Infeccion Pedriatrica
Infeccion Pedriatrica
FACULTAD DE MEDICINA
TESIS DOCTORAL
PRESENTADA POR
DIRECTORES
TESIS DOCTORAL
PRESENTADA POR:
DIRECTORES:
Madrid, 2023
Aos meus catro avós, as raíces
4
AGRADECIMIENTOS
5
Concluír la redacción de esta memoria, tras varios años de trabajo y muchas horas
de dedicación, no habría sido posible sin una red de apoyo a nivel familiar y profesional.
A María Flores, por su ayuda y su disponibilidad para resolver las dudas surgidas en
cuanto a los aspectos microbiológicos.
Por supuesto, a mi familia: mis padres, Rosa y Herminio; mi hermana, María, mi tío,
Andrés y mis sobrinos, Daniel y Martín, por su apoyo incondicional, por ser siempre mi
refugio y mi lugar al que volver.
A Fran, por no soltarme nunca de la mano, para que juntos saltemos los charcos
que vayan apareciendo en el camino. Por animarme a luchar por mis sueños y por ser el
mejor padre para Pablo.
6
7
La presente tesis doctoral, de acuerdo con el informe autorizado por los directores
de tesis, y en cumplimiento con la normativa aprobada por el Órgano Responsable del
Programa de Doctorado, se presenta como un compendio de tres publicaciones científicas,
todas aceptadas por las correspondientes revistas en el momento de redacción de esta
memoria.
Para la elaboración de esta memoria para optar al grado de doctor, se han obtenido
los permisos oportunos por parte de los propietarios del copyright de los artículos incluidos
en este documento. La reproducción de estos artículos se ha concedido únicamente para el
uso requerido, quedando por lo demás limitado a la política de copyright y acceso de cada
revista o editorial.
Además, los coautores de las publicaciones han manifestado por escrito estar de
acuerdo en que dichas publicaciones sean incluidas en este trabajo de tesis doctoral, así
como su renuncia expresa a avalarlas en otro proyecto de doctorado.
Las referencias completas de los artículos que constituyen el cuerpo de la tesis son
las siguientes:
8
Los resultados expuestos en esta memoria han sido presentados previamente en
los siguientes foros científicos:
9
ÍNDICE
10
ÍNDICE
RESUMEN 15
SUMMARY 19
ÍNDICE DE ABREVIATURAS 23
I. INTRODUCCIÓN
1. Epidemiología y generalidades 26
2. Etiología de la enfermedad 28
1. Hipótesis 45
11
2. Objetivos principales 45
3. Objetivos secundarios 45
IV. RESULTADOS
4. Publicaciones 65
V. DISCUSIÓN
5. Limitaciones 101
12
ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS
ÍNDICE DE TABLAS
Tabla IV.3. Edad al inicio del tratamiento, tiempo de seguimiento y resultado en los
33 pacientes que continuaron el seguimiento 63
13
RESUMEN
14
INTRODUCCIÓN
OBJETIVOS
Los dos objetivos principales de esta memoria han sido: en primer lugar, estimar la
tasa de transmisión vertical de enfermedad de Chagas en nuestro medio
(Comunidad de Madrid), así como la adecuación al protocolo de diagnóstico precoz
de la misma (en recién nacidos) y, en segundo lugar, describir una cohorte de
pacientes pediátricos diagnosticados de dicha enfermedad, especialmente sus
características clínicas y de respuesta y tolerancia al tratamiento.
RESULTADOS
Los tres casos de infección congénita descritos en los dos primeros estudios, fueron
diagnosticados inicialmente por PCR y presentaron buena respuesta al tratamiento
(curación). Solo uno de los casos presentó una enfermedad de Chagas congénita
sintomática (hidropesía fetal, ascitis, inestabilidad hemodinámica).
Las pérdidas de seguimiento fueron del 35,3% (18/51). Entre los pacientes
que completaron el tratamiento y continuaron el seguimiento (33): 24
16
(72,7%) continuaban en seguimiento (por persistencia de serología de EC
positiva), y 9 (27,3%) habían sido dados de alta por curación.
En todos los pacientes con PCR positiva inicial, esta se negativizó después del
tratamiento, con un tiempo medio de negativización de 4,5 meses (rango
0,9-15,9). El tiempo medio de seguimiento, hasta la negativización de la
serología, en los pacientes curados fue de 20,1 meses.
