados y piruvilados en sitios específicos (Figura 1)
(Dunger et al., 2007; Hamman, 2010). La síntesis, la polimerización y la secreción de
este polisacárido extracelular se lleva a cabo mediante un operón conformado por 12
genes denominados genes gum (gumB-gumM), los cuales están altamente conservados
entre las diferentes especies del género (Dunger et al., 2007).
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Figura 1. A) Estructura química del xanthano (Hamman, 2010). B) representación esquemática del
operón gum de la especie X. campestris (Da Silva et al., 2001).
Además, al igual que todas las bacterias Gram negativas contienen como parte de su
membrana externa una capa de lipopolisacáridos, compuestos de un lípido A y un
núcleo de polisacáridos que contiene en su extremo unidades de antígeno O (Hori &
Matsumoto, 2010). En Xanthomonas los lipopolisacáridosestos están generalmente
compuestos de ácido urónico, glucosa, manosa y 2-keto-3-dioxitanato, y además
contienen fosfato orgánico y carbohidratos adicionales como ramnosa, xilosa, fucosa y
galactosa, en algunas de las especies del género (Volk, 1966). La biosíntesis de
lipopolisacáridos en X. campestris pv. campestris está asociada a 15 genes (Vorhölter et
al., 2001), cuyo porcentaje de identidad varía entre las diferentes especies del género.
Dicha variación puede estar asociada a la patogenicidad y gama de huésped a través del
antígeno O del lipopolisacárido, específico para cada patovar o cepa y con una de sus
funciones descrita como barrera en contra de las toxinas vegetales (da Silva et al., 2002;
Patil et al., 2007) (Figura 2).
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Figura 2. A) Representación esquemática de la estructura del lipopolisacárido de X. citri subsp. citri
(Casabuono et al., 2011). B) Representación esquemática de la organización del cluster de genes
asociados a la biosíntesis de lipopolisacáridos en X. campestris pv. campestris (Vorhölter et al., 2001).
Ambos tipos de polisacáridos extracelulares junto con algunos apéndices proteicos son
los responsables de la unión de las bacterias con las superficies apropiadas (Hori &
Matsumoto, 2010). Los polisacáridos extracelulares se asocian principalmente con la
formación de biopelículas o biofilms que son conglomerados de células inmovilizadas
en una matriz orgánica conformada por exopolímeros de origen microbiano, con los
polisacáridos, proteínas, lípidos y ácidos nucleicos como principales componentes
(Morris & Monier, 2003; Sena-Vélez et al., 2016) (Figura 3). En estas estructuras, los
polisacáridos extracelulares se encargan principalmente de generar matrices que
mantienen a las células unidas entre sí (Rigano et al., 2007; Hori & Matsumoto, 2010).
En las superficies vegetales, además de participar en la adherencia, las biopelículas
sirven para proteger a la población bacteriana de agentes externos adversos tales como
la desecación y la radiación, así como evitar la exposición a los compuestos de defensa
generados por el huésped o por otro tipo de agentes antimicrobianos. Las biopelículas a
la vez son estructuras en las que se potencia el intercambio genético entre las células
que lo conforman (Morris & Monier, 2003). En X. citri subsp. citri se ha determinado
que la mutación de los genes wzt y rfb303, asociados con la biosíntesis del
lipopolisacárido, da lugar a una mayor sensibilidad de la población bacteriana a agentes
externos, tales como el peróxido de hidrógeno y agentes detergentes como el SDS.
Asimismo, se asoció a un fenotipo en la cepa mutante caracterizado principalmente por
presentar una disminución en la adhesión y la formación de biopelículas (Petrocelli et
al., 2012).
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Figura 3. Representación esquemática de la estructura de una biopelícula y de las diferentes etapas que
llevan a su formación en X. fuscans subsp. aurantifolii. 1) y 2) Acceso de la bacteria a la superficie y
adhesión inicial causada por polisacáridos, apéndices adhesivos y adhesinas secretadas, 3) y 4)
Adherencia irreversible y formación de una biopelícula madura, etapas llevadas a cabo principalmente
por polisacáridos extracelulares, flagelo, estructuras tipo pili y DNA extracelular, 5) salida de la
biopelícula y paso de las células a fase planctónica, dirigida principalmente por cambios ambientales
percibidos por las células bacterianas que forman parte de la matriz (Moreira et al., 2010; Kostakioti et
al., 2013).
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la membrana externa celular o bien ser liberadas por procesos no activos como la lisis
celular. De los nueve sistemas de secreción descritos en bacterias Gram negativas,
solamente el sistema de secreción tipo VI no ha sido asociado con la secreción de
proteínas involucradas en la adhesión bacteriana o a la formación de biopelículas
(Chagnot et al., 2013).
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Figura 4. A) Microfotografía de fuerza atómica que muestra el pilus tipo IV (señalado con una flecha
amarilla) de Xylella fastidiosa cepa Temecula. B) Representación esquemática de la estructura del pilus
tipo IV nombrando las proteínas estructurales mínimas necesarias para su formación. Las proteínas se
nombran según la nomenclatura utilizada para Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Burdman et al., 2011).
Los pili tipo IV, son estructuras delgadas (5-8 nm de ancho), largas (varios micrómetros
de longitud), flexibles y extremadamente fuertes, formadas por miles de subunidades de
pilina. Estas proteínas, suelen variar entre especies, pero todas parecen conservar una
región N-terminal metilada, un residuo hidrofóbico en la posición 25 del extremo N-
terminal y un puente disulfuro en el extremo carboxilo-terminal. Las pilinas además,
según su secuencia de aminoácidos y su longitud, se dividen en los tipos IVa y IVb,
siendo el tipo IVa el que presentan las especies bacterianas Gram negativas que causan
enfermedad en las plantas (Craig et al., 2004).
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En el caso de Xanthomonas, estructuralmente, se conoce que junto con PilC, las
proteínas PilM, PilN, PilO y PilP, conforman una plataforma estructural en la
membrana interna en la cual se da el ensamblaje del filamento. Asimismo, se ha
determinado que en adición a PilA, otras pilinas menores pueden ser agregadas al
filamento. Estas pilinas modulan diversas características como la especificidad de la
adhesión, la longitud del filamento o el balance entre retracción y extensión de los pili.
Se ha determinado que el número de genes asociados a la formación del pilus tipo IV en
Xanthomonas se encuentra entre 23, en X. transluscens pv. undulosa y 31 en la mayor
parte de especies del género (Dunger et al., 2016).
Junto con las adhesinas fimbrilares, las adhesinas no fimbrilares actúan también en los
procesos de adhesión. A diferencia de las anteriores, las adhesinas no fimbrilares están
constituidas por una sola proteína y se ha propuesto que participan principalmente en la
adhesión inicial de las células bacterianas a la superficie y no en las etapas posteriores
de agregación celular (Das et al., 2009). Las adhesinas no fimbrilares se incluyen dentro
de los autotransportadores triméricos del sistema de secreción tipo V y como sustratos
del sistema de secreción de dos componentes (Büttner & Bonas, 2010).
Los estudios de genómica comparativa han encontrado variedad de genes que podrían
codificar proteínas asociadas con la adhesión superficial (da Silva et al., 2002; Moreira
et al., 2010). En Xanthomonas, se han realizado estudios funcionales principalmente en
las adhesinas FhaB, las homólogas a XadA, XadB y el ortólogo de la proteína YapH de
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Yersinia spp. Estos estudios, demuestran una variación en cuanto al papel que juegan
estas adhesinas en la virulencia; en X. oryzae pv. oryzae mutaciones en xadA y xadB
dan lugar a un disminución significativa de la capacidad de adhesión, penetración y
virulencia de las bacterias en el tejido foliar del arroz, mientras que mutantes en yapH
presentan solamente una disminución parcial en estas propiedades (Das et al. 2009). Sin
embargo, en X. fuscans subsp. fuscans, YapH parece jugar un papel primordial en la
capacidad de las bacterias para adherirse a superficies bióticas y abióticas así como para
la formación de biopelículas, mientras que mutaciones en los genes homólogos a xadA y
en el gen fhaB solo producen un fenotipo con una disminución parcial en la capacidad
de las células a adherirse a las semillas (Darsonval et al., 2009).
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es directamente proporcional al aumento en la densidad poblacional. Cuando el aumento
de los autoinductores alcanza el umbral mínimo estimulatorio la expresión génica de la
bacteria se ve alterada y esto se produce ante diversas condiciones ambientales. La
respuesta es desarrollada de manera sincronizada a nivel poblacional por lo que la
colonia bacteriana llega incluso a actuar como un organismo pluricelular (Waters &
Bassler, 2005).
En bacterias Gram negativas, los autoinductores más extendidos entre los diversos
grupos filogenéticos son los conocidos como homoserin lactonas. En el género
Xanthomonas sin embargo, se produce un autoinductor diferente, el cis-11-metil-2-
ácido dodecenoico, conocido también como factor de señalización difusible (DSF).
Todas las moléculas de este tipo son sintetizadas por la proteína RpfF, la cual se
encuentra codificada en el cluster génico rpfA-rpfG. Además del DSF, en X. campestris
pv. campestris, se ha identificado la presencia de otro factor difusible denominado DF,
el cual está asociado al gen pigB. Ambos factores de señalización se encuentran
ampliamente conservados y producidos en la mayor parte de las especies de este género
bacteriano (Papenfort & Bassler, 2016).
La producción de DSF por RpfF, está regulada por un sistema de dos componentes que
percibe y transduce la señal del DSF y que está compuesto por las proteínas RpfC y
RpfG (He & Zhang, 2008). En la señalización mediada por el DSF también juegan un
importante papel el mensajero secundario di-GMP cíclico y el regulador transcripcional
global Clp (Ryan et al., 2011; Srivastava & Waters, 2012). En X. campestris pv.
campestris, a niveles de baja densidad bacteriana y baja concentración de DSF, la
proteína RpfC (con actividad quinasa), interactúa con RpfF (DSF sintasa), lo cual
genera una disminución en la cantidad de DSF. A bajas poblaciones bacterianas, el
dominio REC de RpfG se encuentra desfosforilado, dando lugar a que el dominio HD-
GYP (encargado de degradar el di-GMP cíclico) se encuentre enzimáticamente inactivo,
provocando así que las concentraciones celulares del di-GMP cíclico sean altas. Por otro
lado, cuando la densidad poblacional aumenta, RpfC percibe el DSF se autofosforila y
se produce la liberación de RpfF, una vez liberada esta proteína se sintetiza más DSF.
Además, RpfC fosforila el dominio receptor de RpfG, generando en esta enzima la
activación del dominio HD-GYP, que degrada el di-GMP cíclico y reduce su
concentración a nivel celular. Esta reducción en la concentración del di-GMP cíclico
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estimula la activación de diversidad de procesos celulares, principalmente a través de la
transcripción del factor Clp (He & Zhang, 2008; Srivastava & Waters, 2012) (Figura 5).
La deleción del gen asociado a la producción de DSF, así como de los genes del sistema
de dos componentes, produce una reducción en la virulencia de X. campestris pv.
campestris. Por ejemplo, mutantes en rpfF ven alterada su expresión en 165 que son
considerados los genes “core” del regulón DSF. De éstos, el 80% ven aumentada su
expresión ante la presencia del DSF mientras que en el otro 20% la reprimen. Estos
genes se encuentran asociados al menos a 12 categorías funcionales, dentro de las cuales
destacan, en el ámbito de la patogénesis, aquellos relacionados con la producción de
enzimas extracelulares, la síntesis y secreción de lipopolisacáridos y polisacáridos
extracelulares, la biosíntesis del flagelo, la motilidad, la quimiotaxis, la respuesta
hipersensible y el sistema de secreción tipo III (He & Zhang, 2008).
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1.3.6 Otros sistemas sensores asociados a la percepción bacteriana de las
condiciones ambientales.
Además del sistema de dos componentes asociado con el fenómeno del quorum sensing,
las bacterias presentan otros sistemas de regulación de dos componentes, que son
esenciales para la percepción y adaptación de los microorganismos al ambiente. Estos
sistemas se encuentran muy conservados a través de los diversos grupos de organismos
y se caracterizan por tener una proteína perceptora con actividad histidin quinasa, y una
proteína reguladora citoplasmática que actúa como un factor de transcripción.
Estructuralmente, los sensores del sistema regulador de dos componentes, son por lo
general una proteína homodimérica integrada en la membrana cuyo dominio sensor se
encuentra contenido entre dos segmentos de la membrana, y un dominio transmisor que
se encuentra localizado en el citoplasma. Algunos de estos receptores histidin quinasa
presentan variaciones con respecto a esta estructura básica, pudiendo tener su dominio
incluido dentro de la membrana, o ser completamente citoplasmático (Cheung &
Hendrickson, 2010) (Figura 6).
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En el caso particular del género Xanthomonas, debido a la capacidad de las especies de
este género para adaptarse a gran variedad de ambientes, se ha sugerido que este grupo
cuenta con un amplio número de genes asociados a proteínas que interactúan en
sistemas reguladores de dos componentes. Estas observaciones han sido corroboradas
mediante la detección de dominios específicos, determinándose que en los genomas
disponibles se pueden encontrar al menos 632 genes hipotéticamente relacionados. A
nivel de genomas individuales, el número sigue siendo elevado ya que se han predicho
entre 92 y 121 genes (Qian et al., 2008).
Las bacterias, además de estos sensores, presentan otro grupo de proteínas de membrana
asociadas a la deteccion y transporte de quelatos de hierro (denominados sideróforos),
vitamina B12, complejos de níquel y carbohidratos. Este tipo de transportadores se
denominan transportadores TonB-dependientes. Este sistema, transporta sustancias de
manera activa para lo que utiliza como recurso energético el complejo proteíco TonB,
ExbB, ExbD, el cual se encuentra en la membrana interna. Desde el punto de vista
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estructural y funcional, todos los tranportadores tonB-dependientes presentan un
dominio N-terminal que se ubica dentro de un dominio del tipo barril beta ubicado en el
extremo C-terminal. Además, cerca del extremo N-terminal presenta una región
denominada caja TonB, la cual se sitúa hacia el periplasma pero se mantiene replegada
dentro del dominio barril beta en ausencia de ligando. Una vez se une el ligando a esta
región, se produce un cambio conformacional que expone la caja TonB, que
interacciona subsecuentemente con la proteín TonB, dándose así el transporte a través
de la membrana interna con ayuda de una proteína periplásmica de unión y un
transportador tipo ABC (Noinaj et al., 2010) (Figura 7).
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Arabidopsis thaliana, demostrando así la relación de estos transportadores con el
desarrollo de la enfermedad producida por X. campestris (Blanvillain et al., 2007).
Este tipo de asociación, además ha sido comprobado en X. citri subsp. citri, en la cual el
transportador TonB-dependiente XAC4131 ralentiza el desarrollo de la respuesta
hipersensible en tabaco. Asimismo, al ser la bacteria cultivada en medio inductor del
sistema de secreción tipo III (genes hrp), XAC4131, se controla indirectamente la
actividad del regulón hrpG a través de los genes rpoE y XAC4131 (Aini et al., 2010).
Por otro lado, al igual que en los sensores de dos componentes, el estudio comparativo
de la presencia de 27 transportadores TonB-dependientes, ha demostrado la existencia
de una gran variación a nivel de especie, e incluso a nivel de patovar, por lo que no se
descarta su asociación con la afinidad por un determinado huésped en los estadíos
iniciales de infección (Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011).
Desde el punto de vista estructural y funcional, las MCPs se han descrito como
homodímeros compuesto casi completamente por estructuras tipo alfa hélice (Wadhams
& Armitage, 2004). La estructura del dominio periplasmico de las MCPs suele ser muy
variable entre los diversos grupos bacterianos poseyendo además un amplio espectro de
ligandos que son detectados por estos quimiorreceptores. El proceso por el cual el
sistema quimiotáctico regula el movimiento bacteriano se inicia con la unión del
ligando al dominio periplasmico de la MCP, lo que altera las interacciones que se dan
entre las hélices transmembrana y permite propagar la señal a través de la membrana
bacteriana. En su región citoplasmática las MCPs se encuentran asociadas a dos
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proteínas CheA y CheW. La proteína CheW, cuya estructura y función está muy
conservada entre las distintas especies, es la encargada de transducir la señal entre la
MCP y la proteína CheA. CheA, que es un dímero que interactúa con 3 dímeros de la
MCP y dos dominios de CheW, tiene la capacidad de autofosforilarse y aumenta su
actividad en respuesta a la disminución de la unión quimioatrayente, o por un
incremento en la unión de un quimiorrepelente al sensor MCP.
A su vez, otras proteínas citosólicas CheY y CheB compiten por unirse aldominio P2 de
CheA generándose una casacada de fosforilación desde el residuo His48 de CheA al
residuo Asp57 de CheY o Asp56 de CheB. La fosforilación de CheY, que es más afin y
rápida que la de CheB, permite que esta interactue con la proteína FliM, que forma parte
del complejo proteico que conforma el motor flagelar. Esta unión da lugar a un
movimiento del flagelo en dirección de las manecillas del reloj y hace que la célula
realice un tumbo y cambie de dirección. Este proceso acaba con la señal de finalización
dada por la proteína CheZ la cual defosforila a CheY, por lo que la actividad de CheZ se
asocia directamente con la concentración del CheY fosforilado que haya en el
citoplasma (Figura 8).
Figura 8. Diagrama esquemático del sistema de quimiorrecepción de Escherichia coli (Wadhams &
Armitage, 2004).
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En el género Xanthomonas, la expresión de proteínas asociadas a quimiotáxis durante el
inicio de la infección ha sido estudiado en X. citri subsp. citri. En este caso se ha
comprobado la expresión de 26 protínas relacionadas a la quimiotáxis y 11 proteínas
relacionadas con la biogénesis y regulación del flagelo durante los primeros estadíos de
la infección. En cuanto a las MCPs, de las 21 proteínas predichas para este genoma,
solamente de dos no se demostrado su expresión. En relación a proteínas asociadas a la
transducción de la señal quimiotáctica, se ha detectado la expresión de CheA, CheB,
CheR, CheV, CheW, CheY y CheZ solamente cuando las bacterias son inoculadas en el
huésped. Este hecho demuestra que la maquinaria proteíca asociada a la respuesta
quimiotáctica es potenciada solamente cuando los sensores detectan determinados
metabolitos que son propios de la planta. Espor tanto un paso escencial para la
activación del flagelo en el espacio intercelular, y lleva a un proceso de colonización
más efectivo. Basado en el perfil proteómico a lo largo del tiempo, se ha observado una
activación previa adaptativa de las células mediante la expresión de las MCPs y la
posterior transducción de la señal por medio de las proteínas Che, lo que genera
seguidamente una expresión al unísono de los genes de regulación y actividad flagelar,
los genes asociados al pili tipo IV, la producción de xanthano y la secreción de efectores
del sistema de secreción tipo III (Moreira et al., 2015).
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disminuye la concentración de nutrientes el flagelo permite que células individuales
flageladas actúen como pioneras en busca de ambientes más favorables, potenciando la
formación de microcolonias.
El motor flagelar es la estructura proteica más compleja que se conoce en las células
bacterianas. Las proteínas que lo conforman abarcan desde el citoplasma hasta el
exterior de la célula, atravesando la membrana celular. El motor flagelar convierte el
flujo de iones que atraviesa la membrana citoplasmática en un torque que hace que el
flagelo rote, una rotación en contra del sentido de las manecillas del reloj permite a la
bacteria dirigirse hacia adelante, mientras que en sentido contrario permite a la célular
dar tumbos al azar que reorientan su dirección (Wadhams & Armitage, 2004).
El motor flagelar ha sido extensamente estudiado y se ha visto que está compuesto por
más de 20 proteínas que se organizan en varias estructuras (Chen et al., 2011), (Figura
9). La primera de éstas es el anillo M-S el cual se encuentra en la membrana interna y
esta formado solamente por la protína FliF. Seguidamente se encuentra el aparato
exportador que se encarga de exportar a través de la membrana las proteínas que
2
conforman la estructura tipo varilla, el garfio y el filamento. Este aparato consiste en
seis proteínas transmembrana (FlhA, FlhB, FliO, FliP, FliQ, FliR) y tres protéinas
solubles (FliH, FliI, FliJ). Alrededor del Anillo M-S y del aparato exportador se ubica el
anillo C, que se encuentra estructurado por las proteínas FliG, FliM y FLiN y está
asociado a la exportación, la generación del torque y el cambio en la dirección
rotacional. Seguidamente, en la parte superior del anillo S y actuando como un eje de
transmisión del torque desde el anillo M-S al garfio y al filamento, se encuentra la
estructura tipo varilla (“rod structure”), la cual está conformada por FliE, FlgB, FlgC,
FlgF y FlgG. Sobre esta estructura se encuentran los anillos L y P, que sirven como eje
de unión de la estructura a través de las capas de peptidoglicano y polisacárido
extracelular; las dos proteínas que lo conforman FlgH y FlgI son transportadas al
periplasma a trevés del sistema tipo Sec. Sobre el anillo C y rodeando el M-S se
encuentra el complejo iniciador, el cual junto con las proteínas del anillo C convierte el
flujo de H+ o Na+ en un torque que da energía al motor, este complejo está formado por
las proteínas MotA y MotB.
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Finalmente, el motor flagelar está unido al filamento mediante el garfio que se compone
de las proteínas FlgE, FlgD, FliK, FlgK y FlgL. Una vez que se han exportado las
proteínas de la estructura tipo varilla y del garfio, este último se va ensamblando y al
alcanzar un tamaño aproximado de 50 nm, se produce una interacción entre la proteína
del garfio FliK, que actúa como una vara de medir molecular, y la proteína del sistema
transportador FlhB, lo cual genera un cambio de afinidad del sistema transportador,
haciendo que sea más afin a la exportación de las proteínas FliC, FliD y FliM, que son
las que conforman el filamento del flagelo (Chevance & Hughes, 2008) (Figura 9).
Dentro de los diversos tipos de movimiento descritos en bacterais, dos de ellos están
asociados a la utilización del flagelo, el movimiento tipo “swimming” y el movimiento
tipo “swarming”.
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Figura 10. A) Representación esquemática del comportamiento de las células bacterianas de
Escherichia coli durante el proceso de movimiento tipo “swimming” (Terashima et al., 2008). B) Detalle
del fenotipo asociado al movimiento tipo swimming en medio de cultivo semisólido (medio MMA al
0,3% de Agar) de la bacteria Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Sena-Vélez et al., 2015).
Además del flagelo, para que se dé el movimiento tipo swarming, también son
requeridas la síntesis y secreción de sustancias surfactantes (surfactina, serrawetina ó
ramnolípidos) por parte de las células. Estas moléculas tienen como función reducir la
tensión entre la superficie y la célula, permitiendo así su propagación. La producción de
surfactantes está mediada por quorum sensing, por lo que son sintetizados y secretados
únicamente cuando hay una alta densidad poblacional bacteriana. En algunas bacterias
como E. coli, se ha observado la existencia de “swarming” pero no de sustancias
surfactantes, para estos casos, se ha comprobado que la misma actividad atribuida a
éstos es desarrollada de manera análoga por los lipopolisacáridos de la membrana
bacteriana (Kearns, 2010). En bacterias del género Pseudomonas, se ha demostrado que
además del flagelo y del surfactante es requerido el pilus tipo IV para realizar este tipo
de movimiento superficial (Kohler et al., 2000).
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demostrado que en Xanthomonas el regulador de la biosíntesis del flagelo es la proteína
FleQ. Bacterias mutantes en su gen codificante presentan fenotipos aflagelados y sin
capacidad de movimiento. La actividad reguladora de FleQ se ha comprobado
directamente sobre la expresión de los genes fliE, fliQ, fliL, flgG, flgB, flgH y flhF (Hu
et al., 2005).
Figura 11. A) diversos fenotipos de colonias bacterianas durante el movimiento tipo “swarming” (de
derecha a izquierda, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) (Kearns, 2010). B)
Diferenciación morfológica celular entre células de P. aeruginosa realizando movimiento tipo
“swarming” (izquierda) y células en fase estática (derecha) (Kohler et al., 2000).
Por otro lado, estudios desarrollados sobre una librería de 6000 mutantes de X. citri
subsp. citri, han permitido identificar que además de los genes asociados con la
estructura y biogénesis del flagelo, en esta especie, la mutación en 11 genes (XAC0019,
XAC0533, XAC0618, XAC0695, XAC0804, XAC1043, XAC1081, XAC1098,
XAC1495, XAC2113, XAC2583) produjo bacterias con fenotipos incapaces de
desarrollar movimiento tipo “swimming”, por lo que se deduce que son genes que
actúan de manera directa o indirecta sobre la funcionalidad del flagelo (Malamud et al.,
2013). Los estudios con mutantes han permitido determinar que la actividad flagelar en
X. oryzae pv. oryzae además de estar relacionada con los receptores ambientales tipo
MCP, también se asocia a otro tipo de estimulos ambientales, sistemas reguladores de
dos componentes conectados a otras actividades propias de la patogénesis en esta
2
especie como la producción de polisacáridos extracelulares. Estos sistemas de dos
componentes asociados a la regulación de la actividad del flagelo corresponden a los
relacionados con las proteínas RpfC/RpfG, PdeK/PdeR, ColS/ColR, StoS, SreK, SreR y
SreS (Zheng et al., 2016).
Por otra parte, el movimiento tipo swimming ha sido observado en varias especies de
Xanthomonas. Estudios recientes han revelado la existencia de variación en este
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fenotipo entre diversas cepas de la misma especie dependiendo de la gama de huésped
que las mismas presenten (Sena-Vélez et al., 2015). Es así, como para X. citri subsp.
citri, se ha descrito que en condiciones que asemejan el apoplásto de los cítricos,
aquellas cepas menos virulentas y con una gama de huésped restringida a lima mejicana
presentan mayor capacidad para moverse mediante este tipo de movimiento que
aquellas cepas más virulentas y con una gama de huésped más amplia.