CONCLUSIONES
17
SUMMARY
18
BACKGROUND
Vectorial transmission is the main route in endemic areas (trough an insect from the
triatomine family). However, vertical transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi from
mother to child during pregnancy is the main transmission route in our
environment.
AIMS
The two principal aims of this study have been: to estimate the vertical transmission
rate of Chagas disease in our setting (Community of Madrid) as well as the
adequacy of the protocol of early diagnosis in newborns, and secondly to describe a
cohort of pediatric patients with Chagas disease, specially their clinical aspects,
response and tolerance to treatment.
RESULTS
In the first study, conducted at the Hospital Clínico San Carlos, in which 40
newborns born to mothers with Chagas disease were identified, the vertical
transmission rate was 2,8% (CI 95%:0-15%). In the second one, carried out at three
tertiary hospitals in the Community of Madrid, extending the study period and the
sample size (122 newborns initially identified), the rate found was 2,75% (CI 95%:
0,57-8,8%), considering the 109 newborns who completed follow up.
19
The three cases of congenital infection described in the first two studies, were
initially diagnosed by PCR and presented good response to treatment. One of the
cases presented symptomatic Chagas disease (fetal hydrops, ascites, hemodynamic
instability).
For the study where we describe the cohort of pediatric patients (51) with Chagas
disease, the main findings were:
The median age at diagnosis was 0,7 months in those diagnosed under one
year of age (94% diagnosed by PCR).For those older than one year-old the
median age of diagnosis was 11,08 years (all of them diagnosed by serology).
Eigtheen (18/51) patients (35,3%), were lost to follow-up. For the patients
who completed the treatment and continued on follow-up (33): 24 (72,7%)
continued to be monitored (as the serology has not yet been negative),
while 9 (27,3%) have been deemed cured and discharged.
20
Cure (negative serology) was observed in 80% of patients diagnosed when
they were younger than one year-old (8/10), compared to 4,3% of those
older than one (1/23), (p <0.001)
For all patients who had a positive PCR, it became negative after treatment.
The mean time at which the PCR was negative (after the end of treatment)
was 4,5 months (Range: 0,9–15,9). The average follow-up time of cured
patients (time until negative serology) was 20,1 months.
CONCLUSIONS
We found a vertical transmission rate of Chagas disease in our setting, similar to the
rate described in other countries in non endemic areas.
Based on our results, PCR has been a good early diagnostic tool for cases of
congenital Chagas disease.
21
ABREVIATURAS
22
ADN: Ácido desoxirribonucleico
CMV: Citomegalovirus
ECG: Electrocardiograma
ICT: Inmunocromatografía
23
T. Cruzi: Tripanosoma Cruzi
24
I. INTRODUCCIÓN
25
1. EPIDEMIOLOGÍA Y GENERALIDADES
26
Figura I.1. Mapa con zonas endémicas de la enfermedad de Chagas. 2014. Fuente:
Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS).
En Europa, España es el país con mayor número de personas con EC, siendo
mayoritariamente procedentes de Bolivia. Se estima que en nuestro país residen
más de 50.000 infectados. De ellos, un 60% 6son mujeres en edad fértil, lo que
supone que exista riesgo de nuevas infecciones (fuera del área endémica), por
transmisión vertical (TV).
2. ETIOLOGÍA DE LA ENFERMEDAD
T. cruzi presenta dos fases diferentes dentro de su ciclo biológico, una en los
hospedadores vertebrados y otra en los insectos transmisores7.
28
tejidos se adapta a la forma intracelular de amastigote. En el insecto transmisor
(vector), se presenta en las formas extracelulares de epimastigote (en el intestino) y
tripomastigote metacíclico (en el intestino terminal, que es la forma en la que se
excreta en las heces). El ciclo biológico del parásito se muestra con detalle en la
Figura I.2.