El género Xanthomonas presenta al menos seis sistemas de secreción y dos vías por las
cuales se secretan enzimas degradadoras y proteínas efectoras al ambiente extracelular
(Büttner & Bonas, 2010).
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1.4.1 Sistema bacteriano de secreción tipo II.
Figura 12. Representación esquemática del sistema de secreción tipo II en bacterias Gram negativas, la
nomenclatura de las proteínas se basa en la vía general de secreción (Korotkov et al., 2012).
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posible debido a que en estas especies, este grupo de enzimas se puede secretar también
a través de vesículas de la membrana externa (Solé et al., 2015). El T2SS se relacionado
con patogénesis en algunos grupos de bacterias fitopatógenas como Dickeya, Erwinia,
Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Xanthomonas y Xylella (Jha et al., 2005). En estas especies,
se considera que las enzimas secretadas por el T2SS contribuyen a la degradación de la
pared celular. El T2SS podría facilitar el ensamble de apéndices extracelulares
asociados a la secreción de proteínas de virulencia, como lo es el sistema de secreción
tipo III (T3SS) (Büttner & Bonas, 2010). Un hallazgo a favor de esta hipótesis es el
hecho de que la regulación de este sistema de secreción en X. citri subsp. citri se
encuentra en parte regulado por el regulón HrpG, el cual es además un regulador clave
para la expresión del T3SS en Xanthomonas (Yamazaki et al., 2008).
En estos grupos bacterianos, se ha demostrado como sustratos del T2SS una serie de
enzimas con actividad pectato liasa, celulasa, endoglucanasa, proteasa, α-amilasa,
xilanasa, cisteín proteasa, cellobiosidasa y lipasa/esterasa (Jha et al., 2005; Szczesny et
al., 2010). En las especies X. campestris pv. campestris, X. campestris pv. vesicatoria y
X. oryzae pv. oryzae, se ha demostrado mediante análisis de fenotipos mutantes que la
ausencia de estas proteínas secretadas da lugar a una disminución de la virulencia de las
cepas.
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1.4.2 Sistema bacteriano de secreción tipo III.
Además del T2SS, uno de los principales factores de virulencia descrito en bacterias
Gram negativas, es el sistema de secreción tipo III (T3SS), cuyo origen evolutivo es
compartido con el flagelo. Se encuentra ampliamente distribuido en la naturaleza, tanto
en organismos no patógenos como patógenos de plantas, insectos y vertebrados (Galan
& Wolf-Watz, 2006). Esta estructura macromolecular se especializa en la transferencia
de proteínas efectoras hacia el citoplasma o la membrana plasmática del huésped. Una
vez dentro, estos efectores modulan o minan diversas funciones celulares específicas, lo
cual promueve la colonización e invasión bacteriana (Costa et al., 2015).
3
Figura 13. Representación esquemática de la estructura del sistema de secreción tipo III, presente en
bacterias Gram negativas (Büttner, 2012).
Las proteínas efectoras son reconocidas mediante una señal de 20-30 aminoácidos
localizada por lo general en el extremo N-terminal. A pesar de que este extremo de la
proteína no suele permanecer conservado entre los diversos efectores, la mayoría
contienen una composición o un patrón específico. Además, mediante ensayos de fusión
3
del extremo N-terminal de los efectores con una proteína reportadora, como la adenilato
ciclasa, se ha podido determinar que para su translocación estas proteínas requieren
además de una segunda región compuesta por 50-100 aminoácidos también en el
extremo N-terminal, la cual sirve como sitio de unión para las chaperonas
citoplasmáticas del T3SS (Büttner, 2012).
Figura 14. Representación esquemática y comparativa del “cluster” génico hrp presente en tres especies
del género Xanthomonas (Lee et al., 2005).
3
Las proteínas codificadas por hrpB y hrpE, se ha demostrado que además de ser
secretadas, y formar parte del apéndice extracelular del T3SS, son esenciales para que
se dé la secreción de otras proteínas a través de este sistema. Estudios realizados a partir
de mutantes para el “cluster” hrp en X. campestris pv. vesicatoria, han permitido
demostrar que los genes denominados hpa (genes asociados a hrp), contribuyen en la
patogénesis pero no son esenciales para ello. Por ejemplo, el gen hpaA, cuya proteína es
secretada, es necesario para una rápida y efectiva respuesta hipersensible por parte de la
planta, mientras que la proteína HpaB, que permanece en el citoplasma, es requerida
para el control de la exportación de las demás proteínas a través del T3SS (Gürlebeck et
al., 2006). Por otro lado, mutantes en el cluster hrp de X. citri subsp. citri, han permitido
reconocer a la proteína HrcN como la ATPasa que da la energía necesaria para que se
lleve a cabo este sistema de transporte proteico (Gottig et al., 2010) (Figura 15).
Figura 15. Representación gráfica del sistema de secreción tipo III en X. citri subsp. citri (Gottig et al.,
2010).
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según la especie, habiéndose encontrado entre 24 efectores en X. citri subsp. citri hasta
37 en la especie X. oryzae pv. oryzae (Büttner & Bonas, 2010).
Por otro lado, determinados efectores del T3SS en este género bacteriano han sido
asociados con un aumento en la virulencia así como en la sintomatología de la
enfermedad. El ejemplo más visible ha sido el descrito en X. citri subsp. citri y en X.
oryzae pv. pryzae en los cuales mutaciones en el gen asociado al efector relacionado
con la activación de la transcripción (efectores tipo TAL) (“trascription activator-like”),
pthA, genera una marcada reducción en la capacidad del patógeno para dispersarse y de
provocar síntomas propios de la enfermedad. Un efecto semejante ha sido descrito en X.
campestris pv. vesicatoria con el efector tipo TAL AvrBs3 (Boch & Bonas, 2010). En
esta misma especie, aquellas cepas que no contienen XopD o XopN en su repertorio de
efectores, presentan en la planta poblaciones significativamente menores así como
muestran una reducción en la necrosis y la senesencia de la planta en etapas tardías de la
infección (Kim et al., 2013). Además, se ha visto en diversas especies Xanthomonas,
3
una disminución de la virulencia en cepas con mutaciones en los genes que codifican
para los efectores XopAE, XopAH, XopJ, XopX y XopZ (Song & Yang, 2010).
Figura 16. Representación gráfica del modelo molecular de como actúan los efectores del sistema de
secreción tipo III de Xanthomonas una vez son secretados en el citoplasma de la célula del hospedero. En
este caso se representa a través del efector XopD y del efector asociado a la activación de la transcripción
(efectores tipo TAL) AvrBs3 (Kay & Bonas, 2009).
Para el género Xanthomonas también se han llevado a cabo estudios sobre el proceso de
regulación asociado al T3SS y sus efectores. A pesar de que el sistema de quorum
sensing se ha comprobado que está involucrado en la regulación de los genes hrp, no es
único para la expresión de los mismos. La regulación de este grupo génico depende de
un regulador clave para la patogénesis en este género bacteriano, HrpG, asociado a la
expresión de los genes del T3SS de sus efectores y de al menos 29 sustratos asociados
al T2SS. La expresión de este regulador se produce cuando la bacteria entra en el
apoplasto o bien cuando se cultiva en medio mínimo (Guo et al., 2011).
3
HrpG activa la expresión de hrpX, el cual tiene un activador transcripcional tipo Ara-C
que se une a una región conservada del genoma conocida como región inducible por la
planta o “PIP-box” que está presente en la región promotora de la mayoría de genes
inducidos por HrpG. Sin embargo, también induce la expresión de otro grupo de genes
que no contienen el PIP-box por lo que esta región parece no ser indispensable para la
inducción por parte de HrpX. Mutantes tanto de hrpG y hrpX generan fenotipos no
patogénos (Büttner & Bonas, 2010). Además de estos dos reguladores, la expresión de
hrpC y hrpE es controlada por el sistema de dos componentes ColR/ColS, lo que
sugiere que diversas rutas metabólicas están implicadas en la regulación del “cluster”
hrp (Yan & Wang, 2011).
Junto con los reguladores mencionados, la proteína HpaS que es kinasa sensora que
forma parte de un sistema de dos componentes con el regulador HrpG, tiene un papel
primordial. Estudios mutacionales en hpaS indican una disminución de la fosforilación
de HrpG que implica una disminución de su actividad. HpaS no solamente conforma un
sistema regulador de dos componentes con HrpG, sino que también con la proteína
HpaR2, es requerida para expresar diversos factores de virulencia pero no para generar
una respuesta hipersensible (Li et al., 2014; Jacobs et al., 2015).
Junto con los dos sistemas de secreción descritos previamente, otro sistema asociado a
la patogénesis bacteriana es el sistema de secreción tipo IV (T4SS). Este sistema
macromolecular encontrado tanto en Gram negativos como Gram positivos permite la
traslocacion tanto de DNA como de proteínas hacia el citoplasma de células procariotas
y eucariotas. El T4SS está implicado en la conjugación de plásmidos de DNA, por lo
que tiene un rol primordial en la transferencia de genes de resistencia a antibióticos
(Costa et al., 2015).
3
Por último, las proteínas VirB4, VirB11 y VirD4 son ATPasas cuya función es dar
energía al sistema (Darbari & Waksman, 2015) (Figura 17).
Figura 17. Representación esquemática de los componentes y de la estructura del sistema de secreción
tipo IV VirB/D4 de Agrobacterium tumefaciens, así como la representación de los operones virB y virD
en los cuales se codifican sus componentes (Christie et al., 2014).
Además del T4SS representado por el sistema VirB/D4, existen otros T4SS. Todos ellos
se clasifican en tres grandes grupos. El primero es el T4SS IVa y contiene al sistema
descrito previamente. El segunto es el IVb, se encuentra representado por el complejo
DoT/Icm de Legionella pneumophila y un tercer grupo designado como “otros tipos de
T4SS”, incluye a aquellos que se encuentran codificados en islas genómicas, por
ejemplo el T4SS tfc que se encuentra en la isla genómica ICE Hin1056 de Haemophius
influenzae, dedicado principalmente a la transferencia horizontal de material genético
(Nagai & Kubori, 2011; Darbari & Waksman, 2015).
4
el establecimiento de la relación, ya sea patogénica o simbiótica entre ambos
organismos. En cuanto a bacterias asociadas a plantas que contienen el sistema
VirB/D4, se han identificado una serie de efectores del T4SS asociados con la virulencia
y el desarrollo de la sintomatología, como el caso de las proteínas VirE2, VirE3, VirF y
VirD5 de A. tumefasciens directamente relacionadas con la formación de agallas. Para la
especie Mesorhizobium meliloti, se ha demostrado que los efectores Msi059 y Msi061,
una vez secretados en el citoplasma del hospedero, atraen determinadas proteínas con
las que conforman un complejo de ubiquitinación y proteólisis (Christie et al., 2005).
4
2014). Por otro lado se observó que en la especie X. campestris pv. campestris, un
mutante carente de T4SS presentaba una respuesta hipersensible más debil que el
fenotipo silvestre en una planta no huésped (Guo-feng et al., 2015). Además, la
expresión del T4SS en el fenotipo silvestre se inducía en condiciones de resistencia a
níquel, peróxido de hidrógeno y fenol, por lo que podría ser que en esta especie el T4SS
se encuentre relacionado con las etapas de contacto y reconocimiento propias del inicio
de la infección.
En cuanto a los sistemas de secreción tipo V y tipo VI, estos han sido menos estudiados
en bacterias fitopatógenas en general. El sistema de secreción tipo V (T5SS) o tambien
denominado sistema de autotransporte, tiene como característica única, que las proteínas
que se secretan contienen 3 o 4 dominios; el dominio transportador en el C-terminal que
forma el poro de secreción en la membrana externa de la bacteria, el dominio de unión,
el dominio pasajero, que contiene el dominio funcional de la proteína autotransportada y
en algunos casos se presenta un cuarto dominio proteasa el cual escinde la proteína una
vez haya atravesado el poro de la membrana externa. Las proteínas secretadas por el
T5SS atraviesan la membrana interna de la célula mediante el sistema Sec, por lo que
presentan un péptido señal en el N-terminal que se escinde una vez es transportado por
este sistema (Green & Mecsas, 2016) (Figura 18).
4
denominado XatA, se ha demostrado que es necesario para la agregación celular (Chang
et al., 2014).
Figura 18. Representación gráfica del sistema de secreción tipo V o sistema de autotransporte. Este
sistema consiste en una proteína con varios dominios dentro de los cuales destacan el dominio
transportador y el dominio pasajero (Chang et al., 2014).
4
Xanthomonas, se encuentra el operón hms que es homólogo al operón pga de E. coli,
por lo que podrían ser también sustratos del T5SS (Potnis et al., 2011).
Los efectores del T6SS presentan muchas formas y funciones, dentro de las cuales
destacan su actuación en contra de la pared celular y la membrana del huésped eucariota
o de otras bacterias. Muchos efectores del T6SS se encuentran codificados junto a un
gen que provee de inmunidad contra el efector, por lo que de esta manera se previene la
auto-intoxicación de la célula bacteriana (Green & Mecsas, 2016).
4
Figura 19. Representación esquemática del sistema de secreción tipo VI en bacterias Gram negativas
(Costa et al., 2015).
En el caso del género Xanthomonas, la evidencia experimental del rol que desempeña
este sistema de secrección en la virulencia de las especies es escasa. En X. populi y X.
codiaii, aquellas cepas que no contienen homólogos para los componentes esenciales
del T6SS presentan un fenotipo avirulento, por lo que se especula que podría estar
relacionado con la patogénesis en estos organismos (Shrivastava & Mande, 2008). Por
otro lado, mediante un estudio de genómica comparativa se ha determinado que X.
axonopodis, X. campestris pv. vesicatoria y X. perforans contienen dos T6SS de los
tipos A y C, mientras que X. euvesicatoria solamente presenta uno del tipo C. X.
campestris pv. campestris y X. gardneri no presentan ninguna copia de este sistema de
secreción (Potnis et al., 2011). Finalmente, los dos patovares de X. oryzae, presentan
tres copias del T6SS, dos de ellas semejantes a los tipos A y B presentes en otras
Xanthomonas y el tercero es más semejante al T6SS presente en R. solanacearum.
4
1.5 Xanthomonas arboricola como agente causal de enfermedad en
diversos grupos de plantas de interés económico.
4
en el análisis de secuencias multilocus (MLSA), así como el análisis del número de
secuencias repetidas en tándem en múltiples loci (MLVA) (Cesbron et al., 2014;
Essakhi et al., 2015; Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015).
El análisis MLSA basado en seis genes constitutivos, atpD, dnaK, efp, glnA, gyrB y
rpoD y un gen que codifica para una proteína transmembrana, fyuA, permite formar
grupos filogenéticos claramente separados para cada uno de los patovares descritos. Los
patovares corylina, juglandis y pruni, que representan los grupos más virulentos y
económicamente más relevantes, son los que están genéticamente más relacionados y
cada uno de ellos conforma un único complejo clonal. Esta cercana relación corrobora
lo que previamente había sido observado según análisis de rep-PCR y de hibridación
DNA-DNA. Esta característica junto con otros caracteres como el origen geográfico de
estos patógenos, todos descritos en el siglo XX en Estados Unidos, así como un
repertorio semejante de efectores tipo III, podrían ser indicativos de un mismo origen
común para estos tres patovares provienen (Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015).
4
tal como se ha descrito con los estudios llevados a cabo mediante MLSA. Además,
permiten determinar que las cepas avirulentas del nogal se agrupan fuera de estos
“clusters” formando tres grupos basales en la especie que corresponden a linajes
claramente separados (Essakhi et al., 2015).
4
de C. maxima no. En el patovar juglandis, estas diferencias fueron observadas entre los
miembros de los dos linajes que presenta este grupo. Así, el efector xopB solamente se
encontró en aquellas cepas que producen el chancro del nogal (denominado linaje
VOC), mientras que el efector xopAH se encontraba únicamente en el linaje asociado a
la bacteriosis del nogal (denominado WB) (Hajri et al., 2012).
X. arboricola pv. corylina, agente causal de la podredumbre bacteriana del avellano, fue
descrita por primera vez en Estados Unidos a inicios del siglo XX. Actualmente esta
enfermedad se encuentra distribuida a nivel mundial y en Europa se encuentra
clasificada como organismo de cuarentena según la lista A2 de la EPPO. El principal
huésped de esta bacteria es el avellano (C. avellana), sin embargo, también puede
encontrarse en otros huéspedes de este género como son C. colurna, C. maxima y C.
pontica (Scortichini, 2004) (Figura 20).
4
Figura 20. Mapa de distribución de X. arboricola pv. corylina a nivel mundial según la “European and
Mediterranean Plan Protection Organization” (tomado de EPPO actualizado a fecha 13 de octubre de
2015).
Los principales productores de este fruto seco en el mundo son Turquía, Italia, España y
Estados Unidos. En este último país, este patógeno es considerado el principal problema
bacteriano para el avellano. La mayor parte de las pérdidas se dan en plantaciones con
árboles jóvenes de entre uno y cuatro años, edad en la cual pueden provocar hasta un
10% de muerte del huésped. Los árboles por encima de esta edad raramente mueren
pero suelen tener pérdidas de hasta el 10% de los frutos debido a la muerte de las
5
ramillas. Se han registrado pérdidas en Francia de hasta 250 000 plantas jóvenes y en
diversas plantaciones se ha registrado la muerte de hasta un 100% de los árboles
menores de cuatro años junto con una proporción muy baja de árboles mayores a esta
edad (Lamichhane & Varvaro, 2014).
Figura 21. Sintomatología propia de la mancha bacteriana del avellano, causada por X. arboricola pv.
corylina (Lamichhane & Varvaro, 2014).
5
(Figura 22). X. arboricola pv. juglandis no es considerado patógeno de cuarentena en la
Unión Europea y su único huésped es la especie Juglans regia (Marcelletti et al., 2010).
Figura 22. Mapa de distribución de X. arboricola pv. juglandis a nivel mundial según la “European and
Mediterranean Plan Protection Organization” (tomado de EPPO actualizado a fecha 17 de marzo de
2015).
El inóculo primario de este patógeno lo conforman las infecciones latentes en brotes, las
cicatrices de las hojas y los chancros. Una vez se inicia una nueva etapa vegetativa, las
5
bacterias pasan del estado saprófito al estado parasítico y penetran en el interior del
tejido vegetal, ya sea por los estomas o por heridas. Las infecciones suelen ser más
severas en la primavera, cuando hay mayor cantidad de precipitaciones (Lamichhane,
2014). Se ha visto predisposición a infecciones graves en suelos arenosos ácidos y con
deficiencias en fósforo, calcio y magnesio (Scortichini, 2010).
Figura 23. Sintomatología propia de la mancha bacteriana y la necrosis apical del nogal (panel superior)
y del chancro del nogal (panel inferior), causado por X. arboricola pv. juglandis (Ozaktan et al., 2012;
Lamichhane, 2014).
5
1.5.6 Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni: agente causal de la mancha bacteriana en
frutales del género Prunus.
X. arboricola pv. pruni (Vauterin et al., 1995) (sinónimo, X. campestris pv. pruni
Smith; X. campestris Dowson), es el agente causal de la mancha bacteriana de los
frutales de hueso y el almendro, enfermedad descrita en Estados Unidos en 1903
afectando ciruelo japonés (Boudon et al., 2005). A continuación, se tratarán diversos
aspectos sobre este organismo.
5
Además, estudios basados en el perfil de integrones y casetes génicos y BOX-PCR,
llevados a cabo para este patógeno (Barionovi & Scortichini, 2006), han permitido
profundizar más en los estudios sobre la variabilidad de las cepas. Se encontraron dos
patrones de amplificación de los casetes, que sin embargo no presentaban ninguna
relación a otra característica asociada a las cepas, como pueden ser su origen geográfico
o su huésped original. De igual manera, el genotipado basado en la amplificación de
secuencias repetidas de los elementos BOX mostró poca variabilidad entre las cepas,
además ésta no concordaba con los resultados obtenidos mediante la técnica anterior.
Estos resultados podrían indicar que a pesar de la uniformidad en los perfiles de casete
génico, existen diferentes linajes dentro de este patovar.
Dado que todos estos métodos han presentado poca resolución para poder analizar la
variación genética existente dentro del patovar, en especial para determinar diferencias
entre cepas con una reciente separación espacio-temporal, se ha procedido a realizar el
genotipado de este patovar mediante el uso del MLVA, al tratarse éste de un método
eficiente para analizar la diversidad de patógenos bacterianos monomórficos (López-
Soriano et al., 2016). Se ha desarrollado un esquema de MLVA basado en el genoma de
X. arboricola pv. pruni con el fin de diferenciar los diferentes patovares de la especie,
utilizando un total de 26 loci VNTR polimórficos que se encuentran presentes en todas
las cepas de la especie (Essakhi et al., 2015).
5
al., 2016). Un total de 239 cepas españolas y 25 cepas de referencia procedentes de
diversas regiones geográficas fueron analizadas utilizando un esquema de MLVA
basado en 23 loci polimórficos. El esquema incluía la combinación de dos marcadores
moleculares, los mini y micro satélites. Se logró identificar un total de 119 haplotipos
de MLVA, los cuales se agruparon en 18 “cluster” génicos, cada uno agrupando a
aquellos haplotipos que se diferenciaban en menos de 4 loci de secuencias repetidas.
Estos haplotipos, también se agruparon en 16 complejos clonales y 34 singletones. Al
comparar el perfil de MLVA de las 239 cepas de España con las 25 cepas procedentes
de diferentes regiones del mundo, se observó una clara diferencia entre ambos grupos,
donde las cepas españolas presentaron variaciones entre 4 y 15 loci. El hecho de que al
menos el 50% de las cepas analizadas presentaran diferentes haplotipos, demostró que
el MLVA es una técnica apropiada para analizar molecularmente la variación entre
cepas que han tenido una historia evolutiva muy próxima. Finalmente, se determinó que
la introducción de este patovar en España no es consecuencia de un único evento en el
tiempo sino que ha sido introducido en varias ocasiones y por al menos cuatro “cluster”
génicos diferentes.
[Link] El patógeno
5
Con respecto a la estructura del polisacárido específico O que forma parte del
lipopolisacárido, ésta ha sido estudiada en la cepa NCPPB 416 de este patovar
(Molinaro et al., 2003), observándose que se encuentra compuesta por tres
monosacáridos, glucosa, ramnosa y xilosa. El espectro observado por resonancia
magnética nuclear ha permitido dilucidar una estructura muy irregular en la cual se da la
repetición de cinco unidades distintas.
Por último en cuanto a los factores de virulencia estudiados en X. arboricola pv. pruni,
las cepas virulentas de esta especie presentan un T3SS del tipo hrc/hrp típico de
Xanthomonas, el cual está compuesto por los genes hrcC, hrcJ, hrcN, hrcR, hrcS, hrcT,
hrcU, hrcV, hrpB1, hrpD5 y hrpF. Mientras que el perfil de efectores tipo III para esta
bacteria fitopatógena está compuesto por al menos 21 efectores identificados todos ellos
mediante PCR. Los efectores presentes en el patovar pruni son: avrBs2, avrXccA1,
avrXccA2, hpaA, hrpW, xopA, xopAF, xopAH, xopAI, xopE2, xopE3, xopF1, xopG,
xopK, xopL, xopN, xopQ, xopR, xopV, xopX y xopZ (Hajri et al., 2012).
[Link] El huésped.
Con respecto al segundo vértice del triángulo de la enfermedad de esta bacteriosis, los
huéspedes naturales para este patógeno corresponden a frutales, ornamentales y plantas
silvestres del género Prunus. Dentro de las especies cultivadas, aquellas en las que esta
bacteria produce mayores daños son, el albaricoquero (P. armeniaca), el almendro (P.
amygdalus), el ciruelo (P. salicina y P. japonica) y sus correspondientes híbridos, así
como el melocotonero (P. persica) y sus correspondientes híbridos. Otros huéspedes en
los cuales se ha identificado la presencia de este patógeno son, el endrino (P.
domestica), el cerezo (P. avium), el guindo (P. cerasus), el lauroceraso (P.
laurocerasus), el melocotón silvestre chino (P. davidiana), P. buergeriana, P. crassipes
5
y P. donarium. Por lo general los patrones portainjertos utilizados son resistentes a la
enfermedad (EPPO, 2003; Stefani, 2010; EFSA, 2014).
A pesar de que la gran mayoría de especies del género Prunus se encuentran en las
regiones templadas del hemisferio norte, en el continente europeo la producción de
albaricoque, almendro, ciruelo, melocotón y nectarinas se da principalmente en la
región mediterránea. En este ámbito geográfico, España es el primer productor de
almendro (561,5 Tm/1000 Ha) y albaricoquero (48 Tm/1000 Ha), el segundo productor
de melocotón (51,9 Tm/ 1000 Ha) y nectarino (25,7 Tm/1000 Ha) y el tercer productor
europeo de cerezo (24,1 Tm/1000 Ha) y de ciruelo (19,1 Tm/ 1000 Ha) (EFSA, 2014).
Además, España, es el tercer productor mundial de melocotón y nectarino y el segundo
productor mundial de almendro. Debido a lo anterior, X. arboricola pv. pruni representa
una importante amenaza para la fruticultura y su impacto económico puede llegar a ser
muy alto (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014).
La resistencia por parte del huésped a X. arboricola pv. pruni ha sido estudiada en
albaricoquero, ciruelo y melocotonero, tanto en condiciones de invernadero como en
campo, encontrándose una variación en la susceptibilidad entre las distintas especies.