29
Figura I.2. Ciclo biológico de T.Cruzi. Fuente: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Las especies con mayor capacidad vectorial, con hábitos domiciliarios y con
mayor distribución geográfica pertenecen a los géneros Triatoma, Rhodnius y
Panstrongylus.8 (Figura I.3)
30
Figura I.3. Descripción de las especies de triatomino con mayor relevancia
epidemiológica. Las áreas en rojo representan la distribución geográfica aproximada de cada
especie. Las especies destacadas en rojo son los vectores más importantes del parásito. Fuente:
Gourbiere et al, 2012
31
3.2. Transfusiones y trasplantes de órganos
32
3.3. Ingesta de alimentos contaminados
Los factores de riego que se han descrito para la transmisión congénita son:
una alta parasitemia materna detectada por microhematocrito o por PCR durante el
embarazo14,15 y la disminución de la respuesta inmune en la madre16 o en el
neonato12. Además, se han considerado otros factores que podrían estar
implicados, como el genotipo de T. cruzi 17.
34
Figura I.4. Posibles vías de transmisión materno-fetal de T.cruzi. Fuente: Carlier y Truyens.
Acta Trop, 2015.
37
5. DIAGNOSTICO Y TRATAMIENTO DE LA ENFERMEDAD DE CHAGAS
PEDIÁTRICA
38
5.2. Diagnóstico molecular
39
Si bien la mayoría de las PCR utilizadas son cualitativas (detectan el material
genético del parásito), se han desarrollado también PCR cuantitativas frente al ADN
de T. cruzi, que permiten además cuantificar la carga parasitaria. Su utilidad está
orientada principalmente a la investigación, para conocer la implicación de la carga
parasitaria en la TV de T. cruzi38, y al control posttratamiento en pacientes en fase
crónica de la enfermedad39.
En los RN, una serología positiva no indica infección, al poder tratarse de una
transmisión transplacentaria de anticuerpos maternos (IgG), por lo que se utilizan
técnicas parasitológicas/moleculares (microhematocrito y/o PCR) para el
diagnóstico (en sangre periférica) y se recomienda realizarlas al nacimiento y
repetirlas al mes de vida, dada la posibilidad de falsos negativos (sensibilidad
dependiente del grado de parasitemia22).
40
La persistencia de anticuerpos positivos a partir de los 9-12 meses, sin descenso de
títulos de los mismos, es indicativa de infección22.
43
II.HIPÓTESIS Y OBJETIVOS
44
1. HIPÓTESIS
2. OBJETIVOS PRINCIPALES
3. OBJETIVOS SECUNDARIOS
45
1. Valorar la utilidad en nuestro medio de la PCR en el diagnóstico precoz
de la EC congénita.
46
III.MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
47
Primer artículo científico: Seroprevalencia y transmisión vertical de
enfermedad de Chagas en una cohorte de gestantes latinoamericanas en un
hospital terciario de Madrid.
48
Segundo artículo científico: Transmisión congénita de enfermedad de
Chagas en un área no endémica. ¿Es posible el diagnóstico precoz?
50
ADN satélite como kDNA. El rendimiento de la PCR se ha mantenido a lo largo del
tiempo pese a la evolución de las técnicas de la misma. En los últimos años se han
desarrollado kits de PCR comerciales, implantadas en algunos de los hospitales
incluidos en el estudio (kit de Progenie Molecular: RealCyclerCHAG), con los que se
han realizado las PCR que no han sido enviadas al CNM.
El análisis estadístico se realizó con SPSS v.25 program (IBM SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, IL). Las variables cualitativas se presentaron con su distribución de
frecuencias. Las variables cuantitativas se describen con su media y desviación
51
estándar cuando siguen una distribución normal y con la mediana y el rango
intercuartílico cuando muestran una distribución asimétrica.
52
IV.RESULTADOS
53
PRIMER ARTÍCULO CIENTÍFICO
RESUMEN DE RESULTADOS
55
SEGUNDO ARTÍCULO CIENTÍFICO
RESUMEN DE RESULTADOS
56
Newborn 1 Newborn 2 Newborn 3
57
- La primera serología de seguimiento en estos pacientes se realizó a una
edad media de 9.7 meses (SD 1,45) pero la media de edad a la que resultó negativa
(en los pacientes no infectados) fue de 10,5 meses (SD 2). Un 13.2% de los pacientes
presentaron la primera serología negativa a partir de los 12 meses y un 20% de los
pacientes (en los que se descartó la TV), requirieron la realización de al menos dos
analíticas sanguíneas hasta comprobar negativización de la serología.
58
TERCER ARTÍCULO CIENTÍFICO
RESUMEN DE RESULTADOS
59
Children < 1 year-old. Children ≥ 1 year-old.
Total
N/total (%) N/total (%)
Benznidazole followed by
1/15 (6,6) 7/33 (21,2) 8/48
nifurtimox
un año).
60
- El 98% de los pacientes estaban asintomáticos en el momento del
diagnóstico. Sólo un paciente sintomático (recién nacido, diagnosticado en fase
aguda, descrito en los artículos previos). Entre los pacientes diagnosticados por
encima del año de edad, dos referían palpitaciones y uno presentaba estreñimiento.
En los 3 casos se realizaron las pruebas complementarias necesarias para descartar
afectación orgánica por EC (ECG y ecografía cardiológica en los primeros y estudio
digestivo en el segundo), descartándose que tuvieran relación con la misma. En
total se solicitó ECG en 40 pacientes (13 menores de un año y 27 mayores de un
año), sin encontrar en ningún caso alteraciones significativas relacionadas con la EC.
61
los pacientes que presentaron EA a benznidazol eran mayores de un año de edad
(mediana de edad 11,4 años). De los 32 pacientes mayores de un año tratados con
benznidazol, presentaron EA un 56,25%, mientras que en el grupo de los menores
de un año (15) los presentaron un 33,3% (p=0,036). De los pacientes tratados con
nifurtimox (9) se documentaron EA en 3 casos (33,3%), todos en pacientes mayores
de un año. Dos de ellos presentaron rash cutáneo y uno insomnio.
- En todos los pacientes con PCR positiva, esta se negativizó después del
tratamiento, con un tiempo medio de negativización de 4,5 meses (rango 0,9-15,9).
62
Age at the start of Follow-up time Outcome
treatment (months) (months) (Serology)
1 0.1 22 Cured
2 0,3 36 Remains positive
3 0.56 19 Cured
4 0.59 15 Cured
5 0.76 31 Decreasing titers
6 1.48 12 Cured
7 1.77 8 Cured
8 2.89 11 Cured
9 2.89 12 Cured
10 7.82 25 Cured
11 41.03 103 Decreasing titers
12 41.92 36 Remains positive
13 55.16 42 Decreasing titers
14 90.22 168 Decreasing titers
15 97.74 57 Remains positive
16 104.28 72 Remains positive
17 105.46 18 Decreasing titers
18 125.37 99 Remains positive
19 122.84 22 Decreasing titers
20 130.79 57 Cured
21 133.19 32 Remains positive
22 137 72 Remains positive
23 147.42 45 Decreasing titers
24 149.36 36 Remains positive
25 165.55 65 Decreasing titers
26 166.08 92 Remains positive
27 177.81 14 Remains positive
28 176.79 72 Decreasing titers
29 191.51 26 Remains positive
30 192.99 146 Decreasing titers
31 200.18 102 Decreasing titers
32 201.92 14 Remains positive
33 202.05 29 Remains positive
Tabla IV.3. Edad al inicio del tratamiento, tiempo de seguimiento y resultado en los 33 pacientes que
continuaron el seguimiento.
63
51 Pediatric CD Cases
Male n=30
Female n=21
48 treated patients
9 cured (negativization of
serology)
64
An Pediatr (Barc). 2018;88(3):122---126
www.analesdepediatria.org
ORIGINAL
a
Servicio de Pediatría, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, España
b
Servicio de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, España
c
Servicio de Microbiología Clínica, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, España
un hospital terciario de Madrid’’. VIII Congreso de la Sociedad Espanola de Infectología Pediátrica (SEIP). Valencia, 3-5 de marzo del 2016.
E-Poster Discussion Session ‘‘Vertical transmission of Chagas disease in a cohort of newborns in a tertiary hospital in Madrid.’’ 34th annual
meeting of the European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases (ESPID). Brighton, 10-14 de mayo del 2016.
∗ Autor para correspondencia.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anpedi.2017.03.003
1695-4033/© 2016 Asociación Española de Pediatrı́a. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. Todos los derechos reservados.