Sin embargo, aún los huéspedes menos susceptibles presentan síntomas de la mancha
bacteriana, no existiendo una resistencia completa. La existencia de un mapa físico del
melocotonero y la secuenciación de su genoma, ha permitido generar mapas de diversos
loci de carácter cuantitativo (QTL) relacionados con la resistencia a patógenos, los
cuales gracias a la alta sintenia presente entre las diversas especies de Prunus pueden
extrapolarse a otras especies (Socquet-Juglard et al., 2013a).
5
El uso de variedades susceptibles se encuentra entre los factores críticos para la
aparición de brotes severos y la distribución a larga escala de la enfermedad. Los
cultivares más susceptibles para el ciruelo son, Calita, Angeleno, Frontier, Santa Rosa,
the “Black” group, Anna y T.C. Sun. Mientras que los cultivares más susceptibles para
el melocotonero corresponden a Summer Rich, O’Henry, Rich Lady, Red Valley,
Elegant Lady, Big Top, Flavorcrest, Flavortop y Cassiopea (Scortichini, 2010).
En relación a la interacción de los huéspedes del género Prunus con X. arboricola pv.
pruni, los estudios realizados con microscopía electrónica (Plessis, 1984),
inmulocalización y la histocitopatología (Aarrouf et al., 2008), han permitido
determinar cómo se da el ingreso y la colonización del tejido por parte de la bacteria
tanto en ciruelo como en melocotonero.
En el caso del ciruelo (Plessis, 1984), se estableció que X. arboricola pv. pruni infecta
las ramillas de manera sistémica a través de los peciolos de las hojas infectadas. El
patógeno fue observado en los tejidos del xilema de los peciolos de las hojas inoculadas
y además se encontró en el tejido del córtex de las ramillas en la zona adyacente a los
peciolos infectados. De igual manera, se determinó que la bacteria es capaz de dirigirse
de manera sistémica hasta el tejido meristemático de los brotes. Posteriormente, en
melocotonero (Aarrouf et al., 2008), se demostró que el patógeno es capaz de ingresar
al tejido del mesófilo a través de los estomas, colonizando el espacio intercelular,
degradando los componentes de la pared celular, colapsando las células y dando lugar a
lesiones necróticas. El análisis de secciones de la nervadura central tomadas a diversas
distancias desde la lámina infectada, permitió observar la presencia de la bacteria en los
tubos cribosos y en el xilema lo que podría sugerir el tráfico sistémico del patógeno.
La respuesta de la planta ante la infección del X. arborícola pv. pruni, ha sido estudiada
en hojas de melocotonero. Inicialmente se procedió a analizar los factores de respuesta
asociados a etileno (Sherif et al., 2012), los cuales corresponden a factores de
transcripción asociados al desarrollo y la inmunidad de las plantas. Se estudió el rol
desempeñado por cinco de estos factores de transcripción durante el desarrollo de la
mancha bacteriana. Todos éstos, correspondieron a activadores transcripcionales y dos
de ellos (Pp-ERF2.b y Pp-ERF2.c) fueron localizados núcleo celular. La inducción
cinética de estas proteínas, después de la inoculación con X. arboricola pv. pruni,
estudiada mediante PCR cuantitativa, demostró que todos incrementaron su expresión
5
de manera rápida y muy marcada en aquellos cultivares de melocotonero más
resistentes. Estos activadores transcripcionales también aumentaron su expresión al
tratar las plantas con etileno o ácido jasmónico, lo que sugiere una actividad sinérgica
de ambas rutas metabólicas durante el proceso de defensa contra X. arboricola pv.
pruni.
[Link] El ambiente.
Desde el punto del ambiente, el suelo parece jugar un papel importante en la severidad
observada en esta enfermedad en los diferentes huéspedes. Se considera que suelos
arenosos y arcillosos son factores que predisponen para la aparición de brotes severos
de la mancha bacteriana (Scortichini, 2010). Los síntomas de esta enfermedad, no se
han desarrollado cuando los árboles han sido plantados en suelos arenosos con una
mezcla de limo y vermiculita (Zehr et al., 1996). De la misma manera se ha visto un
incremento considerable de la susceptibilidad a la enfermedad por parte del huésped
cuando este se encuentra en suelos infestados con el nematodo Criconemella xenplax
(Shepard et al., 1999).
6
seguida por un periodo de mojadura foliar, con una humedad relativa cercana al 100%,
por al menos 36 h y en suelos arenosos, conforman las condiciones óptimas para el
desarrollo de síntomas. La aparición de síntomas a 24 ºC fue más lenta que a 30 ºC. Para
que se desarrollaran síntomas severos a temperaturas de 24 ºC, se requirió de periodos
de mojadura foliar superiores a 18 h (Zehr et al., 1996).
X. arboricola pv. pruni se encuentra distribuida a nivel mundial en las principales zonas
productoras de frutales del género Prunus (Figura 24). En Europa, los casos más
severos de la mancha bacteriana se han encontrado en zonas de la región mediterránea,
como en el centro y este de España, el sureste de Francia y el valle del rio Po al norte de
Italia (EFSA, 2014). Además, por países, se ha informado la presencia de este patógeno
en Italia, donde es considerado endémico y ha sido catalogado como enfermedad
emergente en Alemania, Bélgica, España, Francia, Holanda, Suiza y diversos países de
Europa del Este (López-Soriano et al., 2016). La dispersión de este patógeno desde una
zona geográfica a otra se debe principalmente al movimiento de material vegetal
(portainjertos o plantas injertadas) principalmente con infecciones latentes. A corta
distancia el patógeno se disemina fácilmente gracias a las lluvias abundantes y las
tormentas acompañadas de fuertes vientos (EFSA, 2014).
España es uno de los principales productores de fruta del género Prunus. Se dedican
alrededor de 562.616 Ha a la producción de almendro, 76.730 a la producción de
melocotón y nectarina, 24.304 Ha a la producción de cereza, 19.226 Ha a la producción
de albaricoque y 18.489 Ha a la de ciruelo. X. arboricola pv. pruni se encontró por
primera vez en el año 2002 en Badajoz en ciruelo japonés y posteriormente en el año
2004 en nectarina y ciruelo japonés en viveros de plantones en Valencia. En el año 2006
fue identificada en almendro en Alicante y en el año 2008 en melocotonero y ciruelo en
Zaragoza y Huesca, así como sobre melocotonero y nectarina en Lérida. En el año 2009,
fue encontrado en almendro en Navarra, Zaragoza y Huesca y finalmente en el año 2010
fue informada su presencia en Mallorca afectando ciruelo japonés. En todos los casos se
implementaron programas de erradicación por lo que actualmente se sigue considerando
una enfermedad emergente y de cuarentena (Roselló et al., 2012; Palacio-Bielsa et al.,
2014).
6
Los síntomas asociados a este patógeno son la defoliación, la formación de chancros en
el tronco y eventualmente se puede provocar la muerte del árbol, así como producirse
pérdidas en la producción o la obtención de fruta no apta para la venta, todo ello
conlleva cuantiosas pérdidas en los cultivos (EFSA, 2014). En Estados Unidos se
informó en 1932 que las pérdidas en plantaciones de ciruelo japonés podían estar entre
el 25 y 75% de la fruta producida (Stefani, 2010). En Uruguay, en años con condiciones
ambientales favorables para la enfermedad, las pérdidas en variedades sensibles de
melocotonero pueden llegar a superar el 50% y si se consideran las pérdidas generadas
por la imposibilidad de comercializar el fruto sintomático, éstas pueden llegar a superar
el 80% en variedades susceptibles de nectarina (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2015a).
Figura 24. Mapa de distribución de X. arboricola pv. pruni a nivel mundial según la “European and
Mediterranean Plan Protection Organization” (tomado de EPPO actualizado a fecha 30 de setiembre de
2016)
6
1.5.10 Sintomatología asociada a la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género
Prunus:
De manera general, tanto los tejidos herbáceos, como hojas, brotes, frutos, así como los
tejidos lignificados, ramillas, ramas y el tronco; pueden ser afectados por este patógeno.
Sin embargo, no se han observado daños en las flores. Los síntomas en nectarinos,
melocotoneros y almendros suelen observarse principalmente en las hojas y los frutos,
mientras que los chancros en las ramas y el tronco suelen observarse en ciruelo
(Lamichhane, 2014).
Los síntomas foliares se inician como pequeñas manchas de color verde pálido que
derivan hacia manchas necróticas poligonales que por lo general se encuentran
delimitadas por las nervaduras de las hojas y pueden estar rodeadas por un halo
clorótico (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014). El mayor daño suele observarse en el punto de
goteo de la hoja, tanto en melocotonero como en nectarino. Desde el punto de goteo
hacia el peciolo de la hoja es común observar un gradiente de color marrón-amarillo-
verde y en infecciones severas se puede producir defoliación. En el caso del almendro
se pueden observar los mismos síntomas, excepto que no se produce clorosis de la hoja
ni se da la defoliación (Figuras 25 y 26).
Los síntomas en fruto se describen como manchas pardas rodeadas de un halo clorótico.
En etapas iniciales de la infección, estas manchas pueden extenderse y necrosarse,
produciendo hundimiento del mesocarpio y la secreción de exudados conforme el fruto
crece. En el almendro los síntomas suelen ser muy característicos y conspicuos, estos se
inician como manchas oscuras y hundidas en el mesocarpio que presentan
frecuentemente la producción de exudados. Al deshidratarse el mesocarpio, la zona de
las heridas sobresale de la superficie del fruto y se quedan adheridas al endocarpio. Se
suele producir la caída prematura del fruto o éste permanecer adherido al árbol tras la
cosecha. Las infecciones severas pueden generar también problemas a nivel de la
semilla, ya sea deshidratándola o provocando manchas de color pardo (Palacio-Bielsa et
al., 2014).
6
Figura 25. Sintomatología propia de la mancha bacteriana causada por X. arboricola pv. pruni tanto en
hojas (A y B) y frutos (C, D y E) de melocotonero. Hojas (F) y fruto (G) de albaricoquero así como la
presencia de chancros en el tronco de ciruelo (H) (Lamichhane, 2014).
Figura 26. Sintomatología propia de la mancha bacteriana provocada por X. arboricola pv. pruni en
hojas (A) y frutos (B, C y D) de almendro (Lamichhane, 2014).
6
1.5.11 Epidemiología de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género Prunus:
X. arboricola pv. pruni sobrevive el invierno en brotes latentes desde los cuales una vez
iniciada la etapa vegetativa del ciclo productivo y los brotes empiezan a crecer, cambia
a fase parasítica y coloniza el tejido foliar y los frutos. La bacteria penetra al interior del
tejido foliar a través de los estomas o mediante heridas producidas por las labores
agrícolas, la caída de hojas, las heladas, el granizo o el viento. Para que la infección sea
exitosa, se requiere que los tejidos se encuentren en estado de congestión hídrica, haya
temperaturas entre 19 y 30 ºC y una elevada humedad relativa. En el caso del ciruelo,
los chancros de los troncos y ramas también pueden actuar como fuentes de inóculo
primario de este patógeno. Muy pocas infecciones se producen en condiciones
ambientales secas y cálidas (Scortichini, 2010; Lamichhane, 2014; Palacio-Bielsa et al.,
2014).
Como resultado de esta primera infección se producen las lesiones de primavera, a partir
de los cuales y mediante la producción de exudado la bacteria se disemina a otras
regiones del árbol dando lugar a las lesiones de verano. En el otoño las infecciones se
dan en los brotes latentes que serán los sitios donde la bacteria persista durante el
invierno. A corta distancia, entre árboles de una misma plantación, la bacteria se
disemina mediante el efecto aerosol generado por la lluvia y el viento, aunque también
mediante la maquinaria agrícola. Se ha determinado que la bacteria es capaz de
permanecer en el suelo en los restos vegetales, por lo que no se pueden descartar como
fuentes de inóculo primario (Scortichini, 2010; Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014) (Figura 27).
6
Chancros de primavera
Primeros síntomas
primavera (infecciones
primarias)
Distribución desde
chancros y yemas
Figura 27. Ciclo de la enfermedad de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género Prunus provocada
por X. arboricola pv. pruni (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014).
6
de la degradación del Tween 80 (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2012). Un segundo medio de
cultivo semiselectivo es el XPSM (Civerolo et al., 1982) que permite observar al
patógeno después de 6-7 días a 27 ºC como colonias de color gris claro, convexas y
opacas. Realizar el diagnóstico únicamente basado en la utilización de estos medios de
cultivo no es recomendable ya que se han observado fenotipos semejantes con otras
bacterias del género.
6
También han sido desarrollado un método de PCR convencional utilizando la variante
de PCR multiplex (Pothier et al., 2011a). Este método se basa en el uso de un primer
par de cebadores que concuerdan con los descritos previamente para la amplificación de
una región de 943 pb del gen ftsX, y un segundo par de cebadores (XarbQ-F/XarbQ-R)
que amplifica una región de 402 pb del gen qumA asociado al metabolismo del quinato.
Al utilizar ambas parejas de cebadores en modo multiplex, ambas regiones se
amplifican en todas las cepas del patovar pruni, pero también en las cepas de X.
arboricola pv. corylina. La sensibilidad de este método a partir de cultivo puro o de
muestras inoculadas se encuentra en el rango de 5x102 UFC/ml.
Asimismo, se han descritos dos métodos de PCR tiempo real, el primero de ellos se
basa en el uso de cebadores así como una sonda TaqMan sintetizados a partir de la
región del gen ftsX descrita previamente (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011, 2015b). Los
cebadores Xap-2F/Xap-2R así como la sonda Xap-2p, permiten amplificar un fragmento
de 72 pb. Este método, resulta ser altamente específico y sensible y ha sido validado por
diversos laboratorios tanto en muestras sintomáticas como asintomáticas de
melocotonero, almendro y ciruelo; llegándose a detectar en planta hasta 10 2 UFC/ml.
Este protocolo es de los más utilizados actualmente, sin embargo, presenta reacción
cruzada con X. arboricola pv. corylina.
Otro método de PCR tiempo real pero basado en la tecnología SYBR Green es el
desarrollado a partir de los cebadores 29F/29R, que amplifican una región de 344 pb.
Este método resulta ser específico para Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni y presenta
una sensibilidad de 103 UFC/ml en cultivo puros y de 0.1 pg de DNA a partir de DNA
bacteriano puro. Debido a que la sensibilidad observada en muestras vegetales
naturalmente infectadas no fue lo suficientemente alta, se aconseja para esos casos
utilizarlo en su versión de Bio-PCR, en el cual se añade un paso previo a la reacción de
PCR en tiempo real consistente en un enriquecimiento de la población bacteriana
mediante su cultivo en el medio semiselectivo XPSM (Ballard et al., 2011).
6
que resulta ser un método rápido, específico y sensible para la detección de la mancha
bacteriana y el diagnóstico de X. arboricola pv. pruni.
En cuanto al control biológico de este patógeno, se han descrito varias cepas bacterianas
epífitas con efecto antagonista sobre X. arboricola pv. pruni. En experimentos
realizados in vitro, una cepa de P. fluorescens fue seleccionada debido a su mayor
potencial inhibitorio. Durante dos diferentes ciclos productivos la cepa biocontroladora
seleccionada dio lugar a una reducción en la severidad de la enfermedad en plantaciones
de melocotonero y nectarino analizadas (Biondi et al., 2009). Además de esta cepa,
también se ha utilizado la cepa de P. aeruginosa LV. El sobrenadante liofilizado de
6
cultivos de esta bacteria aplicado a una concentración de 450 μg/ml sobre las plantas en
condiciones de invernadero, produjo una reducción considerable de la severidad de la
enfermedad. Además, sobre el patógeno, se observó un efecto sobre la producción de
exopolisacárido y generó cambios en su morfología celular (Silva Vasconcellos et al.,
2014). De la misma manera, se ha comprobado la capacidad controladora de dos cepas
no patógenas de X. campestris (AZ98101 y AZ98106), en ensayos de campo sobre
diversos cultivares de melocotonero. De manera general, se observó una reducción
significativa en aquellas parcelas inoculadas con cualquiera de las dos cepas, por lo que
se han considerado como buenos candidatos para el control de X. arboricola pv. pruni
(Kawaguchi, 2014). El uso de fagos para el control de esta bacteria también ha sido
descrito (Randhawa & Civerolo, 1986). En ensayos sobre hoja, al aplicar 5 μl de una
suspensión de los fagos purificados previamente de cultivos del patógeno en la zona de
inoculación, producían una reducción de la población de bacteria tanto sobre la hoja
como en el interior de la misma. Sin embargo, se observó que cerca del 50% de la
población bacteriana era resistente al fago.
X. arboricola pv. pruni agente causal de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y
el almendro, así como de especies ornamentales y silvestres del género Prunus, es
considerado organismo de cuarentena según la legislación fitosanitaria de la Unión
Europea (Directiva de la EU 2009/29/CE) y según la “European and Mediterranean
Plant Protection Organization” (EPPO). Esta información se encuentra recogida en la
lista A2 de la EPPO de organismos para los cuales se recomienda regulación (Roselló et
al., 2012; Lamichhane, 2014).
7
Capítulo 2: Secuenciación y características generales del
genoma de cinco cepas de X. arboricola aisladas de Prunus
spp. en España.
Draft genome sequence of X. arboricola pv. pruni strain Xap 33, Causal agent of
bacterial spot disease on almond.
1
Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio Bacteriología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y
Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain. 2Centro de Investigación y Tecnología
Agroalimentaria de Aragón (CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
1
Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain. 2Centro
de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain. 3Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias, Valencia, Spain.
1
Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria, Madrid,
Spain. 2Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Instituto Agroalimentario de
Aragón-IA2 (CITA-Universidad de Zaragoza), Zaragoza, Spain. 3Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias, Valencia, Spain.
Actualmente (octubre de 2016), existen disponibles en las bases de datos del NCBI al
menos 521 genomas de Xanthomonas spp. de éstos, 72 son secuencias completas del
genoma que cuentan con una anotación de sus genes curada manualmente y 21 genomas
se encuentran completamente secuenciados pero su anotación ha sido realizada de
manera automática. Por último, 428 genomas se encuentran en estado de “draft”, es
decir, son menos precisos que un genoma completo, pero generalmente presentan una
7
alta calidad y al menos 90% de nucleótidos secuenciados. La secuencia de estos 428
genomas se encuentra representada en diversos segmentos o “contigs” (Collins, 1998).
El contar con este tipo de información genómica, tanto de cromosomas completos como
incompletos, resultan de gran valor en actividades como el desarrollo de análisis
filogenéticos más completos y precisos que permiten clasificar los diversos grupos
bacterianos. Asimismo, es posible estudiar la diversidad genómica a nivel
intraespecífico, por ejemplo, mediante el estudio de su pan genoma, lo cual permite
determinar aquellos genes asociados con funciones biológicas básicas para la vida y el
fenotipo de la especie, así como aquellos genes que contribuyen en la diversidad de la
especie. Muchos de estos genes no son esenciales para la vida pero confieren ventajas
selectivas como pueden ser la adaptación a un determinado nicho, la resistencia a
antibióticos o la capacidad de colonizar un nuevo huésped (Tettelin et al., 2008; Land et
al., 2015).
7
En la especie X. arboricola, los trabajos de genómica comparativa se iniciaron con el
uso de la hibridación genómica basada en el uso de microarreglos de ADN (Mayer et
al., 2011). Mediante esta tecnología, se comparó el contenido del genoma de X.
arboricola pv. pruni 109 al hibridarlo con un chip de microarreglos de ADN de las
especies X. campestris pv. campestris B100 y X. campestris pv. vesicatoria 85-10. Se
obtuvo inicialmente, que la cepa del patovar pruni presenta una similitud de entre 93,3 y
94,8% con estas especies y comparten al menos un total de 2.826 CDS. Además, este
estudio permitió identificar la presencia en el genoma de X. arboricola pv. pruni de 101
genes asociados con la producción de xanthano, la biosíntesis y el uso de azúcares,
diversas exoenzimas, genes asociados a la estructura del T3SS, genes asociados a la
regulación del quorum-sensing, así como algunos receptores del sistema TonB.
Del total de genomas disponibles para X. arboricola, cinco han sido secuenciados como
parte de este trabajo y son tratados más adelante en este mismo capítulo. Los restantes
19 genomas, se dividen en dos cepas de X. arboricola pv. celebensis, NCPPB 1630 y
NCPPB 1638 (Harrison et al., 2016), causantes de la marchitez de la banana; uno de X.
arboricola pv. corylina (Ibarra Caballero et al., 2013), agente causal de la podredumbre
bacteriana del avellano; nueve genomas de X. arboricola pv. juglandis, cepas CFBP
2528, CFBP 7179, J303, NCPPB 1447, Xaj2, Xaj4.1, Xaj43a y XajA3 (Higuera et al.,
2015; Pereira et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015) causantes tanto de la necrosis apical
como del chancro del nogal. Cuatro genomas de X. arboricola pv. pruni, cepas CFBP
3894, MAFF 301420, MAFF301427 y MAFF 311562 (López-Soriano et al., 2016),
causantes de la mancha bacteriana de los frutales del género Prunus y por último, tres
cepas de X. arboricola que no pertenecen a ninguno de los nueve patovares descritos en
esta especie. De estos últimos, la cepa 3004 (Ignatov et al., 2015), ha sido descrita como
causante de enfermedad en cebada, mientas que las cepas CFBP 7634 y CFBP 7651,
aisladas de nogal, son consideradas no patógenas (Cesbron et al., 2015).
7
A excepción de las cepas patógenas (CFBP 2528 y CFBP 7179) y no patógenas aisladas
de nogal (CFBP 7634 y CFBP 7651), en las que se ha realizado un análisis más
profundo, de todas las demás cepas, solamente se conocen las características generales
sobre su secuenciación, ensamblaje y anotación inicial. Sobre ellas no existe más
información que la presente en las bases de datos del NCBI o en publicaciones,
realizadas a manera de nota corta con el respectivo anuncio genómico (Tabla 1).
En cuanto a las cuatro cepas de nogal mencionadas previamente (Cesbron et al., 2015),
el análisis comparativo de sus genomas permitió conocer que las cepas patógenas
presentan un rango más amplio de elementos genéticos móviles que las cepas no
patógenas y por ejemplo, la cepa CFBP 7179, contiene un elemento integrativo y
conjugativo que le confiere resistencia al cobre. Se ha determinado además que el
repertorio de efectores del T3SS es mayor en las cepas patógenas que en las no
patógenas y por ejemplo para la cepa CFBP 7634, se encontró que no presentaba T3SS
y contenía solamente ocho potenciales efectores, mientras que las cepas patógenas
contenían entre 24 y 25. De igual manera sucedió con el T4SS el cual parece no estar
completo en ninguna de las cepas estudiadas y sus potenciales efectores en cepas
patógenas se presentaron en un mayor número (17-18 efectores), en comparación con
aquellas no patógenas (14 efectores). Entre ambos grupos de cepas, según este mismo
estudio, también se dieron diferencias en relación al repertorio de enzimas degradadoras
de pared y en el correspondiente a las adhesinas no fimbrilares, dentro de las cuales
FhaB y YadA, solamente estaban presentes en las cepas no patógenas.
7
Tabla 1. Características de los genomas disponibles en la base de datos del NCBI para la especie X.
arboricola.
GenBank Tamaño
Taxon Cepa acceso (Mb) GC% Genes Proteínas
Xanthomonas arboricola CITA 14 LXIB01 486.444 65,6 4.061 3.870
Xanthomonas arboricola CITA 44 LJGM01 476.048 65,8 4.002 3.728
Xanthomonas arboricola CITA 124 LXKK01 475.224 65,8 4.086 3.798
Xanthomonas arboricola CFBP 7634 JZEH01 493.518 65,6 4.110 4.006
Xanthomonas arboricola CFBP 7651 JZEI01 503.201 65,5 4.191 4.086
Xanthomonas arboricola 3004 AZQY01 47.659 66,0 3.997 3.775
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. celebensis NCPPB 1630 JPHE01 498.021 65,5 4.113 3.977
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. celebensis NCPPB 1832 JPHC01 490.802 65,6 4.081 3.967
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. corylina NCCB 100457 APMC02 522.658 65,5 4.365 4.089
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Xaj 417 CP012251.1 521.894 65,4 4.358 4.188
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis J303 LSGZ01 506.642 65,5 4.262 4.040
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis CFBP 2528 JZEF01 508.448 65,5 4.263 4.095
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis CFBP 7179 JZEG01 515.746 65,4 4.351 4.194
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis NCPPB 1447 AJTL01 502.168 65,4 4.308 3.921
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Xaj2 LHBK01 510.122 65,4 4.266 4.081
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Xaj43a LHBT01 514.414 65,4 4.314 4.115
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis XajA3 LHBS01 511.898 65,6 4.283 4.093
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Xaj4.1 LHBL01 511.626 65,6 4.285 4.102
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni CITA 33 JHUQ01 510.066 65,4 4.222 3.720
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni IVIA 2626.1 LJGN01 502.767 65,4 4.253 3.849
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni CFBP 3894 LOMI01 505.907 65,4 4.228 3.967
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni MAFF301420 BAVC01 500.276 65,3 4.315 3.601
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni MAFF301427 BAVD01 490.544 65,4 5.180 4.686
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni MAFF311562 BAVB01 508.549 65,3 5.422 4.897
7
2.2 Draft genome sequence of Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni strain Xap33,
causal agent of bacterial spot disease on almond.
2.2.1 Abstract
We report the annotated genome sequence of Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni strain
Xap33 (CITA 33), isolated from almond leaves showing bacterial spot disease
symptoms in Spain. The availability of this genome sequence will aid our understanding
of the infection mechanism of this bacterium as well as its relationship to other species
of the same genus.
The genome of X. arboricola pv. pruni strain Xap33 was sequenced by the Ion Torrent
Personal Genome Machine (PGM) (Life Technologies) instrument (579.53 Mb; 95-fold
coverage). De novo assembly using CLC Genomics Workbench 7.0 (CLC bio,
Denmark) produced a total length of 5,104,864 bp (G+C content, 65.43%) placed in 501
contigs with an N50 of 34,438 bp and a maximum contig length of 126,681 bp. The
annotation for the Xap33 genome sequence was conducted using the automated
Bacterial Annotation System (BASys) (Van Domselaar et al., 2005), the Rapid
Annotation using Subsystem Technology server (RAST) (Aziz et al., 2008), and the
7
Prokaryotic Genome Annotation Pipeline (Tatusova et al., 2013). RNAmmer 1.2 and
tRNAscan-SE 1.21 were used to predict rRNAs and tRNAs, respectively (Lowe &
Eddy, 1997; Lagesen et al., 2007).
The annotation for the Xap33 genome sequence detected 4,348 coding sequences, 3
rRNAs, and 50 tRNAs, representing 436 subsystems compared to 461 subsystems found
in Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri strain 306, which is the most closely related
bacterium based on nucleotide similarity in the RAST database. 16S rRNA comparison
analysis performed with BLASTn (Morgulis et al., 2008) detected 99 to 100% identity
to other Xanthomonas strains, including the X. arboricola pv. juglandis strain LMG
747. In addition, whole-genome nucleotide comparison using BLASTn against 214
complete and draft genomes from several Xanthomonas strains determined that the
Xap33 genome sequence has 99% identity to the draft genome sequences of
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni strains MAFF301420, MAFF301427, and
MAFF31562. Furthermore, in order to check the robustness of the Xap33 genome
sequence, a multilocus sequence analysis using partial sequences of the housekeeping
genes dnaK, fyuA, gyrB, and rpoD (Young et al., 2008; Kaluzna et al., 2014) clustered
the strain Xap33 in the X. arboricola pv. pruni phylogroup, revealing a high similarity
(99.89%) to the type strain X. arboricola pv. pruni ICMP 51 (CFBP 2535). The genome
information presented here will allow genetic analysis and manipulation of X.
arboricola pv. pruni Xap33, as well as future comparative studies with other
Xanthomonas arboricola pathovars. This new information will help in understanding
the molecular mechanisms in the plant-pathogen interactions related to bacterial spot
disease on almond.
2.2.4 Acknowledgments
7
Cambronero held a Ph.D. fellowship from the Spanish Government (Ministerio de
Educación, Cultura y Deporte; fellowship FPU12/01000).
We thank Carla Clemente and Magdalena Lewicka from the STAB VIDA Pvt., Ltd.,
NGS Laboratory for their assistance with sequencing and analyses
8
2.3 Draft genome sequence for virulent and avirulent strains of Xanthomonas
arboricola isolated from Prunus spp. in Spain
2.3.1 Abstract
2.3.2 Keywords
Xanthomonas arboricola, Prunus spp., Stone fruits, Bacterial spot disease, Plant
pathogenic bacteria.
2.3.3 Introduction
Xanthomonas arboricola (Vauterin et al., 1995) are plant associated bacteria in nine
pathovars with a diverse range of biotic relationships (Bull et al., 2010; Fischer-Le Saux
et al., 2015). Within this taxon, plant pathogenic strains with non-pathogenic strains
have been described. Bacterial spot of Prunus spp. (X. arboricola pv. pruni), bacterial
blight of Juglans spp. (X. arboricola pv. juglandis) and Corylus spp. (X. arboricola pv.
8
corylina) are among the most harmful diseases of these tree hosts. These bacterial
diseases are distributed worldwide and the causal bacteria are regulated in several
countries including the European Union, where X. arboricola pv. pruni is a quarantine
pathogen (Scortichini et al., 2002; Lamichhane, 2014).
Within the pathovars, X. arboricola pv. pruni is a major threat to cultivated, exotic and
ornamental Prunus species. This bacterium has been identified as a pathogen of P.
armeniaca, P. avium, P. buergeriana, P. cerasus, P. crassipes, P. davidiana, P.
domestica, P. donarium, P. dulcis, P. laurocesasus, P. mume, P. persica and P. salicina
(EFSA, 2014). During the last decade, some local outbreaks of bacterial spot in Spain
have been reported on almond, peach, nectarine and plum (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014).
For initial characterization of the bacterial strains isolated from Spanish outbreaks of
bacterial spot, we performed a polyphasic study based on a multilocus sequence
analysis, as well as some phenotypic characters (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2013). After
the characterization that showed the presence of different molecular and phenotypic
variants, selected strains were analysed to assess the differences at the whole genome
level.
Genome sequencing of X. arboricola strains has been completed for five strains isolated
from walnut, three from peach, two from Musa sp., one from almond (Garita-
Cambronero et al., 2014), one from barley (Ignatov et al., 2015) and one from Turkish
hazel (Ibarra Caballero et al., 2013). Genome sequencing includes the plasmid pXap41
(Pothier et al., 2011c), present in the X. arboricola pv. pruni strains. All these
sequences have been deposited in the NCBI database. Four genome sequences are
available for pathogenic strains from Prunus, identified as X. arboricola pv. pruni.
However, with the exception of the strain CITA 33 isolated from almond (P.
amygdalus, syn. P. dulcis) in Spain (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014), no detailed
information about features of those genomes have been published. In the same way,
there are no sequenced strains isolated from Japanese plum (P. salicina) or cherry
rootstock (P. mahaleb). In addition, no avirulent strain of X. arboricola from Prunus
spp. has been analysed at the whole-genome level. The occurrence of avirulent strains is
of particular importance for a quarantine pathogen like X. arboricola pv. pruni with
respect to accurate diagnosis of virulent strains.
8
Herein we present draft genome sequences for two X. arboricola strains: an avirulent
strain, CITA 44, isolated from P. mahaleb, and X. arboricola pv. pruni strain, IVIA
2626.1, isolated from P. salicina cv. Fortuna, which differs from other sequenced
strains in phenotypical features and virulence on several hosts (Garita-Cambronero et
al., 2014). The genome analysis of these two strains as well as comparison with other
related strains should provide insight into the genetics of the pathogenesis process in X.
arboricola strains associated with the bacterial spot disease of stone fruits and almond.
Strain CITA 44 was isolated in 2009 from asymptomatic leaves of Santa Lucía SL-64
cherry rootstock (P. mahaleb) in a nursery located in the north-eastern Spanish region
of Aragón. This strain showed flagella associated swarming and swimming motility on
0.5 % agar PYM plates and 0.3 % agar MMA plates, respectively. Additionally, strain
CITA 44 showed type IV pili associated twitching motility in the interstitial surface
between 1.5 % agar PYM layer and the plastic plate surface. According to the atomized
oil assay (Burch et al., 2010), this strain produced surfactant compounds on 1.5 % agar
LB plates after 24 h at 27 °C. In accordance with a detached leaf assay, conducted with
a cotton swap damped with 1 × 108 CFU/ml, on almond cv. Ferraduel, apricot cv.
Canino, peach cv. Calanda and European plum (P. domestica) cv. Golden Japan, X.
arboricola strain CITA 44 did not cause bacterial spot symptoms at 28 days post
inoculation (dpi). Despite this lack of symptoms, the bacterium could be re-isolated
after such period.
X. arboricola pv. pruni strain IVIA 2626.1 was isolated from symptomatic leaves of
Japanese plum (P. salicina cv. Fortune) in the southwestern Spanish region of
Extremadura in 2002. This strain showed swarming, swimming and twitching type
motility as well as production of surfactant compounds in the same culture conditions
described above for strain CITA 44. In addition, according to the detached leaf assay
described previously, strain IVIA 2626.1 was able to produce bacterial spot symptoms
on almond, peach and European plum but not on apricot after 28 dpi.
8
Classification of the strains was performed using an MLSA approach based on the
partial sequences of the housekeeping genes atpD, dnaK, efP, fyuA, glnA, gyrB and
rpoD of the strains CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 as well as related strains of X. arboricola
(Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015). Nucleotide sequences were aligned with ClustalW and
both ends of each alignment were trimmed (atpD 750 bp, dnaK 759 bp, efP 339 bp,
fyuA 753 bp, glnA 675 bp, gyrB 735 bp and rpoD 756 bp) and concatenated to a total
length sequence of 4,620 nucleotide positions. The phylogenetic tree was constructed
using the maximum likelihood method implemented in MEGA 6.0 (Tamura et al.,
2013) using 1,000 bootstrap re-samplings. According to the phylogenetic analysis,
strain CITA 44 belongs to the species X. arboricola, nevertheless, this strain could not
be associated to any of the pathovars of this species. The concatenated sequence
similarity among this strain and the other X. arboricola strains analysed varied from
97.08 % to 98.79 %. In contrast, strain IVIA 2626.1 was clustered in a group with the
pathotype strain X. arboricola pv. pruni CFBP 2535, isolated from P. salicina in New
Zealand, with a sequence similarity of 100%.
X. arboricola CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni IVIA 2626.1 strains are Gram-
negative, non-sporulating, rod-shaped, motile cells with a single polar flagellum. Rod-
shaped cells of CITA 44 are approximately 0.6 μm in width and 1.4–2.5 μm in length.
Rod-shaped cells of IVIA 2626.1 are approximately 0.7 μm in width and 1.7–2.5 μm in
length. These strains formed 2.0–3.0 mm colonies within 48 h at 27 °C on YPGA 1.5 %
agar plates (Trébaol et al., 2001). Both strains formed mucoid, circular, yellow colonies
with a convex elevation and an entire margin (Fig. 1). Strains CITA 44 and IVIA
2626.1 grew in the nutritive culture media PYM (Siciliano et al.) and LB (Macwilliams
& Liao, 2006), as well as in the minimal medium A (Sena-Vélez et al., 2015).
According to the Biolog GN2 system, both strains metabolized α-D-glucose, α-keto
glutamic acid, bromosuccinic acid, D-cellobiose, D-fructuose, D-mannose, D-psicose,
D-threalose, glycyl-L-glutamic acid, L-glutamic acid, L-serine, pyruvic acid methyl
ester, succinic acid, succinic acid mono-methyl-ester, sucrose and Tween 40. The
carbon compound D-saccharic acid was only utilized by strain CITA 44. Dextrin and L-
proline were only metabolized by strain IVIA 2626.1. In addition to this analysis, strain
CITA 44 hydrolysed casein and starch, while strain IVIA 2626.1 did not (Table 1).
8
Minimum information about genome sequence (Field et al., 2008) of X. arboricola
strain CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni strain IVIA 2626.1, as well as their
phylogenetic position, are provided in Table 1 and Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Images of X. arboricola CITA 44 (up) and X. arboricola pv. pruni IVIA 2626.1 (down) cells
using contrast-phase microscopy (left) and the appearance of the colony morphology after 48 h growing
on YPGA agar medium at 27 °C (right). Flagella was stained (left) as described previously (Kraiselburd
et al., 2013).
Fig. 2. Phylogenetic tree highlighting the position of two X. arboricola strains (shown in bold) relative
to the pathotype strains (PT) of X. arboricola. X. citri subsp. citri str. 306 (Gabriel et al., 1989; Euzéby,
2007) was used as an outgroup. The tree was built based on the comparison of concatenated nucleotide
sequences of seven housekeeping genes (atpD, dnaK, efP, fyuA, glnA, gyrB and rpoD) (Fischer-Le Saux
8
et al., 2015). Sequences were first aligned and concatenated. The phylogenetic tree was constructed by
using MEGA 6.0 software (Tamura et al., 2013) with Maximum Likelihood method based on Tamura-
Nei model. Bootstrap values (1,000 replicates) are shown at the branch points. GenBank accession
number of X. citri subsp. citri str. 306 genome sequence is shown in parenthesis; accession numbers
associated to the housekeeping loci of the pathotype strains can be found in a previous study(Fischer-Le
Saux et al., 2015).
Table 1. Classification and general features of two Xanthomonas arboricola strains according to the
MIGS recommendation (Field et al., 2008) published by the Genomic Standards Consortium (Field et al.,
2011).
1:(Vauterin et al., 1995), 12: (Pothier et al., 2011c), 54: (Woese et al., 1990); 55: (Garrity et al., 2005a), 56: (Garrity et al., 2005b), 57: (Euzéby, 2004),
58: (Williams & Kelly, 2013), 59: (Christensen & Cook, 1978), 60: (Naushad et al., 2015), 61: (Van den Mooter & Swings, 1990), 62: (Ashburner et
al., 2000).
8
2.3.4 Genome sequencing information
X. arboricola strain CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni strain IVIA 2626.1 were
selected for comparative whole sequencing analysis as X. arboricola strains isolated
from Prunus spp. with several different phenotypic characters including virulence.
Comparative genomics among the avirulent strain CITA 44 and the available Prunus-
pathogenic strains including IVIA 2626.1 should be useful for identifying the molecular
determinants associated with pathogenesis as well as those associated with host
resistance and for diagnostic characterization of X. arboricola strains causing bacterial
spot of Prunus spp. Whole Genome Shotgun Projects have been deposited at
DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession numbers LJGM00000000 and
LJGN00000000. The versions described in this paper are versions LJGM01000000 and
LJGN01000000. Table 2 summarizes the project information and its association with
MIGS.
X. arboricola strain CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni strain IVIA 2626.1 are
deposited and available at the bacterial collections of the Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA, Valencia, Spain) and the Centro de Investigación y
8
Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón (CITA, Zaragoza, Spain). Both strains were
streaked on 1.5 % agar LB plates and were grown for 48 h at 27 °C. A single colony of
each strain was inoculated separately in 30 ml of LB broth and grown on an orbital
shaker for 24 h at 27 °C. DNA from pure bacterial cultures was extracted using a
QIAamp DNA miniKit (Qiagen, Barcelona, Spain) according to the manufacturer
instructions. DNA quality and quantity were determined by 1 % agarose gel
electrophoresis, as well as using the Qubit flurometer (Invitrogen) according to the
Quant-it dsDNA BR Assay Kit (Invitrogen) manufacturer instructions, and by a
spectrophotometry (NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer, Thermo Scientific). A 2.0 μg/μl
aliquot of 200 ng/μl sample was submitted for the sequencing.
The draft genome sequences for strains CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 were generated at the
STAB VIDA Next Generation Sequencing Laboratory (Caparica, Portugal) using the
Ion Torrent sequencing technology. Draft genome assembly of strain CITA 44 was
based on 3,060,638 usable reads with a total base number of 948,933,067. The mean
read length was 361.70 ± 93.50 and the mode read length was 385 bp. The draft genome
assembly of IVIA 2626.1 was based on 2,317,319 reads, with a total base number of
461,361,072. The mean read length and the mode read length for this strain were
201.80 ± 85.30 bp and 241 bp, respectively. Genomic assemblies were constructed
using MIRA 4.0 (Chevreux et al., 1999). From the total of contigs generated, only those
with a contig size above 500 bp and an average coverage above 99 in the case of CITA
44, and 40, in the case of IVIA 2626.1 were considered significant. Finally, 71 contigs
(N50 = 120,981 bp; largest contig = 352,479 bp; average coverage = 198X) were
generated for strain CITA 44 and for strain IVIA 2626.1, 214 contigs (N50 = 47,650;
largest contig = 115,385; average coverage = 92X) were generated.
Genome annotation
The assembled draft genome for both strains was annotated using the RAST platform
and the gene-caller GLIMMER 3.02 (Delcher, 1999; Aziz et al., 2008). RNAmmer
version 1.2 (Lagesen et al., 2007) and tRNAscan-SE version 1.21 (Schattner et al.,
8
2005) were used to predict rRNAS and tRNAS, respectively. Signal peptides and
transmembrane domains were determined using the SignalP 4.1 server (Petersen et al.,
2011) and the TMHMM server version 2.0 (Krogh et al., 2001), respectively.
Assignment of genes to the COG database (Tatusov, 2000) and Pfam domains (Finn et
al., 2014) was performed with the NCBI conserved domain database using an expected
value threshold of 0.001 (Marchler-Bauer et al., 2014).
Major structural components associated with the flagellum (Blocker et al., 2003;
Chevance & Hughes, 2008), the type IV pilus (Dunger et al., 2014), the type III
secretory system (White et al., 2009; Büttner & Bonas, 2010; Abby & Rocha, 2012) and
the type III effectors (White et al., 2009; Hajri et al., 2012) as well as the type IV
secretory system and effectors (Christie et al., 2014; Waksman & Orlova, 2014;
Guglielmini et al., 2014), were identified in the draft genome sequence for each strain.
Initially, the query of those genes was based on the coding sequence regions
automatically annotated by RAST, and were confirmed using the BLASTn and
BLASTx tools available at NCBI. Those components which were not automatically
annotated were found in the genome sequence using the progressive Mauve alignment
method (Darling et al., 2010). Nucleotide sequences of the genes used for these
alignments were obtained from other xanthomonads in the NCBI gene database. Finally,
the nucleotide sequence of the aligned regions was analysed using the BLAST
approaches mentioned above. Those sequences with query coverage and identity
percentage higher than 90 % were annotated. Additionally, the core components of the
T3SS and T4SS were searched using the T346Hunter application (Martínez-García et
al., 2015). T3Es and T4Es genes were predicted using the Effective database (Jehl et al.,
2011) after selection of the “gram-” parameter as organism type and the “plant set”
parameter as classification module, and the SecReT4 tool (Bi et al., 2013), respectively.
All the predicted genes were corroborated and annotated according to the BLAST
parameters mentioned above.
The draft genome sequence of X. arboricola strain CITA 44 was 4,760,482 bp in length
with an average GC content of 65.8 %, which is similar to that for other genomes of this
8
species (65.4 to 66.0 %) reported in the NCBI genome database. For this strain, 4,306
genes were predicted and 4,250 were determined as protein coding genes. From these
protein coding genes, 3,330 genes were assigned to a putative function and the
remaining 920 were designated as hypothetical proteins. This strain presented 3 rRNA
and 53 tRNA genes. In the case of the X. arboricola pv. pruni strain IVIA 2626.1, the
draft genome sequence was 5,027,671 bp in length with an average GC content of 65.4
%, which is the same as for other strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni according to the
NCBI database. A total of 4,770 genes were predicted and, among them, 4,720 were
predicted as protein coding genes with 69.17 % assigned to a function and 30.83 %
designated as hypothetical proteins. 50 RNA genes (3 rRNA and 47 tRNA genes) were
predicted for this strain. The properties and characteristics associated with these
genomes are presented in Table 3. The classification of the predicted protein coding
genes into COG functional categories (Galperin et al., 2015) is summarized in Fig. 3
and Table 4.
Fig. 3. Graphical circular representation of the draft genome of X. arboricola CITA 44 and X.
arboricola pv. pruni IVIA 2626.1. The contigs of both strains were ordered by Mauve (Darling et al.,
2004) using the genome sequence of X. campestris pv. campestris ATCC 33913 (Dowson, 1939;
Skerman et al., 1980) as the reference. COG categories were assigned to genes by NCBI’s conserved
domain database (Marchler-Bauer et al., 2014). The circular map was constructed using CGView
(Stothard & Wishart, 2005). From outside to center: Genes on forward strand (colored by COG
categories); genes on reverse strand (colored by COG categories); GC content; GC skew.
9
Table 3. Genome statistics
9
2.3.6 Insights from the genome sequence
Based on the phenotypic differences between CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 strains,
selected genes associated with motility and pathogenicity were analysed (Table 5). No
differences were observed for the structural components associated with bacterial
flagella. A total of 30 out of the 31 components described for this organelle were
identified (Chevance & Hughes, 2008), but neither of the two strains contained a
homolog of the flhE gene. Regarding the 27 components associated with type IV pilus
biogenesis and regulation in Xanthomonas (Dowson, 1939; Skerman et al., 1980;
Dunger et al., 2014), fimX, pilD, pilE, pilL and pilW genes were absent in strain CITA
44, whereas strain IVIA 2626.1 sequence did not contain homologs for fimX and pilL
genes.
In the genus Xanthomonas, 24 structural and regulatory components of the T3SS have
been determined. They are present in the hrp gene cluster which is regulated by the
master regulons HrpG and HrpX (Guo et al., 2011). Strain CITA 44 did not contain any
of the 24 components of this gene cluster except two coding sequences which
correspond to hrpG and hrpX homologs. The absence of T3SS has also been reported
for another X. arboricola strain isolated from barley as well as for X. cannabis (Ignatov
et al., 2015; Jacobs et al., 2015). The absence of the genes hrcC, hrcJ, hrcN, hrcR, hrcS,
hrcT, hrcU, hrcV, hrpB1, hrpD5 and hrpF was corroborated by conventional PCR as
previously described (Hajri et al., 2012). In the case of strain IVIA 2626.1, 22 out of the
24 components, as well as homologs for the two master regulons were present, but no
homologs for hpaF and hrpB5 were found. Homologs for these two genes were also
absent in all the genome sequences of X. arboricola publicly available. Sixty T3Es
described in genus Xanthomonas were absent in strain CITA 44 and absence of 21 of
them, identified in X. arboricola pv. pruni, was corroborated by conventional PCR
using specific primers (Hajri et al., 2012). On the other hand, strain IVIA 2626.1
contained 22 T3Es, 21 of them were described previously in other X. arboricola pv.
pruni strains (Hajri et al., 2012). In addition to these effectors, a homolog of xopAQ was
found. Both strains contained all 12 components associated with Agrobacterium
tumefaciens (Conn, 1942; Skerman et al., 1980) VirB/VirD4 T4SS (Guglielmini et al.,
2014). Additionally, strain IVIA 2626.1 harbored a gene cluster homologous to the type
four conjugation cluster (tfc). This cluster is composed by 24 genes associated with the
9
expression of a conjugative pilus which is involved in the propagation of genomic
islands (Juhas et al., 2007). In strain IVIA 2626.1, 17 out of the 24 genes associated
with the T4SS were found and, within them, tfc2, tfc4, tfc12, tfc14, tfc16, tfc22 and
tfc23 were identified as the core components required for the functioning of this T4SS
(Juhas et al., 2007).
An additional feature of the X. arboricola pv. pruni sequence is the presence of the
plasmid pXap41 (41,102 Kbp) (Pothier et al., 2011c). This plasmid is exclusively in X.
arboricola pv. pruni strains and is associated with virulence because it contains some
T3Es such as XopE3. Genome alignment of the plasmid pXap41 nucleotide sequence
and the draft genome sequence for strain IVIA 2626.1 showed a region of 41.1 Kbp
which was 99.90 % similar to the pXap41 plasmid of X. arboricola pv. pruni strain
CFBP 5530. Conversely, no sequence region in the strain CITA 44 draft genome was
similar to this plasmid. Negative results in the amplification of the genes repA1, repA2
and mobC associated with pXap41 (Pothier et al., 2011c) confirmed the absence of this
plasmid in strain CITA 44.
9
2.3.7 Conclusions
Here we report and describe the draft genome sequence for two X. arboricola strains,
CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1, isolated from Prunus in Spain and associated with bacterial
spot of stone fruits and almond by PCR protocols for identification of this pathovar
(Pagani, 2004; Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011). The phenotype of these two strains varied
for motility and virulence. Initial genomic analysis identified several differences
associated with motility (Type IV pilus) and virulence (T3SS, T3Es and T4SS),
including the presence of the putative virulence plasmid pXap41 only in X. arboricola
pv. pruni IVIA 2626.1 and the absence of the T3SS, T3Es and the plasmid pXap41 in
the avirulent strain CITA 44. All these features make the avirulent strain a candidate for
comparative studies to elucidate the molecular processes associated with the plant host
interaction and virulence for strains of X. arboricola on Prunus species. Likewise,
comparative genomic studies with related strains could provide target sequences for
design of molecular diagnostics for the different pathovars of X. arboricola, as well as
to differentiate between virulent and avirulent strains. Further functional studies will
also provide insights into the pathogenesis process for X. arboricola strains associated
with bacterial spot of stone fruits and almond.
2.3.8 Acknowledgements
9
2.4 Draft genome sequence of two strains of Xanthomonas arboricola isolated from
Prunus persica which are dissimilar to strains that cause bacterial spot disease on
Prunus spp.
2.4.1 Abstract
The draft genome sequences of two strains of Xanthomonas arboricola, isolated from
asymptomatic peach trees in Spain, are reported here. These strains are avirulent and do
not belong to the same phylogroup as X. arboricola pv. pruni, a causal agent of
bacterial spot disease of stone fruits and almonds.
The two new genomes presented here, which belong to the avirulent strains CITA 14
and CITA 124, were compared to the genomes of other X. arboricola strains (Ibarra
Caballero et al., 2013; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014; Higuera et al., 2015; Ignatov et
al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2016) and could be helpful in understanding the pathogenesis
and evolution in this species. Moreover, the genomes will be useful for generating
accurate diagnostic tools to differentiate the quarantine pathogen X. arboricola pv.
pruni from other nontarget strains, thereby avoiding unnecessary control measures that
could result in high economic losses as occurred with other xanthomonads (Graham &
Gottwald, 1991; Jalan et al., 2011).
Strains CITA 14 and CITA 124 were isolated from asymptomatic peach trees (Prunus
persica) in Spain and were deposited in the Centro de Investigación y Tecnología
Agroalimentaria de Aragón (CITA) in Zaragoza, Spain. To confirm their identification,
9
a multilocus sequence analysis using partial sequences of the housekeeping genes dnaK,
fyuA, gyrB, and rpoD was performed (Young et al., 2008). By means of such analysis,
these strains were not clustered into any of the established pathovars of X. arboricola.