Seroprevalencia y transmisión vertical de enf. de Chagas en un hospital de Madrid 123
matografía (SD Chagas AB rapid Bio Line). Las mujeres con 60 días) con controles analíticas periódicos; presentando
serología positiva fueron remitidas a la consulta de Medicina buena tolerancia al tratamiento, evolución clínica favorable
Tropical para seguimiento y valoración de tratamiento. y negativización posterior de anticuerpos (6 meses después
El seguimiento de los recién nacidos se realizó de acuerdo de la finalización del tratamiento). Además, fueron estu-
con el protocolo consensuado por las Sociedades Españolas diados los demás miembros de la familia en consulta de
de Infectología Pediátrica (SEIP), Enfermedades Infecciosas Medicina Tropical.
y Microbiología Clínica (SEIMC) y Ginecología y Obstetricia
(SEGO)5 , que incluye PCR al nacimiento y al mes de vida, y
serología al nacimiento y a los 9-12 meses. Discusión
Se consideró infectado al niño con PCR positiva con-
firmada y no infectado al niño con 2 PCR negativas (al El cribado selectivo de embarazadas latinoamericanas rea-
nacimiento y a las 4-8 semanas) o PCR negativa y negati- lizado en nuestro hospital nos ha permitido la detección de
vización de anticuerpos. gestantes con enfermedad de Chagas, con elevada preva-
lencia en las procedentes de Bolivia.
La transmisión vertical en nuestra cohorte fue del 2,8%;
Resultados (IC del 95%: 0-15%), coincidiendo con los datos descritos
en la literatura3,4 . En áreas no endémicas existen pocos
Durante el periodo de estudio se realizó cribado para T. cruzi datos publicados pero se ha descrito que existe menor tasa
en 1.244 gestantes latinoamericanas (78% del total de ges- de transmisión vertical, probablemente debido a que las
tantes de este origen), de las cuales tuvieron serología gestantes suelen encontrarse en la fase crónica de la enfer-
positiva 40 (prevalencia 3,2%, intervalo de confianza [IC] del medad, con menor parasitemia.
95%: 2,4-4,4%). El 85% de las gestantes con serología posi- Además, el haber realizado el cribado en gestantes ha
tiva para T. cruzi eran procedentes de Bolivia, el 10% de llevado a extender el estudio al resto de familiares, con
Paraguay, el 2,5% de Ecuador y el 2,5% de Argentina. La pre- detección y tratamiento de casos no identificados al naci-
valencia en gestantes bolivianas fue del 16,3% (IC del 95%: miento. Así, se ha podido realizar un diagnóstico precoz
12,6-20,8%). de la enfermedad en los casos en edad pediátrica, aún en
Se identificó a 40 recién nacidos hijos de madre con sero- fase asintomática, evitando complicaciones de la misma y
logía positiva para Chagas. Solo se confirmó infección al consiguiendo la curación.
nacimiento en un recién nacido (tasa de transmisión ver- El tener identificada a esta cohorte de gestantes permitió
tical 2,8%, IC del 95%: 0-15%), hijo de una gestante de 36 realizar también seguimiento de las mismas y recomenda-
años procedente de Bolivia, con enfermedad de Chagas en ción del tratamiento de la enfermedad (en aquellas que no lo
fase indeterminada (asintomática). Fue un caso de enfer- habían hecho previamente) pasado el período de lactancia.
medad de Chagas congénita sintomática (hidropesía fetal, Cuando existe transmisión vertical, la enfermedad de
ascitis, inestabilidad hemodinámica, anemia), que precisó Chagas congénita es habitualmente asintomática (70-80%
ingreso en Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos Neonatal. Presentó de los casos). En aquellos pacientes en que existe sintoma-
PCR positiva al nacimiento y, tras tratamiento con benznida- tología al nacimiento el cuadro clínico puede ser variable,
zol durante 60 días (a una dosis inicial de 5 mg/kg/día, que afectando habitualmente a varios órganos y sistemas6,7 ,
se subió en la segunda semana a 8 mg/kg/día por ausencia como es el caso del recién nacido que comentamos, único
de efectos adversos), una evolución favorable; con resolu- caso de transmisión vertical en nuestra cohorte6 .
ción del cuadro y negativización de PCR (a los 3 meses de En los recién nacidos, una serología positiva no indica
vida) y serología (a los 9 meses), con buena tolerancia al infección, sino que puede tratarse de transmisión trans-
tratamiento6 . placentaria de anticuerpos maternos (IgG), por lo que se
Todos los recién nacidos identificados (excepto el caso de utilizan técnicas parasitológicas (PCR o microhematocrito)
transmisión vertical) tuvieron PCR negativa al nacimiento y para el diagnóstico y se recomienda realizarlas al nacimiento
fueron seguidos, según protocolo, comprobando PCR nega- y repetir al mes de vida dada la posibilidad de falsos nega-
tiva a las 4 semanas y negativización de serología entre los tivos (sensibilidad dependiente del grado de parasitemia)5 .