CITA 14 and CITA 124 were enclosed in a group with CITA 44, another atypical strain
of X. arboricola isolated from the rootstock Santa Lucía SL-64 (Prunus mahaleb)
(Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016a), which shows sequence identities of 98.3% with
strain CITA 14 and 98.9% with strain CITA 124.
Genome sequencing was performed using Ion Torrent sequencing technology (PGM,
Life Technologies) at STAB VIDA, Caparica, Portugal (733.06 Mb, 100-fold coverage
for CITA 14 and 403.99 Mb, 50-fold coverage for CITA 124). De novo assembly was
conducted using CLC Genomics Workbench version 8.5.1 (CLC bio, Denmark) and
MIRA version 4.0 (Chevreux et al., 1999) and the subsequent merging of the two
assemblies was done using Sequencher version 5.4 (Gene Codes Corporation, USA).
Total lengths of 4,746,212 bp (65.60% G+C content) and 4,752,241 bp (65.8% G+C
content) were generated and placed in 72 (N50, 108,424 bp; maximum contig length,
265,354 bp) and 128 contigs (N50, 60,818 bp; maximum contig length 189,085) for
CITA 14 and CITA 124, respectively.
Annotations were conducted using the NCBI Prokaryotic Genome Annotation Pipeline
version 3.1 (Angiuoli et al., 2008) and the Rapid Annotations using Subsystem
Technology server (Aziz et al., 2008). The annotation for strain CITA 14 detected 3,974
coding sequences, four rRNAs, and 53 tRNAs, representing 439 subsystems;
meanwhile, for strain CITA 124, 3,797 coding sequences, three rRNAs, and 50 tRNAs,
representing 442 subsystems, were detected. A detailed genome comparative analysis
will be addressed in a future publication.
9
2.4.4 Acknowledgments
9
Capítulo 3: Comparación genómica y caracterización
fenotípica de cepas patógenas y no patógenas de X. arboricola
revela aspectos relacionados con el proceso de infección de la
mancha bacteriana de los frutales de hueso.
1
Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain. 2Centro
de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain. 3Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias, Valencia, Spain.
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni is the causal agent of bacterial spot disease of stone
fruits, a quarantinable pathogen in several areas worldwide, including the European
Union. In order to develop efficient control methods for this disease, it is necessary to
improve the understanding of the key determinants associated with host restriction,
colonization and the development of pathogenesis. After an initial characterization, by
multilocus sequence analysis, of 15 strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus, one
strain did not group into the pathovar pruni or into other pathovars of this species and
therefore it was identified and defined as a X. arboricola pv. pruni look-a-like. This
non-pathogenic strain and two typical strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni were selected
for a whole genome and phenotype comparative analysis in features associated with the
pathogenesis process in Xanthomonas. Comparative analysis among these bacterial
strains isolated from Prunus spp. and the inclusion of 15 publicly available genome
sequences from other pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola revealed
variations in the phenotype associated with variations in the profiles of TonB-dependent
transporters, sensors of the two-component regulatory system, methyl accepting
chemotaxis proteins, components of the flagella and the type IV pilus, as well as in the
repertoire of cell-wall degrading enzymes and the components of the type III secretion
system and related effectors. These variations provide a global overview of those
mechanisms that could be associated with the development of bacterial spot disease.
Additionally, it pointed out some features that might influence the host specificity and
the variable virulence observed in X. arboricola.
3.2 Introduction
10
X. arboricola pv. pruni, causal agent of bacterial spot disease on at least 13 species of
the genus Prunus, is considered one of the most economically important pathovars
within X. arboricola. This pathogen, which is classified as a quarantinable organism in
the European Union, causes damages on leaves, fruits, twigs, branches and trunks of the
trees (EFSA, 2014). Damages in 25-75% of the peach fruits in orchards in the USA
have been reported (Stefani, 2010).
Previous molecular typing analysis of a selection of strains isolated from Prunus has
demonstrated the low diversity on X. arboricola pv. pruni, which forms a monophyletic
group comprised of a unique clonal complex regardless of the host, the continent or the
year of isolation, corresponding to a pandemic lineage that stays as a monomorphic
group during evolution (Boudon et al., 2005; Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015).
10
bacterial sensing and attachment, chemotaxis, motility, xanthan production, biofilm
organization, the metabolism of carbon sources, as well as secretion of virulence
factors, were basic for improving the knowledge of the bacterial ability to penetrate the
plant tissue and to cause disease in a specific host range of plants.
The general genome features of two X. arboricola pv. pruni pathogenic strains, isolated
from almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. P. dulcis) and Japanese plum (Prunus salicina),
as well as one of a non-pathogenic strain isolated from Santa Lucía SL-64 rootstock
(Prunus mahaleb) were described in a previous work (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014,
2016a). Herein, our goal was to associate the genomic content of these xanthomonads
with the phenotypic features of X. arboricola pv. pruni that causes bacterial spot of
stone fruits. Differences in key aspects associated with bacterial sensing, motility,
attachment and secretion of cell-wall degrading enzymes as well as type III effectors
were determined in pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola.
3.3 Results
10
arboricola pv. pruni. Comparative analysis between these two intra-specific groups
revealed a total of 43 nucleotide variations in the concatenated sequence of CITA 44 (11
variable nucleotide sites for dnaK, nine for fyuA, 16 for gyrB and seven for rpoD
genes), or a sequence similarity of 98.49% between this strain and all the other X.
arboricola isolated from Prunus. These nucleotide changes could be associated with
silent mutations, due to the fact that the translated amino acid sequence of each locus
showed a 100% of sequence coverage and 99-100% of sequence identity to several
strains of X. arboricola according to the Blastp results.
10
Fig 1. Maximum likelihood tree of concatenated nucleotide sequences for partial sequences of the
genes dnaK, fyuA, gyrB and rpoD of selected strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus. Target
strains are in bold. For comparative purposes other X. arboricola strains are included. X. citri subsp. citri
strain ICMP 24 was considered as outgroup. Bootstrap values (1,000 replicates) are indicated below and
above the branches.
Fig 2. Phylogenetic analysis of 18 strains of X. arboricola based on the core genome sequence of the
species (2,525 CDS). Sequences were aligned using MAFFT and Maximum likelihood analysis was
carried out using RaxML. Bootstrap values (1,000 replicates) are presented above or below the branches.
The strain of X. campestris pv. campestris ATCC 33913 was used as an outgroup.
10
Phylogenetic analysis of the 18 X. arboricola strains, based on the core genome
sequence (S1 and S2 Tables), showed that the three strains that cause disease on stone
fruits and almond (CITA 33, IVIA 2626.1 and MAFF 301420) clustered according to
the pathovar classification, as observed previously using the multilocus sequence
analysis (MLSA) approach. In the same manner, strain CITA 44 did not cluster with the
other xanthomonads isolated from Prunus nor to any of the well-established pathovars
described for X. arboricola. Instead, CITA 44 was included in a clade along with the
strain 3004 of X. arboricola, recently described as the causal agent of disease on barley
(Hordeum vulgare) (Ignatov et al., 2015) (Fig 2).
10
Fig 3. Venn diagram representing the CDS shared among X. arboricola. CDS shared by Prunus-
pathogenic strains and CITA 44 (A), CDS shared by CITA 44 and X. arboricola (B). The distribution of
the unique CDS found in in the draft genome sequences of CITA 44, CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1 that have
been classified into the COGs functional categories are also represented (C). Different letters represent
the standardized code of the COGs functional categories.
The profile of carbon sources metabolized by CITA 44 was determined using the
BIOLOG GN2 microplate system and compared to that obtained from the strains of the
pathovars corylina, juglandis, populi and pruni (Table 1). Seventeen carbon sources
compounds over 95 were utilized by CITA 44, meanwhile 45 carbon sources were not
utilized and 33 showed variable reactions and, consequently, were considered as not
informative. On the other hand, the profile observed in 20 strains isolated from Prunus
and identified as X. arboricola pv. pruni, as well as the patterns observed in the
remaining strains of X. arboricola, were different compared to CITA 44, as represented
in the dendrogram obtained from the similarity analysis (Fig 4). All the strains of the
10
pathovar pruni, unlike CITA 44, were able to metabolize dextrin and proline and unable
to metabolize D-saccharic acid.
Fig 4. Carbon compounds utilization profile of X. arboricola. Biolog GN2 profile for CITA 44 (A),
comparative cluster analysis including carbon compounds profile from X. arboricola isolates (B). Cluster
analysis was constructed based on 63 informative substrates. Data were computed using the UPGMA
model. Reliability of the tree was determined by the cophenetic correlation index (r > 0.98).
10
Table 2. Chemotactic profile of 18 carbon compounds of three representative strains of Xanthomonas
arboricola isolated from Prunus spp.
All strains isolated from Prunus spp., both pathogenic and non-pathogenic, harbored
eight TBDTs. The presence of homologous sequences to the TonB-dependent receptor
loci XCC1719 and XAC3077, and the absence of XCC0304 and XCC2867 in the
strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni, differentiated them from the non-pathogenic strain
CITA 44. The distribution of the TBDTs revealed that none of these variations was
unique for those strains that inhabit the Prunus hosts. Nevertheless, the TBDT cirA
(XAC3077) was found only in those strains that caused disease on stone fruits and
Turkish hazel (Corylus colurna).
10
Regarding the distribution of sensors of two-component regulatory system (STCRS)
(Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011), 58 orthologous CDS of 86 genes previously described in
Xanthomonas were found in X. arboricola. All the analyzed strains shared 44 STCRS
(S4 Table), and CITA 33, CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 have 53 STCRS in common.
Homologous CDS to a diguanylate cyclase of X. citri (XAC2804) was only present in
the pathogenic strains, meanwhile homologues of four STCRS (XAC1819, XAC2804,
XAC0136 and XAC1345) were only found in CITA 44. Additionally, as compared to
other X. arboricola strains, CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1 presented two unique STCRS
homologous to the loci XAC0136 and XAC1345 of X. citri, respectively (Fig 5).
3.3.3 Flagella, fimbrial and non-fimbrial adhesins associated with motility and
attachment in X. arboricola.
Swarming motility was evaluated in all the 21 X. arboricola strains isolated from
Prunus (Table 3). Two kinds of swarmer colony phenotype were observed. Dendritic
pattern, encompassed by several tendrils that extended away from a central colony, was
observed in CITA 44 as well as in other 13 strains of the pathovar pruni after 12-15
11
hours post inoculation (hpi). Despite this, CITA 44 showed some unique characteristic
such as the presence of shorter and wider tendrils in the swarming colony (Fig 6A). The
second colony morphology was characterized by a circular shape shown by seven
strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni (Fig 6A). Light and electron microscopy observations
discarded the existence of hyper-flagellated bacterial cells in the swarming colony for
all strains, including CITA 44 (S2 Fig).
Fig 5. Graphical circular representation of the CDS associated with pathogenesis in X. arboricola
isolated from Prunus. The contigs of the draft genome sequence of strains CITA 33, CITA 44 and IVIA
2626.1 were arranged by Mauve (Darling et al., 2004), using the genome sequence of X. arboricola pv.
juglandis Xaj 417 as the reference. The circular map was constructed using CGview. From outside to
center: CDS on forward strand, CDS on reverse strand, GC content and GC skew.
11
Fig 6. Flagella and type IV pilus mediated motility on semisolid and solid surfaces in some
representative strains of Xanthomonas arboricola. Swarming dendritic (A1 and A2) and circular (A3)
phenotypes were determined on PYM 0.5% agar plates after 24 hpi. Variable swimming phenotypes (B1,
B2 and B3) observed after 72 hpi on MMA 0.3% agar plates. Twitching type motility (C1, C2 and C3)
was observed after 72 hpi on polyestyrene plate surface after inoculation through PYM 1.5% agar (40X).
Each motility assay was conducted in three independent experiments with three replicates.
Surfactant activity was evaluated for the 21 strains mentioned above according to the
atomized oil assay (Burch et al., 2010). A bright halo, associated with a change in the
surface tension, was observed around the colonies of all the strains tested. Surfactant
production, estimated as the ratio between the radius of the bright halo and the area of
the colony, was variable among strains (Table 3). CITA 44 showed a mean ratio of 3.69
± 0.54 (mean ± standard deviation), meanwhile strains of the pathovar pruni showed a
mean ratio of 3.94 ± 2.62. Strains IVIA 3162 and IVIA 3847–1 showed mean ratios of
0.52 ± 0.10 and 11.98 ± 0.89, being the lowest and the highest activity identified,
respectively (Table 3).
The swimming ability of these strains was also assayed on 0.3% agar MMA plates.
After inoculation, all the strains showed a circular and turbid growth around the
inoculating point (Fig 6B). This activity, recorded as the radius of the bacterial colony,
was variable among the strains (Table 3). CITA 44 presented the highest activity with
an average of the radius of the halo of 2.42 ± 0.10, meanwhile the mean for pathogenic
strains was 0.65 ± 0.46, with a maximum value of 1.25 ± 0.05 for CFBP 5724 and a
minimum value of 0.30 ± 0.05 for IVIA 2626.1.
Twitching motility, which is carried out by type IV pilus (Mattick, 2002), was observed
in all the strains on the plastic surface of the culture plate, after crystal violet staining
(Fig 6C). Microscopic observation at the edge of the colony revealed a twitching zone
11
composed by bacterial rafts moving away from the colony, creating a concentric pattern
preceded by a lattice like network and microcolonies.
Regarding the structural and regulatory components of the type IV pilus, 22 out of 31
CDS homologous to the components described in X. citri subsp. citri strain 306 (Dunger
et al., 2016) were found in the nine genome sequences of X. arboricola; 16 of these
CDS were shared by all the strains (S4 Table). The other Prunus-associated strains
presented the same components, including CITA 44. The remaining strains of X.
arboricola showed a similar pattern, with the exception of NCPPB 1630, CFBP 7634
and CFBP 7651, which did not have homologous sequence to the locus XAC0259 of X.
citri. No sequence associated with pilF was observed in strain CFBP 7634 and none
homologues of pilQ was found in strain 3004 (S4 Table).
Regarding the presence of the genes associated with type IV pilus, that are present in
most of the Xanthomonas species, the cluster pilB, C, D, R, S was found in all the
11
strains, as well as the cluster that encodes the minor pilins, pilE, V, W, X, Y1 and fimT,
that showed a sequence identity lower than 80.0%. Presence of pilE, pilV, pilY1 and
fimT was variable among the strains, meanwhile pilW and pilX were found in all the
genome sequences. Prepilin pilA was found in all the strains of X. arboricola, despite its
identity to the locus XAC3505 of X. citri was lower than 80.0% (S4 Table).
3.3.4 Pathogenicity tests and genomic components associated with late stages of
infection in Prunus-associated strains.
Detached leaf assay was carried out by inoculating 21 X. arboricola strains, isolated
from Prunus spp., on almond (cv. Ferraduel), apricot (cv. Canino), peach (cv. Calanda)
and European plum (cv. Golden Japan). CITA 44 did not cause bacterial spot disease
symptoms on almond, apricot, peach or plum 28 days post inoculation (dpi). Significant
differences (p < 0.05) in the virulence among strains of the pathovar pruni were shown
(Table 4). These strains were able to induce disease symptoms on almond, peach and
European plum but none of them caused clear disease symptoms on apricot.
Representatives of this assay are shown in Fig 7.
The secretory pathway components, and plant cell wall-degrading enzymes, were also
analyzed in X. arboricola genomes (S4 Table). Regarding the encoding elements for the
two type II secretory systems (T2SS) described in Xanthomonas (Filloux, 2004;
Szczesny et al., 2010), all strains harbored the 11 genes of the xps cluster but, in the
case of the xcs cluster, only CDS homologous to xcsD, xcsE, xcsF, xcsG and xcsJ were
found. The remaining seven components of this secretory system were automatically
annotated, but amino acid sequence analysis showed for all of them an identity lower
than 80% when compared with the xcs cluster described in X. campestris pv. campestris
(Szczesny et al., 2010).
11
Table 4. Differences in the virulence of 24 Xanthomonas arboricola strains isolated from Prunus on
detached leaves of almond, apricot, peach and European plum.
Fig 7. Schematic representation of bacterial spot symptoms observed on almond, apricot, peach
and European plum 28 dpi. Detached leaves were inoculated with a sterile cotton swap damped with
1x108 CFU/mL of bacteria or with 10 mM MgCl2 as negative control and maintained on 0.5% water agar
plates.
11
Variability in the profile of type II secreted virulence factors was found in X. arboricola
(S4 Table). A total of 11 pectolytic enzymes (da Silva et al., 2002; Vandroemme et al.,
2013) were found in this species and only the polygalacturonase, encoded by the locus
XCC3459, and the rhamnogalacturonan acetylesterase, encoded by XCC0154 in X.
campestris, were shared by all the strains. With respect to the strains isolated from
Prunus, they shared, in addition, one pectate lyase (XCC2815), one polygalacturonase
(XCC2266) and one rhamnogalacturonase (XAC3505). CITA 44 had homologous
sequences to a pectate lyase (XCC0112), a pectin methylesterase (XCC0121) and a
pectinmethylesterase (XCC2265) that were absent in strains CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1,
meanwhile these two pathogenic strains had a homologous sequence to the degenerated
pectate lyase of X. citri (XAC2373) which was absent in CITA 44 (Fig 5).
Variation in the profile of cellulolytic enzymes (da Silva et al., 2002) was also found in
X. arboricola, 14 of these degrading molecules were present in this species but only
nine of them were shared by all the strains. None of the enzymes were unique in those
strains isolated from Prunus spp. Pathogenic strains differed from CITA 44 in the
presence of a homologous CDS to a beta-glucosidase (XCC1775), and in the absence of
the cellulases encoded by the loci XAC3516 and XCC2387, which were present only in
CITA 44 (Fig 5, S4 Table).
Other crucial pathogenic elements analyzed were the T3SS components and the type III
effectors (Bonas et al., 1989; da Silva et al., 2002; White et al., 2009; Bogdanove et al.,
11
2011; Potnis et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2011; Hajri et al., 2012; Vandroemme et al., 2013;
Li et al., 2014) in the nine genome sequences of X. arboricola (S4 Table). All the
strains harbored CDS that encoded for HpaR2, HpaS, HrpG and HrpX, which are
involved in the regulation of the T3SS, and for many of the T3Es and some cell-wall
degrading enzymes (Jacobs et al., 2015). However, the strains 3004, CFBP 7634 and
CITA 44, as described before (Ignatov et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-
Cambronero et al., 2016a), did not present the components of the T3SS that have been
found in other Xanthomonas. Besides the master regulons mentioned above, all the
remaining X. arboricola strains encompassed and shared 14 hypersensitive response and
pathogenicity genes (hpa2, hpaB, hrcC, hrcJ, hrcN, hrcR, hrcS, hrcT, hrcU, hrcV,
hrpB1, hrpB2, hrpB5, hrpD6) (S4 Table).
11
3.4 Discussion
Fig 8. Nucleotide sequence similarity among the sequence of the exclusive plasmid of X. arboricola
pv. pruni pXap41 and the draft genome sequences of nine strains of X. arboricola. Blastn was used
for the comparative sequence analysis with an expected value threshold of 0.001. Circular graphic
representation was constructed using the BLAST Ring Image Generator (BRIG) tool. See legend for
information related to each ring of the map.
11
Classification of CITA 44 as an atypical strain of X. arboricola was corroborated by the
phylogenetic analysis conducted with 2,525 genes identified as the components of the
core genome of this species. This atypical strain isolated from Prunus did not present
the same phylogenetic origin as the pathogenic strains classified as pathovar pruni, but
it was more similar to strain 3004 of X. arboricola, which did not cluster within any of
the well-established pathovars of this taxon. Even though CITA 44 was closely related
to 3004, this strain did not produce symptoms on inoculated barley in assays performed
in our group. This result is similar to a previous work on X. arboricola strains isolated
from walnut that were more similar to strains isolated from Musa sp. than to those of the
pathovar juglandis isolated from walnut (Cesbron et al., 2015).
Moreover, the study of these atypical strains, found on barley, walnut and here in P.
mahaleb, open the discussion about the origin and evolution of pathogenicity in this
species as it has been proposed previously for the genus Xanthomonas (Jacobs et al.,
2015). Based in the current data, it is not possible to determine if these non-pathogenic
strains were predecessors of the pathogenic groups or the result of the loss of their
pathogenicity. Further exploratory studies regarding some other Prunus-associated
strains with other phenotypic and genotypic variants are needed to elucidate the
evolutionary process of pathogenicity in this bacterial species.
11
Carbon source utilization profiles, as expected (Vauterin et al., 1995; Boudon et al.,
2005; Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015), showed high homogeneity among strains of the
pathovar pruni. Nevertheless, the profile of carbon sources utilization shown by CITA
44 was different to the one presented by the other strains as well as the one provided in
the description of X. arboricola species (Vauterin et al., 1995). This disparity from the
original metabolic description of the species has been also described for some strains of
other Xanthomonas species, such as X. vesicatoria (Stoyanova et al., 2014) and X.
campestris pv. campestris (Massomo et al., 2003). The discordant profile of CITA 44
could be due to the fact that the original description of the species X. arboricola was
based on strains of seven pathogenic pathovars which presented a high intra-pathovar
homogeneity (Vauterin et al., 1995; Fischer-Le Saux et al., 2015) and did not consider a
wider ecological diversity including the atypical non-pathogenic strains currently of
great research interest.
Initial stages of bacterial adaptation and host colonization encompass a series of sensors
and receptors that detect stimuli, providing to the cells the information of their biotic
and abiotic environment which triggers a series of processes such as the cell motility,
chemotaxis, quorum sensing, biofilm formation and many other cellular events (Qian et
al., 2008; Pieretti et al., 2012). At this stage, a group of protein complexes denominated
TBDTs, STCRS and MCPs play a crucial role (Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011).
The repertoire of TBDTs in X. arboricola, which are bacterial outer membrane proteins
associated with the transport of different substrates including carbohydrates (Noinaj et
al., 2010), was extensive compared to other species of this genus (Mhedbi-Hajri et al.,
2011; Vandroemme et al., 2013), resulting similar to the one observed in X. campestris
and other epiphytic xanthomonads (Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011). Additionally, this
repertoire is in accordance with the one previously observed in two not publicly
available genome sequences of X. arboricola pv. fragariae (strains LMG 19145 and
LMG 19146) and one of X. arboricola pv. pruni (strain LMG 25862) (Vandroemme et
al., 2013). This high number of TBDTs has been associated in other xanthomonads with
the need for carbohydrates scavenging in variable conditions encountered in epiphytic
niches (Blanvillain et al., 2007).
Bacterial sensing and chemotaxis are essential components of the initial infection
processes (Wadhams & Armitage, 2004). Regarding STCRS proteins, which are part of
12
the dominant molecular mechanism by which unicellular organisms respond to
environmental stimuli, the large repertoire observed in Xanthomonas arboricola was
similar to that observed in X. campestris (Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011), and it was in
accordance with the number of STCRS observed in most of the complete genome
sequences of Xanthomonas, with the exception of those species which inhabit in
restricted niches such as X. albilineans (Qian et al., 2008; Pieretti et al., 2012).
Evaluation of TBDTs and STCRS content revealed differences between CITA 44 and X.
arboricola pv. pruni strains, despite of the general low variability observed among the
different X. arboricola strains evaluated.
Beside this, CITA 44, compared to strains of the pathovar pruni, also showed a distinct
chemotactic pattern, being influenced by just a few compounds. This kind of
intraspecific chemotactic variability has been also observed in other xanthomonads
models like X. citri subsp. citri with dissimilar pathogenic ability (Sena-Vélez, 2015).
In order to explain these chemotactic behaviors, MCP content was evaluated. MCPs
sense beneficial or toxic environmental compounds and transduce the signal to the
cytoplasm by CheW protein, causing changes in the flagella direction and rotation
speed, which finally guides bacterial cells to favourable environments (Wadhams &
Armitage, 2004; Moreira et al., 2015). Here, we have found that the core repertoire of
the MCPs in nine genome sequences of X. arboricola included at least 13
chemoreceptors. Differences in the MCPs content were observed among the genome-
sequenced strains and could be associated with their host range. Differences in MCPs
content were found between CITA 44 and other xanthomonads from Prunus spp.
Moreover, a variation in the cheW locus was also identified.
Although functional analyses are necessary to confirm the role of these sensors at initial
stages of the infection process, our results point out that these processes and the genes
involved may mark the diverse behaviour of the different strains. Moreover, the very
initial stages of the bacterial-host interaction described above could trigger other
molecular routes which involve components such as the flagella and the type IV pilus,
that are related not only to motility on liquid or solid environments, but also with
attachment to the host or the development of biofilm structures (Kearns, 2010;
Malamud et al., 2011; Dunger et al., 2016). Motility on solid and semisolid surfaces,
which are controlled by flagella or type IV pilus, was also variable among the assayed
12
strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus. This variability among different strains in
swimming, swarming and twitching motility have been shown in other xanthomonads
such as X. citri (Sena-Vélez et al., 2015), as well as in X. arboricola strains isolated
from walnut (Cesbron et al., 2015). Strain CITA 44 showed the higher ability to swim
that maybe connected to a more restricted niche to survive and higher requirements to
locate it. Similarly, this enhanced ability to swim has been described in other bacterial
models like X. citri subsp. citri, which less virulent strains were described to have a
higher swimming ability (Sena-Vélez et al., 2015). In relation to the surface motility in
X. arboricola, two different colony phenotypes were observed; the circular one matched
with the one observed for other species such as X. oryzae and X. citri (Shen et al., 2001;
Gottig et al., 2009), described previously as independent of flagella and defined as
sliding type motility instead of swarming (Malamud et al., 2011). Contrary to this, some
other strains showed dendritic swarmer colonies, which had not been previously
described in Xanthomonas but confirmed in other bacterial species such as
Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a real swarming type motility (Kohler et al., 2000). In
addition, these strains showed other swarming-related features such as the production of
surfactants and a rapid outward migration (Verstraeten et al., 2008). Again, CITA 44
showed a different pattern to that of X. arboricola pv. pruni, presenting a colony with
an intermediate phenotype between dendritic and circular and also an intermediate
surfactant production.
12
(Ikeda et al., 1996; Kim et al., 1999). This is not the case of CITA 44, which showed a
single polar flagellum like X. arboricola pv. pruni strains (Garita-Cambronero et al.,
2016a).
The type IV pilus is an important structure related to the movement across the surface,
adhesion, microcolony formation, secretion of proteases and colonization factors, being
a key pathogenesis factor (Craig & Li, 2008). In general, strains isolated from Prunus,
despite their pathogenicity, harbor all the four subcomplexes that permit the biogenesis
and function of this structure (Dunger et al., 2016); additionally these components were
demonstrated as functional in the twitching motility assay.
As the type IV pilus, non-fimbrial adhesins are involved in bacterial attachment to host
surfaces; in X. oryzae, they play an important role in pathogenesis and are particularly
involved at the initial stage of leaf attachment and penetration into the host (Ray et al.,
2002; Das et al., 2009). X. arboricola, shows various combinations of adhesins among
the different strains studied. This variability could be associated to the different
bacterial-plant compatible interactions of the different strains and hosts (Ryan et al.,
2011). Once more, CITA 44 lacked one of the genes involved in adhesion synthesis
which was present in X. arboricola pv. pruni. Further functional studies in this way
could be valuable to define the definitive role of these adhesins in the pathogenicity and
host specificity observed in the pathovars of X. arboricola.
After the very initial stages of pathogenesis described above, some virulence genes
related to host colonization, multiplication and development of symptoms are
expressed. T2SS permits the export of proteins from the bacterial cell and it is involved
in the translocation of degradative enzymes which causes damage to the host cells and
tissues (Cianciotto, 2005). Most species of Xanthomonas encode the components of two
T2SS. One of them is Xps, which contributes to bacterial virulence by the secretion of
xylanases and proteases in X. campestris and X. oryzae (Szczesny et al., 2010). In X.
arboricola, all the components of the xps gene cluster were conserved. As in all the
Xanthomonas species, X. arboricola showed a core repertoire of cell wall degrading
enzymes which is formed by at least 30 CDS. Beside this, a high variation in the
repertoire of these enzymes was also found among the analyzed strains. These
variations could be related to the different cell wall composition of the hosts or tissues
and the requirements to produce symptoms during the infection (Ryan et al., 2011).
12
Differences in the profile of degrading enzymes were identified among the Prunus-
pathogenic strains and other strains of X. arboricola, including CITA 44.
T3SS, as well as the T3Es, plays an essential role in pathogenicity once bacteria have
penetrated the host tissue and could be related to host specificity in Xanthomonas
(White et al., 2009). As occurred in other Xanthomonas species, all the X. arboricola
strains harbored orthologs CDS to the genes that encode HpaR2, HpaS, HrpG and
HrpX, which are involved in the regulation of T3SS, T3Es as well as other pathogenic
factors such as those encoded by pehA and pehD genes (Jacobs et al., 2015). This was
also previously reported in the strains isolated from walnut as well as for strains 3004,
CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 (Jacobs et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-
Cambronero et al., 2016a).
12
pathogenic character. Currently, functional studies on the effect of pXap41 and its
related T3Es are being conducted in our group to confirm their role in the pathogenicity
and the host specificity of the pathovar pruni strains.
In conclusion, this study of strains with diverse virulence range, and particularly strain
CITA 44, has provided an opportunity to elucidate essential mechanisms in the host-
bacteria interaction in Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni. In addition, it is useful to
understand the evolution of the pathogenicity in this species. Furthermore, the
comparative analysis reported here highlights several differences regarding to key
genotypic and phenotypic features of initial and late stages of the infection process. The
different TBDT, STCR, MCP profiles, the genomic variation in the components of
flagellin, the type IV pilus and in cell-wall degrading enzymes repertoire, and the
alteration in main virulence factors provide information that contributes to explain the
phenotypic differences observed between pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains.
Although the work presented shows a global overview of mechanisms involved in
virulence, further functional studies are needed to test and improve the understanding of
the role of all the virulence-related features mentioned here.
X. arboricola strain CITA 44, isolated from asymptomatic leaves of P. mahaleb in the
Spanish region of Aragón, and fourteen bacterial strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni
isolated from trees showing bacterial spot symptoms in Spain and Italy, were used in
this study (Table 1). From these fourteen strains, three were isolated from almond
[Prunus amygdalus Batsch, syn. P. dulcis (Miller) D. A. Webb], four from peach
[Prunus persica (L.) Batsch], six from Japanese plum (Prunus salicina Lindley) and
one from the hybrid rootstock Garnem (GxN15) (P. persica x P. amygdalus). Reference
strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni (10.0343, 10.0400, 10.439, CFBP 3894, CFBP 5530,
CFBP 5724), X. arboricola pv. corylina (CFBP 1846), X. arboricola pv. populi (CFBP
3123) and X. arboricola pv. juglandis (IVIA 2113) were also included in this study
(Table 1). Strains were routinely cultured on 1.5% agar plates of Luria Bertani (LB) or
in LB broth at 27°C for 48 h. All Xanthomonas strains are conserved in the collections
12
of Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón (CITA, Aragón,
Spain) and Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA, Valencia, Spain)
and no specific permission was required for their use.
Bacterial DNA was extracted from cultures in LB broth obtained after 24 h incubation
at 27°C, using a QIAamp DNA miniKit according to the manufacturer's instructions
(Qiagen, Barcelona, Spain). DNA was used for PCR or stored at -20°C until further use.
Degenerate primers, previously determined as useful in MLSA analysis conducted in
Xanthomonas (Young et al., 2008; Kaluzna et al., 2014), were used for PCR
amplification of partial sequences of the housekeeping genes dnaK, fyuA, gyrB and
rpoD. PCR amplifications were carried out in a 50 μL volume containing 1X PCR
buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, 50 mM KCl, 0.1% Triton X-100 [pH 9.0]); 0.2 μM of each
primer; 1.25 U Taq DNA polymerase (Biotools, Madrid, Spain); 0.2 mM each dNTP
(Biotools Madrid, Spain); 1.5 mM MgCl2 and 1.0 μg/μL of DNA template. All PCR
reactions were performed in an ABI 2720 thermal cycler (Applied Biosystems, Foster
Urban district, CA, USA) with an initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 min, 40 cycles of
denaturation at 94°C for 1 min, annealing at 55°C for 1 min and extension at 72°C for 2
min, and a final extension step at 72°C for 10 min. PCR products were visualized under
UV light in 2% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide and purified with the
Wizard SV Gel and PCR Clean-up System Kit (Promega Corporation, Madison, USA).
PCR products were sequenced at STAB VIDA (Lisbon, Portugal), and edited using
BioEdit Sequence Alignment Editor (Hall, 2011). Additionally, sequences of the
housekeeping genes used for MLSA analysis from X. arboricola pathovars celebensis
(ICMP 1488), corylina (ICMP 5726) and juglandis (ICMP 35) as well as X. axonopodis
pv. citri strain ICMP 24, included as outgroup, were obtained from the National Center
for Biotechnology Information database (NCBI) ([Link]
Nucleotide sequences were aligned with ClustalW version 1.83 (Goujon et al., 2010)
using default parameters. Both ends of each alignment were trimmed to the following
sizes: dnaK, 864 positions; fyuA, 607 positions; gyrB, 631 positions and rpoD, 756
positions. Nucleotide sequences from all strains analyzed here and from those
Xanthomonas spp. available in databases (Young et al., 2008) were aligned and
12
concatenated to give a total length of 2,858 nucleotide positions. The programs
jModelTest 0.1.1 (Posada, 2008) and MEGA 5.05 (Tamura et al., 2011) were used to
determine the best model of evolution for Maximum Likelihood analysis (ML) based in
the akaike information criterion (AIC) (Posada & Buckley, 2004). For the concatenated
gene dataset the model selected was TN93+G. Maximum likelihood trees, using 1,000
bootstrap re-samplings, were generated in MEGA 5.05.
Nucleotide sequences were deposited in GenBank. Accession numbers for the partial
sequences of the genes used in this study are: KR054426 to KR054449 for dnaK;
KR054450 to KR054473 for fyuA; KR054474 to KR054497 for gyrB and KR054498 to
KR054521 for rpoD.
Based in the MLSA analysis, three X. arboricola strains, CITA 33 (Synonymy Xap 33),
CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1, were selected for complete genome sequencing and genome
features for these strains have been previously announced (Garita-Cambronero et al.,
2014, 2016a). Nucleotide sequences of the draft genome sequences of these three strains
(Deposited at DDBJ, EMBL, GenBank under the accession numbers JHUQ00000000
for CITA 33, LJGM00000000 for CITA 44, and LJGN00000000 for IVIA 2626.1), as
well as nucleotide sequences of three strains of X. arboricola (3004, CFBP 7634 and
CFBP 7651) (Ignatov et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015), two strains of X. arboricola
pv. celebensis (NCPPB 1630 and NCPPB 1832) (Harrison et al., 2016), one strain of X.
arboricola pv. corylina (NCCB 100457) (Ibarra Caballero et al., 2013), eight strains of
X. arboricola pv. juglandis (CFBP 2528, CFBP7179, NCPPB 1447, XajA3, Xaj2, Xaj4-
1, Xaj43a and Xaj417) (Higuera et al., 2015; Pereira et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015)
and one strain of X. arboricola pv. pruni (MAFF 301420) were obtained from the NCBI
´s genome database (S1 Table). Genome scaffolds presented in each one of the bacterial
genomes mentioned above were arranged and oriented by Mauve (Darling et al., 2004)
using the complete genome sequence of X. arboricola pv. juglandis strain Xaj417
(Pereira et al., 2015) as reference.
12
For the purpose of homogeneity for further comparison, all the genome sequences were
annotated using Prokka (Seemann, 2014). GFF3 archives generated by Prokka were
used as the input to determine the core and the dispensable accessory genes in the
analyzed genomes using Roary (Page et al., 2015). The online tool available at
[Link], was used to generate the Venn diagram to compare the
genome composition of the Prunus-isolated strains with the remaining subspecific
groups of X. arboricola. Signal peptides and transmembrane domains for the unique
protein coding sequences (CDS) of X. arboricola CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni
CITA 33 or IVIA 2626.1, were determined using the signalP 4.1 server and the
TMHMM server version 2.0 (Krogh et al., 2001; Petersen et al., 2011). Beside this, the
assignment of these genes to the clusters of orthologous groups (COG) database
(Tatusov, 2000) was performed with the NCBI`s conserved domain database using an
expected value of 0.001 (Marchler-Bauer et al., 2014).
The core genome sequence obtained for each strain was aligned using MAFFT (Katoh
et al., 2002) for further phylogenetic analysis. Subsequently, a maximum likelihood
tree, using 1,000 bootstrap resamplings, was constructed to accurately determine the
phylogenetic position of the atypical strain isolated from Prunus, CITA 44, within X.
arboricola. Maximum likelihood tree was carried out using the RaxML tool
(Stamatakis, 2014) and the dendrogram obtained was visualized using Dendroscope
(Huson et al., 2007). X. campestris pv. campestris strain ATCC 33913 was used as an
outgroup in the analysis.
To prepare the inocula, bacterial strains used in the MLSA analysis (Table 1) were
cultured in LB plates and resuspended in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)
(OD600=0.3). Suspensions (150 µL) were inoculated into each well of the Biolog GN2
microplates (Biolog Inc., USA). Microplates were read at 570 nm using a Labsystems
Multiskan RC spectrophotometer (Fisher Scientific, Walthman, USA) after 24 h
incubation at 27°C (Vernière et al., 1993; Vauterin et al., 1995). Three independent
assays were performed, each including two microplates per strain and three reads per
well. Means from all the reads were performed and used in further analysis.
12
Three substrate utilization levels were defined based in the percentage of utilization
referred to water control (Maharjan et al., 2007): positive (+, > 160%); borderline,
considered as non-informative (±, 130-160%) and negative (-, < 130%).
The carbon sources utilization profile of strain CITA 44 was determined and compared
with those obtained for strains of the pathovars corylina, juglandis, populi and pruni;
results were converted to a binary form by scoring the metabolism observed for each
compound as 0 (no catabolism of the carbon source) and 1 (catabolism of the carbon
source). Similarity for pairs was calculated according to the Jaccard´s coefficient and
was subjected to Unweight Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) cluster
analysis. Finally, the reliability of the similarity trees was determined using the
cophenetic correlation index. All the analysis were computed on NTSYS 2.11T (Exeter
Software, Setauket, NY).
Eighteen carbon compounds that induce variation in the chemotactic response in other
Xanthomonas (Sena-Vélez, 2015) were evaluated to determine differences in the
chemotactic profile between the atypical strain CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni
strains CITA 33 and CFBP 5530, for which complete genome sequence had been
already obtained (Pothier et al., 2011b; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014, 2016a). The
chemotactic compounds tested were: alanine (10 and 250 mM), arginine (10 and 100
mM), citric acid (10 mM), cysteine (10 mM), fructose (10 mM), galactose (10 mM),
12
galacturonic acid (10 mM), glucose (10 mM), glucuronic acid (10 mM), glycerol (0.2
and 2%), leucine (10 and 150 mM), maltose (10 mM), mannitol (0.2%), serine (10 and
200 mM), sodium citrate (10 mM), succinic acid (10 mM), sucrose (10 mM) and xylose
(10 mM).
Orthologous genes for the 26 methyl accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs) as well as
for 18 specific-chemotaxis che genes (Mhedbi-Hajri et al., 2011), described in X.
campestris pv. campestris, X. campestris pv. vesicatoria, X. citri subsp. citri and X.
oryzae, were searched in the genome sequences of nine X. arboricola strains as
mentioned above. Those CDS with more than 80% of identity and more than 80% of
sequence coverage containing MCPs periplasmic domains were considered as
orthologous genes.
Swarming, swimming and twitching motility assays were conducted for strain CITA 44
as well as for 20 strains classified as X. arboricola pv. pruni by MLSA. Bacterial
cultures in exponential growth phase were centrifuged at 6,350 g for 15 min, then
washed and resuspended in 10 mM MgCl2 (OD600=1.0). To analyze swarming
motility, 0.5% agar PYM swarming plates (peptone 0.5%, yeast extract 0.3%, malt
13
extract 0.3%, glucose 1.0%) were inoculated with 10 μL of bacterial suspension. For
swimming motility assay, cultures resuspended in 10 mM MgCl2 were centrifuged at
6,350 g during 15 min and the pellets were inoculated using a sterile toothpick in the
center of semisolid 0.3% agar minimal medium A (MMA) plates (K2HPO4 0.7%,
KH2PO4 0.3%, MgSO4·7H2O 0.01%, (NH4)2SO4 0.1%, sodium citrate 0.005%,
glycerol 0.2%). For twitching assay, bacterial cultures were prepared as mentioned
above, and then inoculated with a sterile toothpick through a 5 mm PYM 1.5% agar
layer to the bottom of the plate. After 72 h, culture medium was removed and the
bottom of the plate was stained with 0.3% crystal violet for 15 min and washed using
sterile distilled water.
Plates from swarming motility and surfactant activity assays were incubated at 27°C
during 24 h, whilst swimming and twitching plates were incubated for 72 h. Images
from all the plates were recorded. All assays were performed in three independent
experiments with three replicates each time.
Bacteria were grown on 1.5% agar LB plates and incubated at 27ºC for 48 h, then a
single bacterial colony was resuspended in 30 mL of LB broth and incubated at 27ºC on
a rotary shaker for 24 h. After incubation, cultures were centrifuged at 6,350 g for 15
13
min and washed three times with 10 mM MgCl2. Finally, cultures were adjusted to 10 8
CFU/mL (OD600= 0.1) and used to inoculate detached leaves of different Prunus
species.
Young, fully expanded leaves from greenhouse-grown plants of almond (cv. Ferraduel),
apricot (cv. Canino), peach (cv. Calanda) and European plum (cv. Golden Japan) were
collected, brought to the laboratory and washed three times in sterile distilled water.
After surface sterilization with 70% ethanol and 0.05% sodium hypochlorite, the leaves
were rinsed three times with sterile distilled water and dried on a hood. Three leaves per
host were selected randomly for being inoculated with each strain in three independent
assays.
Surface sterilized leaves were placed on 0.5% water agar plates and the abaxial surfaces
were gently inoculated using a sterile cotton swab damped with the bacterial inoculum.
Sealed plates were incubated in a grow chamber adjusted at 27ºC, 80-90% relative
humidity and 12 h photoperiod. Inoculated leaves were digitally recorded at 28 dpi and
the percentage of symptomatic area per host and strain was quantified using the ImageJ
1.45s software. Samples, inoculated with sterile 10 mM MgCl2, were used as blank
control for comparison.
Additionally to the genomic analysis related to the early events in the bacteria-host
interaction described below, homologous CDS to several genes associated with later
stages of pathogenesis, like the type III secretory system (T3SS) and the type III
effectors (T3Es), were searched in the genome of the nine strains of X. arboricola
according to the percentage of the sequence length and identity with the amino acid
sequence of the genes previously associated with these features (Bonas et al., 1989;
Hajri et al., 2009; White et al., 2009; Büttner & Bonas, 2010; Bogdanove et al., 2011;
Potnis et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2011; Abby & Rocha, 2012). In the same manner,
orthologous CDS to other remarkable processes and features associated with virulence
such as the quorum sensing (He & Zhang, 2008), the xanthan biosynthesis (Vorhölter et
al., 2008), the type II secretion system (Filloux, 2004; Szczesny et al., 2010) as well as
the cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic, pectolytic and lipases enzymes, previously described
in other species of Xanthomonas (da Silva et al., 2002; Subramoni et al., 2010;
Vandroemme et al., 2013; Nascimento et al., 2016), were searched in the genome
13
sequences of the nine strains of X. arboricola. Only those CDS with a percentage of
coverage and identity over 80.0% were considered as orthologous sequences.
Finally, the presence of the plasmid pXap41 (Pothier et al., 2011c), putatively involved
in virulence in X. arboricola pv. pruni, was searched in the analyzed genomes based in
the nucleotide sequence similarity and graphically represented using the BLAST Ring
Image Generator (BRIG) tool (Alikhan et al., 2011); blastn was used for the sequence
comparative analysis with an expected value threshold of 0.001. All the CDS associated
with pathogenesis, mentioned above, were represented in a circular genome map using
CGView (Grant & Stothard, 2008). For this purpose, contigs of the draft genome
sequence of CITA 33, CITA 44 and IVIA 2626.1 were arranged by Mauve (Darling et
al., 2004) using the circularized genome sequence of X. arboricola pv. juglandis strain
Xaj 417 as the reference (Pereira et al., 2015).
3.6 Acknowledgments
We would like to thank to Elisa Ferragud and Isabel M. Berruete for technical
assistance on the phenotypic features evaluated as well as to Pilar Sabuquillo for
assistance on searching orthologous genes.
Conceptualization: JGC, JC, AP, MML. Methodology: JGC, JC. Software: JGC.
Validation: JGC, JC, AP. Formal analysis: JGC, JC. Investigation: JC, JGC Resources:
JC, AP, ML. Data curation: JGC. Writing (original draft preparation): JGC, JC. Writing
(review and editing): JGC, JC, AP, MML. Visualization: JGC. Supervision: JC, AP,
MML. Project administration: JC, APB. Funding acquisition: JC, AP, MML.
13
Capítulo 4: El análisis pan genómico ha permitido diferenciar
cepas no patógenas y patógenas de Xanthomonas arboricola que
cohabitan en Prunus spp. así como elucidar los factores de la
virulencia bacteriana.
1
Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain. 2Centro
de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain. 3Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias, Valencia, Spain.
13
4.2 Introducción
Very recent studies conducted by multilocus sequence typing and genome-wide based
techniques, have provided a significant increase in the knowledge associated with the
genetic structure and diversity of the strains of X. arboricola. As occurred in other
Xanthomonas species (White et al., 2009; Hajri et al., 2012; Jacobs et al., 2015), most
significant genomic differences associated with virulence in X. arboricola strains are
related to type three secretion system (T3SS) and type three effectors (T3Es) predicted
by the available genomes (Ibarra Caballero et al., 2013; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014,
2016a; Essakhi et al., 2015; Higuera et al., 2015; Ignatov et al., 2015; Pereira et al.,
2015; Cesbron et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2016).
Besides this, phylogenetic analysis based in the core genome sequence of X. arboricola
(Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b), revealed that three non-
pathogenic strains did not group together with pathogenic strains isolated from walnut
stone fruit or almond. Instead, these non-pathogenic strains, isolated from walnut and
mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), were comprised in a group with several other low
pathogenic strains, such as the low pathogenic strains of the pathovar celebensis, a
pathogen of banana (Musa spp.) (Harrison et al., 2016), or with the strain 3004 of X.
arboricola isolated from barley (Ignatov et al., 2015).
The existence of non-pathogenic strains has aroused the concern on how abundant are
these strains and the possibility of their misidentification as pathogenic strains by the
13
current diagnostic approaches. Moreover, they could be useful to obtain some clues
related to the evolution of pathogenesis within X. arboricola. Recalling all these recent
advances, our goal was to deepen the characterization of the genomic features of three
atypical strains isolated from Prunus spp., in order to determine how these key features
associated with pathogenesis varied among atypical and pathogenic strains of X.
arboricola, as well as to determine if these variants could be used to design precise
molecular tools to differentiate these two groups when they are cohabiting the same
host.
Bacterial strains were routinely cultured on Luria Bertani (LB) 1.5 % agar plates or in
LB broth at 27 °C for 48 h. The commensal bacterial strains, isolated from Prunus and
used in this study (Table 1), were identified to genus level based on the partial sequence
of the 16S rDNA gene according to a method described previously (Lagacé et al.,
2004).
For Xap classification, the real-time PCR for an ABC transporter developed by Palacio-
Bielsa and collaborators (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011, 2015b) was used. Due to the fact,
demonstrated in previous studies, that the presence of the plasmid pXap41 (Pothier et
al., 2011c) differentiated between Xap and the atypical strain CITA 44 of X. arboricola
13
isolated from Prunus (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b), the presence of this plasmid
was also tested by using a previously reported multiplex PCR protocol based on the
plasmid-related genes repA1, repA2 and mobC (Pothier et al., 2011c). Those strains that
showed a positive result in the real-time assay (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011) but did not
show amplification for the three genes associated with pXap41 (Pothier et al., 2011c),
were considered as Xap-look-a-like strains, and were further identified according to a
multilocus sequence typing scheme (MLSA) based in the partial sequences of the
housekeeping genes dnaK, fyuA, gyrB and rpoD (Young et al., 2008), which was used
to characterize and discriminate the members of the pathovar pruni from the atypical or
commensal strain CITA 44 of X. arboricola (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b).
Purified PCR products were sequenced at STAB VIDA (Lisbon, Portugal), and edited
using Geneious (Kearse et al. 2012). Obtained nucleotide sequences were aligned with
ClustalW version 1.83 (Hall, 2011) using default parameters. Both ends of each
alignment were trimmed to the following sizes: dnaK, 842 positions; fyuA, 601
positions; gyrB, 631 positions and rpoD, 759 positions. Then, they were aligned and
concatenated to give a total length of 2,836 nucleotide positions. For the analysis of the
concatenated gene dataset, Tamura-Nei (TN93) model was selected and maximum
likelihood trees, using 1,000 bootstrap re-samplings, were generated using MEGA 6.0
software (Tamura et al., 2013)
Nucleotide sequences were deposited in GenBank. Accession numbers for the partial
sequences of the genes used in this study are: KX357115 to KX357120 for dnaK;
KX357133 to 357138 for fyuA; KX357127 to KX357132 for gyrB and KX357121 to
KX357126 for rpoD.
14
Table 1. Bacterial strains used in this study.
14
(Table1 continuation)
14
(Table1 continuation)
14
(Table1 continuation)
PT:Pathotype strain; NA: not available information, +: Positive PCR resul; -: Negative PCR result.
a
CFBP, Collection Française de Bactéries Phytopathogénes, Angers, France; IVIA, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias, Valencia, Spain; CITA, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain; ICMP,
International Collection of Microorganisms from Plants, Auckland, New Zealand.
*Strains characterized previously as Xanthomonas arboricola and used in this study as control during the molecular
characterization.
4.3.2 Study of the type III secretion system and type III effectors gene repertory
Six strains isolated from Prunus spp. and classified as Xap-look-a-like, as well as the
pathogenic Xap strains CITA 33 and CFBP 5530, and the Prunus-non-pathogenic strain
CITA 44, were typed by PCR for 11 genes related to structural and regulatory
components of the type III secretory system and for 21 genes coding for the type III
effectors predicted in Xap (Hajri et al., 2012; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b). PCR
reactions were performed according to the conditions proposed previously (Hajri et al.,
2012) with the exception of the T3SS genes, hrpD5 and hrpF, and the T3Es genes
hpaA, xopAQ and xopZ, for which new sets of primers were designed based in
orthologues available in databases for X. arboricola using Primer-BLAST designing
tool (Table 2). PCR amplifications with the primers for hrpD5, hrpF, hpaA, xopAQ and
xopZ were performed in 20 μl of PCR reaction containing 1X PCR buffer (10 mM Tris-
HCl, 50 mM KCl, 0.1% Triton X-100 [pH 9.0]); 0.5 μM of each primer; 0.25 U Taq
14
DNA polymerase (Biotools, Madrid, Spain); 0.2 mM each dNTP (Biotools Madrid,
Spain); 1.5 mM MgCl2 and 1.0 μg/μl of DNA template. PCR conditions consisted in an
initial denaturation step of 94 ºC for 2 min, 30 cycles of denaturation at 94 ºC for 1 min,
annealing at 60 ºC for 1 min, extension at 72 ºC for 2 min and a final extension step at
72 ºC for 10 min.