9 y los 12 meses. En nuestro caso no se realizó microhe- En nuestro medio se recomienda la utilización de la PCR,
matocrito al nacimiento y al mes de vida, dadas su baja dada su mayor sensibilidad respecto al microhematocrito
sensibilidad y la disponibilidad de PCR en nuestro medio. En (visualización del parásito en la sangre, al microscopio).
un 75% de los casos (30) se realizó el seguimiento completo La sensibilidad de la PCR es elevada en la fase aguda
hasta objetivar negativización de serología; en un 87,5% de (de hasta el 90-95%) y disminuye en la fase crónica de la
los pacientes (35) se constataron al menos 2 PCR negativas o enfermedad (del 50-80%, según las series)8,9 ; además, pre-
una PCR negativa y serología negativa a los 9-12 meses y no senta una especificidad cercana al 100%8 . No obstante, el
se pudo completar el estudio en un 12,5% (5) de los pacien- microhematocrito continúa teniendo utilidad en áreas endé-
tes que solo tuvieron una PCR negativa al nacimiento y, por micas, donde es más difícil la disponibilidad de laboratorios
lo tanto, han sido considerados pérdidas de seguimiento. donde se realicen técnicas moleculares como la PCR, siendo
La detección de las embarazadas con serología positiva además la sensibilidad de esta prueba dependiente de la
permitió estudiar también a los hermanos de los recién experiencia del observador. Aunque las técnicas parasitoló-
nacidos, pudiendo diagnosticar otro caso asintomático de gicas son más rentables en el niño que en el adulto, al estar
enfermedad de Chagas en una paciente de 8 años (pro- en fase aguda y presentar mayor parasitemia, se recomienda
cedente de Bolivia), no identificado al nacimiento. Fue comprobar también la negativización de los anticuerpos a
tratada con benznidazol (dosis de 10 mg/kg/día durante partir de los 9 meses de vida. Los anticuerpos suelen nega-
Seroprevalencia y transmisión vertical de enf. de Chagas en un hospital de Madrid 125
tivizarse a partir de los 9 meses, aunque en ocasiones esta en los demás al no acudir los pacientes a las citas pro-
negativización no se produce hasta los 12 meses. La persis- gramadas. Al tratarse de una población inmigrante, en
tencia de anticuerpos positivos a partir de los 9 meses sin ocasiones el seguimiento a largo plazo resulta difícil, entre
descenso de títulos de los mismos es indicativa de infec- otros motivos porque se produce el regreso a su país de
ción. En nuestra cohorte, la serología se realizó entre los origen.
9-12 meses y en todos los casos fue negativa en los pacientes Como conclusión, se debe recalcar la justificación del cri-
no infectados, que habían tenido previamente PCR negativa bado sistemático a población de riesgo (gestantes o niños
(no detectamos ningún falso negativo de la PCR). En el niño procedentes de áreas endémicas), dado que se trata de una
mayor de 12 meses, al igual que en el adulto, el método enfermedad que cursa de forma asintomática en un porcen-
diagnóstico de elección es la serología, y en caso de tener taje elevado de pacientes (sobre todo en la fase aguda de
un resultado positivo debe repetirse la determinación utili- la misma) y en la que puede existir transmisión vertical, por
zando un método serológico diferente como confirmación5 . lo que de no hacer cribado el diagnóstico es habitualmente
En cuanto al tratamiento, existen 2 fármacos aprobados tardío. Creemos, según nuestros resultados, que la realiza-
para esta indicación: benznidazol (de elección) y nifurti- ción del cribado es obligada en pacientes procedentes de
mox (alternativa)10,11 . En ninguno de los 2 existe formulación Bolivia dada la alta prevalencia de enfermedad de Chagas
pediátrica. Es importante conocer que existe menor tasa de en dicho país, pero que está igualmente indicada en el resto
reacciones adversas y, por lo tanto, mejor tolerancia cuando de países de Latinoamérica al existir también casos, con el
se administra en niños menores de 7 años12 . No existe sufi- objetivo de permitir un diagnóstico precoz y evitar el riesgo
ciente evidencia para determinar el mecanismo por el cual de complicaciones.