Table 2. PCR primers used to amplify a partial region of some genes associated with type III secretion
system (T3SS) and type III effector (T3E) genes in X. arboricola.
*Primers used to amplify the ortholog of hrpF in pathogenic strains of X. arboricola pathovars corylina, juglandis and pruni.
¥
Primers used to amplify the ortholog of hrpF in X. arboricola pv. celebensis and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola.
14
glucose, 2.0% agar) plates, supplemented with 250 mg/l of cycloheximide. Colonies
showing a Xanthomonas-like phenotype (mucoid, yellow colonies with a convex
elevation and an entire margin) were selected and confirmed as Xap-look-a-like using a
real time PCR protocol indicated above (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011). Additionally, for
P. persica rootstock GF-305, colonies were counted in order to determine the bacterial
concentration in the inoculated tissue at the end of the assay (Ah-You et al., 2007).
From the six Xap-look-a-like strains analyzed previously, one representative of each
cluster, according to the MLSA analysis (Table 1; Figure 1), was selected for genome
sequencing. Genome sequencing conditions and features for the genome sequence of
CITA 44 have been discussed in a previous paper (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b). In
addition, in this study the genome features of the Xap-look-a-like strains CITA 14 and
CITA 124 are described. For these two strains, the genome sequencing and assembly
conditions have been previously announced and deposited at DDBJ, EMBL, GenBank
databases under the accession numbers LXIB00000000 for CITA 14 and
LXKK00000000 for CITA 124 (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016c).
The assembled draft genome sequence of strains CITA 14 and CITA 124 were
automatically annotated using the NCBI`s prokaryotic annotation pipeline (Tatusova et
al., 2013). Signal peptides and transmembrane domains were predicted using the
signalP 4.1 (Petersen et al., 2011) and the TMHMM 2.0 (Krogh et al., 2001) servers,
respectively. The assignment of genes to each cluster orthologous group (COG) and its
Pfam domain was performed with the NCBI´s conserved domain database using an
expected value threshold of 0.001 (Marchler-Bauer et al., 2014). The circular genome
maps of the draft genome sequences of X. arboricola strains CITA 14 and CITA 124
representing the COG categories of the genes, were constructed using CGView
(Stothard & Wishart, 2005).The contigs of both strains were arranged by Mauve
(Darling et al., 2004, 2010) using the complete genome sequence of X. arboricola pv.
juglandis Xaj417 as the reference.
The genome sequence variation among CITA 14, CITA 124 and the publicly available
genomes of X. arboricola (strains 3004, CFBP 7634, CFBP 7651 and CITA 44)
(Ignatov et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016a), X.
14
arboricola pv. celebensis (NCPPB 1630 and NCPPB 1832) (Harrison et al., 2016), X.
arboricola pv. corylina (NCCB 100457) (Ibarra Caballero et al., 2013), X. arboricola
pv. juglandis (CFBP 2528, CFBP 7179, Xaj2 and Xaj417) (Higuera et al., 2015; Pereira
et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015) and X. arboricola pv. pruni (CITA 33, IVIA 2626.1,
MAFF 301420 and MAFF 301427) (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014, 2016a), were
determined by using a sequence-based approach and a sequence content approach
(Snipen & Ussery, 2010).
The concatenated sequences of the genes that composed the core genome sequence of
the 17 analyzed strains were aligned using the PRANK alignment algorithm (Löytynoja
& Goldman, 2008) and subsequently, a maximum likelihood tree using 1,000 bootstrap
resamplings, was constructed to determine the phylogenetic position of the strains CITA
14 and CITA 124 within X. arboricola. Maximum likelihood tree was performed with
RaxML (Stamatakis, 2014) and the dendrogram obtained was visualized using
Dendroscope (Huson et al., 2007).
14
each genome, was constructed using the panMatrix function and Jaccard distance was
calculated. The matrix was used to perform a principal component analysis for showing
how the genomes are distributed in the space according to the two first principal
components which revealed the dominant differences between them, and this was
computed using the panpca and plotScores functions. Additionally, the similarity of the
analyzed genomes was represented in a pan-genome tree computed according to the
method described previously by (Snipen & Ussery, 2010), using the panTree function.
Tree construction was based in the distance between genomes according to the
Manhattan distance. Bootstrap values were calculated by re-sampling the columns of the
similarity matrix and the re-clustering of these data, therefore, the bootstrap value
represented was the percentage of the re-sampled trees that showed a similar node.
14
4.3.5 A molecular tool to differentiate X. arboricola pv. pruni from atypical strains
of X. arboricola associated with Prunus spp.
In order to discriminate Xap from other pathovars, a partial sequence of the xopE3 gene
that is enclosed in pXap41 plasmid, described as specific for Xap (Pothier et al., 2011c),
was used. Sequences of the xopE3 gene available in GenBank database from strains
CITA 33 (GenBank locus tag DK27_00095), IVIA 2626.1 (AN652_04270), MAFF
301420 (XPR_2580), MAFF 301427 (XPN_1257) and CFBP 5530
(XAP_pXAP410005) were aligned with ClustalW and the consensus sequence,
generated using Bioedit v. 7.2.5, was used as template for xopE3 primers and probe
design using the ABI PRISM Primer Express software v. 2 (Applied Biosystems, Foster
City, CA). Specificity of the primers was firstly evaluated in silico using the Primer-
BLAST tool available at NCBI. Graphical representation of the probe and the primers
hybridization was performed in a set of X. arboricola genome sequences using the
BRIG software as previously mentioned.
Real-time PCRs were conducted using the same conditions described previously for
reactions using primers for ABC transporter (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011). Briefly,
reactions were conducted in a total volume of 25 µl containing, 12.5 µl of GoTaq probe
qPCR MasterMix (Promega), 0.4 µM of each primer and 150 nM of TaqMan probe and
5 µl of sample. Real-time PCR amplifications were conducted in an ABI 7500 Fast
thermocycler (Applied Biosystems, Foster city, CA) and consisted of an initial
denaturation step of 95 ºC for 5 min followed by 45 cycles, each one of 1 min at 95 ºC
and 1 min at 59 ºC.
Specificity of the real-time PCR test was assessed in 99 bacterial strains, which
comprised 54 strains of Xap, seven strains of Xap-look-a-like, ten strains from other
pathovars of X. arboricola, 11 strains from other species of Xanthomonas, eight strains
from other phytopathogenic bacteria and nine strains from the natural microbiota of
Prunus spp. (Table 1). Bacterial suspensions of 108 CFU/ml were treated at 95 ºC
during 10 min and used for real-time PCR reactions and sterile distilled water was used
14
as negative control. Additionally, a real-time PCR protocol previously described
(Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011) was also applied on all the 99 bacterial strains tested for
xopE3 gene.
15
4.4 Results
In order to further characterization, six Xap-look-a-like strains mentioned above and the
reference non-pathogenic strain CITA 44 (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016a), were
analyzed using a MLSA scheme based in partial sequences of the genes dnaK, fyuA,
gyrB and rpoD (Young et al., 2008). The Maximum likelihood analysis of the
concatenated sequences revealed that none of the Xap-look-a-like strains was
consistently clustered with any of the reference strains that belong to the described
pathovars of X. arboricola. Contrary to this, they were distributed in three separated
clusters, one composed by strains CITA 14 and CITA 149, another composed by strains
CITA 44 and CITA 49, and a third one composed by strains CITA 42, CITA 51 and
CITA 124. These clusters were located in a basal phylogenetic position with respect to
most of the strains used as reference. Sequence analysis of the concatenated sequence
(2,836 nucleotide positions) revealed a mean similarity of 98.30 ± 0.2% between the
Xap-look-a-like strains and the remaining ten strains of X. arboricola (Figure 1).
15
Figure 1. Maximum likelihood tree of concatenated sequences of the genes dnak, fyuA, gyrB and
rpoD of non-pathogenic X. arboricola strains isolated from Prunus spp. For comparative purposes
pathogenic strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni isolated from Prunus spp. and X. arboricola strains isolated
from other hosts are included. X. citri subsp. citri was used as outgroup. Bootstrap values of 1,000
replicates are represented above or below the branches. Selected strains for subsequent whole genome
sequencing are in bold.
Conventional PCR typing of 32 genetic determinants of the T3SS and its related T3Es
brought out a variable repertoire in the seven Xap-look-a-like strains. The structural and
regulatory components of the T3SS were only detected in strains CITA 14 and CITA
149, which harbored all the 11 components tested. In the same manner, only strains
CITA 14 and CITA 149 harbored five and two T3Es, respectively. On the other hand,
CITA 42, CITA 49, CITA 51 and CITA 124 did not harbor any of these genes. As
expected, Xap strains CITA 33 and CFBP 5530 showed positive amplification from all
the analyzed genes, meanwhile the non-pathogenic strain CITA 44 resulted negative
(Table 3).
15
4.4.3 Pathogenicity of the Xap-look-a-like strains
In addition to the variability found in the T3SS components and its related effectors, the
ability of the Xap-look-a-like strains to cause disease symptoms after bacterial
infiltration on leaves of barley, N. benthamiana, N. tabacum, tomato and the susceptible
peach rootstock GF-305 was evaluated. None of the assayed strains were able to cause
disease symptoms on barley, with the exception of strain CITA 14, which caused
necrosis and chlorosis in the infiltrated zone. Strains CITA 14 and Xap strain CITA 33
were able to cause necrosis and chlorosis in N. benthamiana and N. tabacum. On the
contrary, strains CITA 42, CITA 49, CITA 51, CITA 124, CITA 149 and the Prunus-
non-pathogenic strain CITA 44 only showed a chlorosis effect after 21 dpi. In tomato,
all the assayed strains, with the exception of CITA 44, were able to cause necrosis and,
in most of the cases, the necrotic area was surrounded by a chlorotic halo. Infiltration on
peach rootstock GF-305 showed that only CITA 44 did not cause damage on the leaves;
however, the remaining strains CITA 14, CITA 42, CITA 49, CITA 51, CITA 124 and
CITA 149 caused necrosis in the infiltrated area after 7 dpi, but these necrotic spots did
not expand beyond this zone and were different to typical bacterial spot symptoms.
On the other hand, the Xap strain CITA 33, caused necrosis in the infiltrated area and
these necrotic zones were surrounded by a chlorotic halo (Supplementary Figure 1). In
addition, in GF-305, variation in bacterial populations on the infiltrated leaves was
determined after 21 dpi and all the Xap-look-a-like strains, as well as strain CITA 44,
showed a reduction in their bacterial populations leading to concentrations equal or
lower than 105 CFU/ml. On the other hand, for strain CITA 33, the bacterial
concentration increased from 106 to 1010 CFU/ml by the end of the assay (Table 3).
Positive results in real-time PCR analysis of the isolated colonies after 21 dpi, using the
standardized protocol for Xap detection (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011, 2015b),
corroborated that the re-isolated strains corresponded to the same inoculated at the
beginning of the study.
15
Table 3. Components of the type three secretion system, repertoire of the type three effectors, presence of
the plasmid pXap41 and pathogenicity of X. arboricola strains isolated from Prunus spp.
hrcJ
Components of the type
hrcN
hrcR
hrcS
hrcT
hrcU
hrcV
hrpB1
hrpD5
hrpF
avrBs2
avrXccA2
hpaA
hrpW
xopA
xopAF
xopAH
xopAI
XopAQ
effectors
Type III
xopE2
xopE3
xopF1
xopG
xopK
xopL
xopN
xopQ
xopR
xopV
xopX
xopZ
repA1
pXap4
rpoA2
mobC
1
H. vulgare N, C NS NS NS NS NS NS ND NS
N. benthamiana N, C C C MC C MC C ND N, C
N. tabacum N C C C C C C ND N
Pathogenicity
NS,
S. lycopersicum N MN, C N, C N, C N, C N, C ND N, C
MC
P. persica (GF
MN N NS N N MN N ND N, C
305)
CFU/ml 21 dpi 0-105 101-105 102-104 102-104 103-105 103-105 103-105 ND 106-1010
Real-time PCR* + + + + + + + ND +
Positive/negative PCR amplification are represented in grey or white respectively; N: necrosis; C: chlorosis; NS: Not visible
symptoms; MN: mild necrosis; MC: mild chlorosis; ND: no data. P: Prunus pathogenic strains of X. arboricola pv. pruni (Xap), the
remaining tested strains were considered as atypical Xap-look-alike strains. *: according to the protocol described by Palacio-Bielsa
et al. 2011; 2015b.
15
4.4.4 General features of whole genomes of X. arboricola strains CITA 14 and
CITA 124
According to the results obtained in the MLSA analysis, one member of each one of the
three clusters (CITA 44, CITA 14 and CITA124) observed for the Xap-look-a-like
strains, was selected for whole genome sequencing (Figure 1). The draft genome
sequence of the non-pathogenic strain CITA 44 has been reported and analyzed
previously (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b). Moreover, main sequencing and
structural features of CITA 14 and CITA 124 genome sequences have been previously
announced (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016c).
A comparative gene content analysis was performed among the genome sequences of
the two non-pathogenic Xap-look-a-like strains, CITA 14 and CITA 124, and 15
genome sequences of other pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola. As
result, a total of 7,074 potential groups of homologous genes were found in the 17
analyzed genomes, from which 2,714 were shared by all the X. arboricola strains and
comprised the core group of orthologus genes. CITA 14 and CITA 124 presented 76
15
and 124 unique cluster genes, respectively, which distinguished them from the other 15
strains (Figure 3A; Supplementary Table 2). Strains CITA 14 and CITA 124, the
pathogenic Xap strains CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1 and the non-pathogenic CITA 44, all
isolated from Prunus spp. in Spain, shared 3,103 groups of homologous genes. A total
of 889 cluster genes were found only in the non-pathogenic strains, meanwhile 708
cluster genes were found in the two Spanish strains of Xap (Figure 3B). Additionally,
236 CDS, 17 CDS and 131 CDS, were unique for the pathovar corylina, juglandis and
pruni, respectively (Supplementary Table 2).
The mean of the gene content similarity among the analyzed genomes according to the
Jaccard distance distribution was 0.23, which means that the analyzed genomes shared a
mean of 77% of their gene content, meanwhile, the remaining 23% is unique for each
one of them (Supplementary Figure 2A).
15
Table 4. Genome sequence information and statistics of the non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola
strains CITA 14 and CITA 124, isolated from Prunus.
Figure 3. Potential groups of orthologous genes present in X. arboricola. Core, shell and cloud groups
of orthologous genes shared by 17 genome sequences of X. arboricola (A). Venn diagram showing the
groups of orthologous genes share by five genome sequences of pathogenic (CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1)
and non-pathogenic (CITA 14, CITA 44 and CITA 124) strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus
spp. (B).
15
Based in the gene cluster content of each genome, a principal component analysis
showed that only 41.0% of the total difference is due to the variation by the two first
principal components (Supplementary Figure 2B). Three distinct clusters were
elucidated, one of them was comprised by the non-pathogenic strains (CITA 14, CITA
44, CITA 124, CFBP 7634 and CFPB 7651) and the strains with low-pathogenic
activity (3004, NCPPB 1630 and NCPPB 1832) which cause disease on barley and
banana. The pathogenic strains of the pathovar pruni formed another cluster that
comprised two subgroups, one formed by the strains isolated in Spain (CITA 33 and
IVIA 2626.1) and another by the strains MAFF 301420 and MAFF 301427 isolated in
Japan. Strains from the pathovar juglandis (CFBP 2528, CFBP 7179, Xaj2 and Xaj417)
formed the third group. Finally, the strain NCCB 100457 from the pathovar corylina
tended to group together with the strains isolated from Juglans spp. (Supplementary
Figure 2B).
The difference in the gene content cluster was illustrated using a pan-genome tree
(Snipen & Liland, 2015) after computing the distance among the genomes using the
Manhattan distance algorithm. The pan-genome tree for the 17 analyzed genomes
(Figure 4) showed the same clustering organization that was visualized previously with
the principal component analysis. Besides this, a division of the cluster comprised by
the low-pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains was shown. A first group was composed
by those strains that harbored components of the T3SS and T3Es, isolated from banana
(NCPPB 1630 and NCPPB 1832), walnut (CFBP 7634 and CFBP 7651) and peach
(CITA 14). A total of 10 CDS differentiated this group from all the remaining clusters
observed. The second group was comprised by the strain 3004 isolated from barley, and
the strains CITA 44 and CITA 124 isolated from Prunus, and 27 CDS differentiated this
cluster from all the other analyzed strains (Supplementary Table 2). The same strains
grouping and distribution was obtained using a Maximum likelihood phylogenetic
analysis based in the concatenated sequence of the genes that comprised the core
genome sequence of the 17 analyzed strains according to a sequence based methodology
recently described (Page et al., 2015) (Supplementary Figure 3).
15
Figure 4. Pangenome tree for pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of Xanthomonas arboricola.
Tree construction was based in the distance between genomes according to the Manhattan distance.
Bootstrap values over 50% are showed at the branch points.
In addition to the gen content comparison, the profiles of genetic components associated
with pathogenesis were determined for CITA 14 and CITA 124 and compared to those
in other strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus in Spain, especially in the two
pathogenic strains of Xap, CITA 33 and IVIA 2626.1, and in the non-pathogenic strain
of X. arboricola CITA 44.
Regarding the profiles of cell degrading enzymes, a total of ten genes that encoded for
pectolytic enzymes were found in the five strains. CITA 14 and CITA 124 showed
seven and eight of these genes, respectively. For these enzymes, two orthologs,
NP_635517.1 and NP_635516.1, were shared by the non-pathogenic strains, meanwhile
the degenerated pectate lyase AAM37225.1 was only found in Xap strains CITA 33 and
15
IVIA 2626.1 (Supplementary Table 2). Regarding the profile of cellulolytic enzymes,
nine enzymes were shared over 11 genes found in all the strains. In this case, only the
presence of the cellulolase AAM38359, described in X. citri subsp. citri 306,
differentiated non-pathogenic strains from Xap (Supplementary Table 3). In the case of
the hemilcellulolytic enzymes, a total of 11 orthologs were found in the Prunus-
associated strains; pathogenic strains of Xap were differentiated from the non-
pathogenic strains due to the presence of the genes that encoded the xylanase
NP_638385.1 and the xylosidase/arabinosidase NP_637752.1, both described
previously in X. campestris pv. campestris strain ATCC 33913. Finally, orthologous
genes for the virulence associated lipases NP_638797.1 and AAO29541.1 from X.
campestris pv. campestris ATCC 33913 and Xylella fastidiosa strain Temecula, were
found in the five genomes (Supplementary Table 3).
The profiles of genes related to sensing and chemotaxis varied among the analyzed
strains. Four of the five Spanish Prunus-isolated strains presented the same gene profile
for those genes associated with chemotaxis. However, CITA 124 did not harbor
homologous genes to cheD (AAM36751.1), cheZ (AAM36793.1) and cheA
(AAM36792.1) described in X. citri subsp. citri 306. Variants in other sensing
mechanisms such as TBDTs were found in the Prunus-associated strains of X.
arboricola; from the 17 TBDTs encoding genes found, those homologues of the
proteins NP_635515.1, NP_635700.1, NP_635699.1 and NP_639391.1, initially
described in X. campestris pv. campestris ATCC 33913, differentiated non-pathogenic
strains from Xap. Additionally, a large repertoire of 60 genes associated with STCRs
was found in the analyzed genomes and, from them, 55 were shared for all the strains
isolated from Prunus. In addition, the STCRs AAM36681.1, AAM35218.1,
AAM37649.1 and NP_637535.1 were only present in the non-pathogenic strains CITA
14, CITA 44 and CITA 124. Finally, from a total of 26 MCPs genes, 11 were found in
all Prunus-associated strains, but the absence of an ortholog to CAJ23610.1, described
in X. campestris pv. vesicatoria 85-10, in strains CITA 14 and CITA 124 differentiated
them from the remaining strains (Supplementary Table 3).
Besides to those genes related to environmental sensing, variations in some other genes
associated with the initial steps of the pathogenesis process, such as motility,
attachment, biopolimerization of the xanthan gum and the inter-cellular cross-talk
process controlled by the quorum-sensing system, were also found (Supplementary
16
Table 3). Pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of stone fruit and almond shared 35
orthologs associated with molecular components of the flagellar system. The exception
to this was the non-pathogenic strain CITA 124, which did not have homologous genes
to the flagellar components of X. citri subsp. citri 306, flhF (AAM36797.1), fliH
(AAM36814.1), fliJ (AAM36812.1) and motB (AAM38537.1). In addition, an
interesting polymorphism was observed in the flagellin protein, encoded by fliC, of non-
pathogenic strains. In CITA 14 and CITA 124, this problem was identical to protein
WP_024939608.1, which has been previously associated with all the non-pathogenic
strains of X. arboricola or with low pathogenic strains of the pathovar celebensis.
Meanwhile, pathogenic strains of Xap harbored a flagellin protein identical to protein
WP_039814449.1, which present a substitution of aspartic acid for valine in the amino
acid 45 of the N-terminal region that has been associated to pathogenic strains in other
species of Xanthomonas (Sun et al., 2006; Cesbron et al., 2015).
Pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus shared the
same profile of xanthan-associated genes, which are involved in bacterial attachment
and biofilm formation. None of the strains had homologous sequences to gumG
(NP_637802.1) which is found in other xanthomonads (Lee et al., 2005). Regarding
quorum sensing system, which is associated with the regulation of the pathogenic
activity, from the 12 genes related to this process in Xanthomonas (He & Zhang, 2008),
all the analyzed strains, with the exception of CITA 14, harbored the same gene pattern
conformed by 11 genes. In addition, CITA 14 harbored an ortholog to the
16
transcriptional regulator NP_636589.1 described in X. campestris pv. campestris ATCC
33913 (Supplementary Table 3).
Bacterial type II, III and IV secretory systems (T2SS, T3SS and T4SS), which are
related to the secretion of proteins and DNA, also play a crucial role in pathogenesis
(Ryan et al., 2011). Regarding to T2SS, CITA 14 and CITA 124 presented 19 and 18
orthologs, respectively, of the 23 genes associated with xcs and xps T2SS gene clusters
described in Xanthomonas (Filloux, 2004; Szczesny et al., 2010). The only difference
among non-pathogenic strains and Xap was the presence in the latter of an ortholog to
the gen xcsK (NP_638764.1) (Supplementary Table 3).
Finally, comparative sequence analysis among the nucleotide sequence of the plasmid
pXap41 and the draft genome sequence corroborated the absence of this plasmid in both
non-pathogenic strains (Figure 5).
16
Figure 5. Presence of the plasmid pXap41 in pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of X.
arboricola. Comparative sequence analysis was performed using Blastn with an expected value threshold
of 0.001 and graphically represented by the BRIG tool. Each concentric circle represents one of the
analysed genomes.
4.4.6 The real-time PCR test for xopE3 permitted to differentiate Xap from
atypical strains of X. arboricola isolated from Prunus spp.
Besides the nucleotide sequence-based analysis, the specificity of the real-time PCR
assay was conducted by testing the protocol on the bacterial strains listed in Table 1.
Among the X. arboricola strains, only those determined previously as Xap, by the
16
presence of the plasmid pXap41 and with a positive result for the standardized real-time
protocol that amplify a gene ftsX related to the ABC transporter in Xap (Palacio-Bielsa
et al., 2011, 2015b), presented consistent positive results. None of the seven Xap-look-
a-like strains (CITA 14, CITA 42, CITA 44, CITA 49, CITA 51, CITA 124 and CITA
149) were amplified. Undesired specific PCR results for xopE3 were observed from
three strains of X. axonopodis (Xp-2, NCPPB 381 and IVIA 151835DA), one strain of
X. campestris (IVIA 2734-1), three strains of X. citri subsp. citri (306, IVIA 2889-1 and
IVIA 3026-1) and the strain 3619-1 of X. vesicatoria (Table 1). When the analyzed
strains were amplified using the real-time PCR protocol for the ABC transporter-
associated gene ftsX (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011), positive results were obtained with all
the strains of Xap, the seven strains of Xap-look-a-like, two strains of X. arboricola pv.
corylina (CFBP 1846 and IVIA 3978) and the strain of X. citri subsp. citri 306. Double
positive PCR results, using xopE3 or ABC primers, were only observed for all the Xap
strains but also for the strain 306 of X. citri subsp. citri (Table 1).
Figure 6. In silico representation of the presence of xopE3 and ftsX and the hybridization zone for
the primers and probes used for real-time PCR amplification in Xanthomonas arboricola.
Comparative sequence analysis was performed using Blastn with an expected value of 0.001. The circular
graphic has been constructed using BRIG. Each concentric circle represents one of the analysed genomes.
16
No significant differences were found among the three independent assays conducted to
determine the sensitivity of the real-time PCR protocol to amplify xopE3 using heat-
treated cells or purified DNA as samples. Calibration curves, obtained from serial
dilutions of heat-treated cells of Xap strain CITA 33, demonstrated that the real-time
PCR assay showed a sensitivity of 10 CFU/ml or 100 pg/µl of DNA, with a PCR
efficiency of 2.2 ±0.22 or 1.8 ±0.03 for bacterial cells or purified DNA from strain
CITA 33, respectively (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Calibration curves for detection of xopE3 in Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni. Calibration
curves have been obtained from dilution series of purified DNA (A) and bacterial cells (B) of X.
arboricola pv. pruni strain CITA 33. Real time PCR amplification was performed in three independent
assays using the primers XopE3F/R and the TaqMan probe XopE3p.