la toxicidad aumenta a mayor edad. Se cree que está rela- Además, el tratamiento del recién nacido tiene alta tasa
cionado con niveles plasmáticos mayores del fármaco, dado de curación (cercana al 100%) con escasa toxicidad asociada
que en niños existe mayor aclaramiento y, por lo tanto, dis- y la posibilidad de efectos adversos es mayor a medida que
minuye la vida media del mismo, por lo que una reducción aumenta la edad del paciente, mientras que el porcentaje
de la dosis en adultos, para alcanzar niveles similares a los de éxito del tratamiento va disminuyendo con la edad12 .
de la población pediátrica, podría conllevar una disminución
de la toxicidad sin afectar la eficacia del tratamiento13 . Conflicto de intereses
La dosis recomendada de benznidazol es de
8-10 mg/kg/día en 2 tomas durante 60 días (es igual
Los autores declaran no tener ningún conflicto de intereses.
para niños y recién nacidos, salvo en prematuros o pacien-
tes con patología concomitante en los que se recomienda
iniciar el tratamiento con una dosis menor, de 5 mg/kg/día,
y aumentar a partir de la primera semana si existe buena Bibliografía
tolerancia y control analítico normal hasta una dosis de
8-10 mg/kg/día)5 . En los últimos años se han realizado 1. Wagner N, Jackson Y, Chappuis F, Posfay-Barbe KM. Screening
algunos trabajos en países de alta endemia, tanto en and management of children at risk for Chagas disease in nonen-
demic areas. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35:335---7.
población pediátrica como en adultos con enfermedad de
2. Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, Russomando G, Luquetti A,
Chagas, de cuyos resultados se deriva que sería necesario Freilij H, et al. Congenital Chagas disease: Recommendations
plantearse reducir la dosis de benznidazol o la duración del for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and
tratamiento al no observar disminución de la eficacia del pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1250.
mismo con dicha reducción14,15 . 3. Howard EJ, Xiong X, Carlier Y, Sosa- Estani S, Buekens P.
En el caso de nifurtimox, que habitualmente se utiliza en Frequency of the congenital transmission of Trypanosoma
casos de mala tolerancia a benznidazol, la dosis recomen- cruzi: A systematic review and meta analysis. BJOG. 2014;21:
dada es de 15-20 mg/kg/día en 4 dosis, durante 90 días5 . 22---33.
Estos fármacos pueden tener reacciones adversas, funda- 4. Bern C, Verastegui M, Gilman RH, Lafuente C, Galdos-Cardenas
mentalmente gastrointestinales, cutáneas y hematológicas, G, Calderon C, et al. Congenital Tripanosoma cruzi transmission
in Santa Cruz. Bolivia Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1667---74.
por lo que se requiere que los pacientes tengan un segui-
5. González-Tomé MI, Rivera M, Camaño I, Norman F, Flores-
miento estrecho (clínico y analítico) durante la toma de Chávez M, Rodríguez-Gómez L, et al. Recomendaciones para el
los mismos y hasta un mes después de haber finalizado el diagnóstico, seguimiento y tratamiento de la embarazada y del
tratamiento5 . En nuestro caso, ninguno de los 2 pacientes niño con enfermedad de Chagas. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin.
pediátricos tratados con benznidazol presentó reacciones 2013;31:535---42.
adversas al tratamiento. 6. Gastañaga-Holguera T, Llorente-Gómez B, Merino P, Illescas
Una limitación de nuestro estudio es el tener un tamaño T, Villar G, Herráiz MA. Hydrops fetalis in a congenital Cha-
muestral pequeño, que hace que la estimación de la gas case in a non endemic area. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2016;36:
tasa de transmisión vertical tenga un IC amplio. Sería 672---3.
apropiado realizar estudios multicéntricos o extender el 7. Flores-Chavez M, Faez Y, Olalla JM, Cruz I, Garate T, Rodriguez
M, et al. Fatal congenital Chagas disease in a non-endemic area:
periodo de seguimiento de la cohorte para así aumentar
A case report. Cases J. 2008;1:1---5.