4.5 Discussion
The results obtained in the initial characterization of the X. arboricola strains isolated
from Prunus spp. pointed out that one of the most widely used real-time PCR protocol
for detecting Xap (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011 2015b) was not able to differentiate
bacterial strains of this pathovar from those atypical strains of the same species, which
are part of the Prunus microbiota. Actually, in silico analysis, based in the nucleotide
sequence comparison among the available genome sequences of X. arboricola and the
target genomic regions proposed for the identification of Xap in a variety of other
published PCR protocols (Park et al., 2010; Pothier et al., 2011a) (Supplementary
Figure 5), demonstrated that none of them could be able to discriminate between these
two groups of Prunus-associated strains.
16
The MLSA analysis conducted with the housekeeping genes dnak, fyuA, gyrB and
rpoD, resulted useful to characterize typical and atypical strains of X. arboricola as
proposed in recent articles (Essakhi et al., 2015; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b) and
corroborated the existence of genomic variants among the atypical strains of X.
arboricola isolated from Prunus spp.
A global overview of these results led us to the question why, even in the absence of the
canonical T3SS or the T3Es described in such strains (White et al., 2009), some of them
were able to cause hypersensitive response on Nicotiana spp., tomato and the peach
rootstock GF-305, meanwhile others like strain CITA 44 did not cause apparent effect
on the assayed hosts.
Due to the fact that this variants could not be clarified only based in the PCR typing of
the components for the T3SS and its related effectors, a more in-depth analysis based on
other pathogenicity determinants that could play a role in this plant-microbe interaction
was needed. Consequently, a whole-genome comparative analysis was performed on the
strains CITA 14, CITA 44 and CITA 124, which are representatives of the three MLSA
clusters that enclosed non-pathogenic strains isolated from Prunus.
16
Whole genome sequencing of these three strains permitted to accurately infer their
phylogenetic position within X. arboricola. After a presence/absence comparative
analysis of the groups of orthologous genes found in the pangenome of X. arboricola, it
was possible to explore the spatial distribution of the strains according to the two
principal components that contributed more to the variability among these genomes.
This explorative analysis permitted to infer a clear pathovar-based clustering of the
strains, as reported previously in other strains of X. arboricola isolated from Juglans
regia with non-canonical T3SS. These non-pathogenic strains, CITA 14 and CITA 124,
isolated from P. persica were closely related to those strains of X. arboricola that do not
cause disease (CFBP 7634, CFPB 7651 and CITA 44) (Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-
Cambronero et al., 2016b), or have a low pathogenic ability (3004, NCPPB 1630 and
NCPPB 1832) (Ignatov et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2016). Additionally, a similarity
analysis based in the content of all the groups of orthologous genes, as well as a
phylogenetic analysis based in the concatenated nucleotide sequences of all the genes
shared by the studied strains, have corroborated the assignment of CITA 14 and CITA
124 to a cluster that included the strains mentioned above, which is located in a basal
phylogenetic position within the species X. arboricola.
Besides this, a clear division of these strains in two subgroups could be established, one
cluster composed for those strains that harbored the components for a canonical or non-
canonical T3SS as well as some T3Es, and a second cluster composed by those that did
not have neither this secretory system nor its related effectors. Considering the
distribution of the T3SS and related T3Es within the subinfraspecific groups, and based
in the hypothesis of evolution of the virulence gene and regulator acquisition previously
proposed for Xanthomonas (Jacobs et al., 2015), a possible hypothesis about how
evolution has worked on the acquisition of T3SS-associated virulence in this species
could be proposed.
16
in all the available genomes of the species and, in the same manner, in our work they
have been found in strains CITA 14 and CITA 124. Later on, an ancestral basal group
of non-pathogenic strains, such as the one conformed by CITA 44 and CITA 124, could
acquire a T3SS and some T3Es, but only those that presented minimum core group of
T3Es, which in X. arboricola seems to be comprised by six genes (Hajri et al., 2012),
could surpass the plant immunity and developed a compatible plant-pathogen
interaction. This could be the case of strains from the pathovar celebensis, which are
within the sequenced strains, the pathogenic group with a lower pathogenic activity and
had the smallest repertoire of T3Es. The subsequent acquisition of accessory effectors
by some strains, as could be the case of the T3Es xopE3 and xopAQ in pathovar pruni,
identical to those found in other Xanthomonas spp., could alter the host range of the
species. These events allowed some strains to become specialized in a specific host, as
could be the case of the three most pathogenic pathovars, corylina, pruni and juglandis,
of X. arboricola.
Genome comparative analysis also showed variants among CITA 14, CITA 124 and the
available genomes of X. arboricola in a large list of genes that have been associated
with different stages of the pathogenic process in Xanthomonas spp. (Suplmental Table
3). On one hand, in these two strains, slight differences, related to environmental
sensing such as the MCPs, TBDTs and the STCRs, were found. On the other hand,
major differences were found in those features associated with the flagellin protein
sequences as well as with the molecular components of the type IV pilus. In other
xanthomonads, the flagellin polymorphism observed here between pathogenic and non-
pathogenic strains of Prunus has been associated to the ability of the plant to detect this
microbial associated feature and to trigger the plant immune response associated to the
initial stages of the plant-pathogen interaction (Sun et al., 2006).
In Xanthomonas, the type IV pilus seems to play an important role in bacterial host-
interaction and pathogenesis, in twitching motility, in the formation of mature biofilms
and in the interaction with bacteriophages (Dunger et al., 2016). In X. arboricola all the
described non-pathogenic strains and strains CITA 14 and CITA 124 (Cesbron et al.,
2015; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2016b) showed a gene arrangement similar to the one
previously observed in X. translucens pv. undulosa strain Xtu 4699, which is
characterized by the absence of homologues of fimA, fimT, pilV, pilW, pilX and pilY1
(Dunger et al., 2016). In the Prunus non-pathogenic strain CITA 44, the absence of
16
these minor pilins does not alter the twitching type motility (Garita-Cambronero et al.,
2016b). From all the variants found in the molecular components of this
macromolecular structure, only mutants in the orthologue of pilY1 have shown a
reduction in virulence in the non-vascular pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola
(Burdman et al., 2011). In all the pathogenic pathovars of X. arboricola, included the
strain NCPPB 1630 of the pathovar celebensis, homologues of the minor pilins
mentioned above were found, but all of them showed a percentage of identity lower
than 80% with respect their orthologues in Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri 306 (Dunger
et al., 2014).
As reported in previous studies (Essakhi et al., 2015; Cesbron et al., 2015; Garita-
Cambronero et al., 2016b), remarkable differences have been found among pathogenic
and non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola with respect to the T3SS and T3Es. Non-
pathogenic strains of this species were separated in two different groups, one composed
for those strains described in X. arboricola (CITA 14, CFBP 7651, NCPPB 1630 and
NCPPB 1832), isolated from banana, stone fruits or walnut, that harbored the molecular
components of the T3SS and shared the six core T3Es, avrBs2, hpaA, hrpW, xopA,
xopF1 and xopR. One exception to this group was strain CFBP 7634, isolated from
walnut, which only harbored two of the T3Es, xopR and avrBs2, and did not showed
homologues for the T3SS (Cesbron et al., 2015). To perform pathogenicity tests of the
strains isolated from Junglans and Prunus on banana in tropical conditions could be
interesting to determine if those closely related strains are able to cause disease on this
host. A second group, comprised by the non-pathogenic strains CITA 44 and CITA 124
isolated from Prunus spp. and the pathogenic strain 3004 isolated from barley, was
characterized by the absence of T3SS and T3Es. Due to the fact that these strains are
closely related according to the phylogenetic analysis, it was tested if strains CITA 44
and CITA 124 caused disease on barley, but negative results pointed out that the ability
of strain 3004 to cause disease on this crop could be related to other molecular features
that are not shared among this strain and strains CITA 44 and CITA 124.
In addition to the flagellin polymorphism mentioned above and its possible role on the
plant immune response, a recent study on X. euvesicatoria described 17 T3Es that
inhibit the plant immunity triggered by the domain flg22 in Arabidopsis thaliana
(Popov et al., 2016) and, from these, the T3Es xopB, xopE2, xopF1, xopL, xopN, xopV,
xopX and xopZ have been predicted in X. arboricola. Those pathogenic strains that
16
cause disease on hazelnut, stone fruits and walnut presented seven of these T3Es,
meanwhile the non-pathogenic CFBP 7651, CITA 14, and the banana-pathogenic
strains NCPPB 1630 and NCPPB 1832, only harbored the T3E xopF1. Further
functional studies comprising these PTI inhibitors will be useful to understand their role
to sidestep the initial plant defense mechanisms and the development of a compatible
plant-pathogen interaction. For these purposes, the use of non-pathogenic strains, such
as CITA 14, could be useful to determine if these T3Es are playing a key role inhibiting
the PTI in Prunus.
Regarding the type IV secretion systems, which are molecular structures adapted to
translocate large molecules, like proteins or protein-DNA complexes, through multiple
cell membranes (Guglielmini et al., 2014), the VirB/VirD4 system has been found in all
the strains of X. arboricola. Nevertheless, the profile of proteins associated with this
T4SS was almost the same in all the strains, with the exception of the homologues of
VirB6, which is scattered within the members of the X. arboricola. According to the
studies of mutants of virB6 in A. tumefaciens, this gene is essential for the biogenesis of
the T pilus and the secretion channel (Jakubowski et al., 2003). But in X. citri subsp.
citri and in X. campestris pv. campestris, this T4SS has been described as not playing a
main role in virulence (Jacob et al., 2014) because the presence of the complete core of
components for its expression in X. arboricola varies among strains, regardless of the
pathogenic activity. Therefore, VirB/VirD4 secretion system may not be essential for
virulence in this species. Despite this, functional experiments with T4SS-deleted
mutants are required for testing this hypothesis.
Evidence of a group of genes putatively related to the tfc T4SS of H. influenza, which is
related to bacterial conjugation, have been obtained after searching for homologues
using the Blast tool from the NCBI, and also corroborated using the web-based tool for
prediction of T4SS-related genes T346Hunter (Martínez-García et al., 2015); but the
identity of the putative orthologous genes found in X. arboricola showed an amino acid
sequence identity lower than 80% for all the genes. Despite of this, the presence of this
group of genes, annotated as integrating conjugative elements, varied among X.
arboricola strains and were only present in those pathogenic organisms from the
pathovars juglandis and pruni.
17
As a final result of this comparative analysis, the absence of the recalcitrant plasmid
pXap41 observed by the multiplex-PCR approach (Pothier et al., 2011c) was
corroborated in CITA 14 and CITA124, and as proposed previously, it was only found
in members of the pathovar pruni. Presence of this plasmid has been useful not only to
differentiate such pathovar from the other pathovars of the species as proposed
previously (Pothier et al., 2011c), but also to distinguish pathogenic strains of Xap from
other strains of X. arboricola that coexist in the same plants hosts. In addition to this
feature, the pangenomic analysis pointed out a series of unique genes for each
infrasubspecific group of X. arboricola that could be interesting targets for developing
new precise diagnostic tools.
Due to the fact that this plasmid contains at least three virulence factors, xopAQ, xopE3
and mltB, which are unique in Xap, it is confirmed to be a good target for conducting
studies of host specialization in the Xap-Prunus relationship. Additionally, it is useful as
a genomic marker to differentiate Xap from all the other members of the species,
especially from those non-pathogenic strains found in Prunus hosts.
In this article, the use of pXap41, specifically a partial sequence of the virulence-
associated gene xopE3, was explored for designing a sensitive and specific real-time
PCR-based test to differentiate Xap from other X. arboricola strains. As shown here, the
developed test was highly sensitive on both heat-treated bacterial cells and purified
DNA, but showed unwanted positive amplification in X. axonopodis, X. campestris, X.
citri, X. fuscans and X. vesicatoria. To our knowledge, there is not record of the
presence of these species causing disease on Prunus, and consequently to find one of
them in natural conditions on these hosts could be only possible as a fortuitous event.
The previously developed real-time PCR for detecting Xap (Palacio-Bielsa et al.,
2015b), as well as the other PCR-based methods designed for this purposes, with the
exception of the Bio-PCR protocol proposed by Ballard and colleagues (2011), were not
able to differentiate those members of the pathovars corylina and pruni (Supplementary
Figure 5). But the most important problem was that as has been shown here, the
methods described were not able to differentiate Xap from non-pathogenic strains of
Prunus. Therefore, based in our results we propose for Prunus-isolated strains this real-
time PCR amplification protocol that could be used in conjunction with the method
proposed by Palacio-Bielsa and collaborators (2011) for routine detection and
identification and diagnosis of this quarantine pathogen responsible for bacterial spot of
17
stone fruits and almond. A combined result of both tests gives a precise identification of
the xanthomonads detected in the plant. If both test result positive, the organism tested
could be identified as Xap and, on the other hand if the target organism shows positive
results only for the ABC-method it could be designated as member of the Xap-look-a-
like group. Both the multiplex conventional PCR described by Pothier and colleagues
(2011c) and the proposed combination of two real-time PCR protocols porposed here
are suitable for differentiate Xap strains. However, the latter offers advantages since it
allows detecting Xap from plant material (including asymptomatic samples) (Peñalver
et al., 2016), whereas the protocol proposed by Pothier and collaborators (2011) has
only been assayed using pure bacterial cultures. Xanthomads group associated to
Prunus spp. requires further taxonomic analyses for more accurate description of the
taxonomic status of the different strains. Exploration of the transcriptome and the
metabolome of such strains could also help in identifying factors contributing to their
diversity.
17
4.6 Acknowledgments
We would like to thank to Elisa Ferragud, Ana Ruíz Padilla and Isabel M. Berruete for
technical assistance. This work was supported financially by the Instituto Nacional de
Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA) project RTA2014-00018-
CO2-01. J. Garita-Cambronero held a Ph.D. fellowship from the Spanish Government
(Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte; fellowship FPU12/01000).
17
Capítulo 5: Discusión general
Como resultado de los diversos brotes de X. arboricola pv. pruni que han surgido en
España en los últimos años (Roselló et al., 2012; Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2014), se aislaron
una serie de cepas bacterianas que presentaban colonias con un fenotipo típico de
Xanthomonas. Dichas cepas fueron inicialmente identificadas, utilizando un protocolo
estandarizado, como X. arboricola pv. pruni (Palacio-Bielsa et al., 2011, 2015b). Una
selección de estas cepas, representativa de los huéspedes y las regiones geográficas de
España en las que se encontró este patógeno, fue utilizada para realizar una
caracterización tanto fenotípica como molecular de caracterers que se relacionan con los
procesos de infección de las bacterias fitopatógenas. El objetivo final era conocer,
aunque fuera parcialmente, aquellos factores que podrían estar vinculados al desarrollo
de la mancha bacteriana de frutales de hueso y el almendro.
17
flagelo, únicamente se había descrito el movimiento tipo “swimming”. En este trabajo
se describe por primera vez para Xanthomonas otro movimiento dependiente de flagelo
que se asocia a colonias de tipo dendrítico en medio de cultivo sólido, tanto en cepas de
X. arboricola pv. pruni (por ejemplo la cepa CITA 33) como en la cepa atípica CITA
44. Este fenotipo es típico del movimiento tipo “swarming”, el cual generalmente está
conectado con la capacidad de agregación y formación de biopelículas en superficie, tal
y como ocurre en X. arboricola pv. pruni (Sabuquillo & Cubero, 2016).
En base a los datos obtenidos en esta caracterización inicial, tres cepas de X. arboricola
fueron seleccionadas con el objetivo de secuenciar sus genomas y mediante análisis
genómico determinar aquellos factores que pudiesen estar asociados con la patogénesis
bacteriana. En primer lugar se obtuvo la secuencia correspondiente al genoma completo
de la cepa CITA 33 de X. arboricola pv. pruni, aislada de P. amygdalus var. Guara.
17
Este genoma constituye el primero públicamente disponible para este patovar y para el
cual se describieron las características generales. (Garita-Cambronero et al., 2014).
Posteriormente, se publicaron las características de los genomas de una cepa patógena
en ciruelo (P. salicina) IVIA 2626.1, que difería de CITA 33 en aspectos fenotípicos
como la motilidad superficial, y de la cepa no patógena CITA 44 (Garita-Cambronero et
al., 2016a).
Una vez determinada de forma precisa la posición taxonómica de las cepas analizadas,
en el presente trabajo, se abordó el estudio de genes potencialmente relacionados con
patogénesis en los diversos grupos de X. arboricola, haciendo énfasis en las cepas
17
aisladas de Prunus, y teniendo en cuenta aquellos descritos en otras especies de
Xanthomonas así como en otras especies bacterianas (da Silva et al., 2002; Filloux,
2004; Vorhölter et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008; Chevance & Hughes, 2008; He &
Zhang, 2008; White et al., 2009; Subramoni et al., 2010; Szczesny et al., 2010; Mhedbi-
Hajri et al., 2011; Potnis et al., 2011; Ryan et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2011; Hajri et al.,
2012; Vandroemme et al., 2013; Li et al., 2014; Guglielmini et al., 2014; Cesbron et al.,
2015; Dunger et al., 2016; Nascimento et al., 2016).
Como parte de estos resultados, la diferencia más significativa entre las cepas patógenas
y la cepa no patógena aisladas de Prunus fue la ausencia del sistema de secreción tipo
III (T3SS) y de sus proteínas efectoras (T3Es), así como la ausencia del plásmido
hipotéticamente asociado a virulencia, pXap41, en la cepa CITA 44. Este tipo de
variaciones han sido descritas en otras especies de Xanthomonas (Jacobs et al., 2015).
En X. arboricola además se ha descrito el genoma de la cepa 3004 que, a pesar de no
presentar ni T3SS ni sus efectores asociados, es capaz de producir enfermedad en
cebada (Ignatov et al., 2015). También en el caso de las dos cepas no patógenas de X.
arboricola aisladas de nogal, se han descrito diferencias en el T3SS y sus proteínas
secretadas; mientras que la cepa CFBP 7634 no presentó T3SS y contenía un número
reducido de efectores, la cepa CFBP 7651 contenía todos los genes para un T3SS
funcional y un número reducido de efectores (Cesbron et al., 2015). En cuanto al
plásmido pXap41, se corroboró, como había sido descrito previamente (Pothier et al.,
2011c), que es exclusivo de X. arboricola pv. pruni por lo que resulta útil como
18
herramienta para diferenciar las cepas del patovar pruni de aquellas cepas no patógenas
presentes en los frutales del género Prunus.
Con el fin de obtener datos que ayudaran a dar respuesta a estas cuestiones, se realizó
una prospección dentro de colecciones españolas disponibles de este patógeno. La
selección se abordó utilizando el protocolo de PCR multiplex descrito para determinar
la presencia de plásmido pXap41 (Pothier et al., 2011c). Se encontró que además de la
cepa CITA 44, seis cepas no presentaron amplificación para las tres regiones de este
plásmido analizadas, por lo que se consideraron cepas atípicas.
18
Con el fin de determinar si la variación observada en cuanto a la virulencia se asociaba
solamente a los perfiles de genes correspondientes al T3SS, o además estaba
relacionado con otro tipo de factores relacionados con la patogénesis, se realizó la
secuenciación del genoma de dos cepas atípicas CITA 14, en la que se habían detectado
tanto T3SS como T3Es y CITA 124, que no contenía T3SS ni T3Es. Ambas cepas junto
con la cepa CITA 44 eran representativas de la diversidad de cepas atípicas encontradas
en este estudio. El estudio pan genómico situó la cepas en su contexto taxonómico,
confirmándose que no pertenecían al patovar pruni. El análisis de las secuencias
relacionadas a la patogenicidad, de estos genomas ha permitido hipotetizar sobre los
posibles pasos evolutivos que llevaron al desarrollo de la patogenicidad en X.
arboricola, basándose en la hipótesis sobre el origen de la patogenicidad en
Xanthomonas propuesta por Jacobs y colaboradores (2015).
18
El trabajo desarrollado en esta tesis doctoral aporta información valiosa desde el punto
de vista fenotípico y genómico de la especie X. arboricola y ahonda en los factores
implicados en la patogenicidad de los diversos grupos que conforman esta especie,
enfatizando en aquellos caracteres relacionados con el desarrollo de la macha bacteriana
en los frutales del género Prunus. Los datos generados en este trabajo, obtenidos
mayormente desde estrategias genómicas, deberían ser el punto de partida de futuros
estudios que confirmen o no, desde un punto de vista funcional, las hipótesis planteadas
en torno al papel que juegan los genes identificado en el trabajo.
18
Capítulo 6: Conclusiones
1. La técnica de caracterización molecular mediante MLSA ha permitido
determinar la existencia de cepas atípicas de X. arboricola asociadas a diversas especies
de Prunus. Estas cepas no fueron agrupadas con ningún otro patovar de los nueve
descritos en esta especie.
18
8. El estudio realizado durante este trabajo representa el primer análisis de
genómica comparativa de la especie X. arboricola, y en él se ha hecho un especial
énfasis en las diferencias entre los genomas de cepas patógenas y cepas no patógenas
aisladas de Prunus, lo que ha permitido dilucidar potenciales factores de virulencia
asociados a la mancha bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y el almendro.
13. Las cepas patógenas presentaron un perfil génico diferente al de las cepas no
patógenas de Prunus en relación al pilus tipo IV. En las cepas no patógenas, se encontró
un patrón semejante al de X. translucens pv. undulosa en el cual los homólogos a fimA,
fimT, pilV, pilW, pilX y pilY1 de X. citri, no se encontraron o presentaron un porcentaje
de identidad y cobertura menor al 80%.
18
campestris pv. vesicatoria. Además, la hemaglutinina homóloga a XAC0444 de X. citri,
solamente se encontró en los tres patovares más virulentos de la especie.
18. Las cepas patógenas de X. arboricola pv. pruni presentaron el mayor número de
efectores tipo III de la especie X. arboricola. Los efectores XopE3 y XopAQ, predicho
por primera vez para esta especie en este trabajo, son únicos para este patovar.
19. La identificación del gen xopE3 como específico de las cepas causantes de la
mancha bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y almendro, ha permitido el desarrollo de un
protocolo de PCR tiempo real que ha mejorado la precisión en el diagnóstico de esta
enfermedad y permite diferenciar las cepas patógenas y no patógenas de X. arboricola
que cohabitan Prunus spp.
18
presumiblemente involucrados en las diferentes etapas de infección en la mancha
bacteriana de los frutales de hueso y el almendro. Los datos obtenidos han permitido
además la mejora del método de diagnóstico de esta enfermedad por PCR.
19
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Material Suplementario
Material suplementario, capítulo 3:
S1 Fig. Nucleotide genome sequence comparison of X. arboricola pv. pruni strains CITA 33 and
IVIA 2626.1 and the non-pathogenic strain CITA 44. Genome sequences were compared against each
other based on Blastn results and represented as a circular map using the CGview tool. From outside to
center: strain CITA 33, strain IVIA 2626.1, strain CITA 44, GC content, GC skew + and GC skew -.
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s001
S2 Fig. Transmission electron microscopy of X. arboriola strain CITA 44. Negative staining showed
monoflagellated cell from the edge of the dendritic swarming colony 24 hpi in 0.5% PYM agar plates.
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s002
22
S3 Fig. Amino acid alignment of two variants of the FliC found in X. arboricola. Sequence alignment,
performed using ClustalW, showed the amino acid change in the position number 43 of the amino
terminal region of FliC. doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s003
S4 Fig. Nucleotide alignment of type III effector xopAQ and the PIP-box found in X. arboricola pv.
pruni. Sequence alignment, performed using ClustalW, showed slight variation among X. arboricola and
other Xanthomonas (A) as well as a variant in PIP-box sequence (B).
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s004
2
Nota: Las tablas referentes al material suplementario se encuentran disponibles de
manera digital en los siguientes enlaces:
S1 Table. Genome statistics of 18 X. arboricola strains according to the automatic annotation performed
using Prokka.
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s005
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s006
S3 Table. Unique protein coding sequences (CDS) and related features found in the draft genome
sequence of X. arboricola strain CITA 44 and X. arboricola pv. pruni strains CITA 33 and IVIA 26262.1.
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s007
S4 Table. Orthologous protein coding sequences (CDS) of nine strains of X. arboricolaassociated with
pathogenesis.
doi:10.1371/[Link].0161977.s008
22
Material suplementario, capítulo 4:
2
Supplementary figure 3. Phylogenetic analysis of 17 strains of X. arboricola based on the core genome
sequence (2,714 potential groups of homologous genes) and representation of the distribution of the
potential ortholog cluster genes of the pangenome (7,074) within the analysed genome sequences.
Sequences were aligned using PRANK and maximum likelihood analysis was carried out using RaxML.
Bootstrap values (1,000 replicates) are presented above or below the branches.
Supplementary figure 4. Primers and TaqMan probe designed to amplify xopE3 using real time PCR in
Xanthomonas spp. Xap and CFBP 5530: X. arboricola pv. pruni; Xcc: X. citri subsp. citri, Xff: X. fuscans
subsp. fuscans.
23
Supplementary figure 5. In silico representation of the hybridization zone for the primers used in two
PCR amplification protocols published to identify X. arboricola pv. pruni. Comparative sequence
analysis was performed using Blastn with an expected value of 0.001. The circular graphic has been
constructed using BRIG. Each concentric circle represents one of the analysed genomes. Full references
of the two methods are available in the article.
[Link]
Supplementary Table 2. Unique clusters of orthologous genes encoded in the genome sequence of the
non-pathogenic strains of X. arboricola CITA 14 and CITA 124 as well as those encoded in the
pathogenic strains of the pathovars corylina, juglandis and pruni.
[Link]
[Link]