el tamaño muestral y, por tanto, obtener resultados más 8. Ferrer E, Lares M, Viettri M, Medina M. Comparación entre
concluyentes. Además, en 5 pacientes no se ha podido des- técnicas inmunológicas y moleculares para el diagnóstico
cartar la transmisión vertical por pérdida de seguimiento, de la enfermedad de Chagas. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin.
teniendo únicamente una PCR negativa al nacimiento. En 2013;31:277---82.
un caso por fallecimiento del paciente antes de comple- 9. Brasil P, de Castro L, Hasslocher-Moreno A, Sangenis L, Braga
tar el estudio (debido a una tuberculosis diseminada) y J. ELISA versus PCR for diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease:
126 L. Francisco-González et al.
Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infectious Diseases. lower plasma concentrations than in adults. PLoS Negl Trop Dis.
2010;10:1---17. 2014;22:e2907.
10. Chatelain E. Chagas disease drug discovery: Toward a new era. 14. Chippaux JP, Salas-Clavijo AN, Postigo JR, Schneider D, Santalla
J Biomol Screen. 2015;20:22---35. JA, Brutus L. Evaluation of compliance to congenital Chagas
11. Paucar R, Moreno-Viguri E, Pérez-Silanes S. Challenges in disease treatment: Rresults of a randomised trial in Bolivia.
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2016;23:3154---70. 15. Fernández ML, Marson ME, Ramirez JC, Mastrantonio G, Schij-
12. Altchech J, Moscatelli G, Moroni S, García-Bournissen F, Freilij man A, Altcheh J, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
H. Adverse events after the use of benznidazole in infants and responses in adult patients with Chagas disease treated with
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13. Altcheh J, Moscatelli G, Mastrantonio G, Moroni S, Giglio N, 2016;111:218---21.
Marson ME, et al. Population pharmacokinetic study of benz-
nidazole in pediatric Chagas disease suggests efficacy despite
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Abstract
OPEN ACCESS
Conclusions
The VT rate is in keeping with literature and confirms the need to carry out a screening in
pregnant women coming from endemic areas. PCR seems to be a useful tool to provide
early diagnosis of congenital CD.
Introduction
Over the past years there has been an increase in migration flows between different geographi-
cal areas, causing variations in epidemiological patterns of diseases worldwide. Chagas disease
(CD), caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, has traditionally been confined to endemic
locations in South America, but nowadays is emerging in Europe[1], mainly in Spain, the
European country with the highest immigration rate from South America and with the highest
number of individuals with CD [2]. Most of new cases of CD in Spain occur through vertical
mother-to-child transmission (VT).
Murcia L. et al [3] have recently described the effectiveness of treating infected women to
prevent congenital CD. The risk of congenital transmission seems to be related to maternal
Trypanosoma parasitemia, suggesting that early treatment should be performed in infected
women of childbearing age in order to prevent congenital CD. In addition, an early diagnosis
is essential as younger infants have better response to treatment [4].
In the last years, a significant effort has been made in Spain to establish a Chagas screening
program in pregnant mothers native from endemic areas. For diagnosis of congenital CD in
children born to infected mothers Spanish guidelines recommend performing: Polymerase
Chain-Reaction (PCR) and /or microhaematocrit detection at birth and 1 month later, and a
serological determination at 9 months of age or later[4]. Nowadays, this screening is not uni-
versal and therefore misdiagnosis of VT cases may occur. Furthermore, as children born to
infected mothers need to be followed up for a prolonged period until the confirmation of a
negative serology, a significant proportion of parents may be loss to follow up before the last
serology is performed and eventually might be infected.
The aims of this study were to describe the epidemiological characteristics of a cohort of
Chagas infected pregnant women in our country, to assess the VT rate and evaluate the useful-
ness of the PCR in the diagnosis of VT of T.cruzi in the first months of life. We purpose that
this deep analysis could help to evaluate ways to improve the newborn screening program in
our setting.
Results
We included 122 seropositive-infected pregnant women, who ranged in age from 19 to 42
(mean age ± SD, 32.6 ± 4.3 years). Ninety-nine (81.1%) were from Bolivia, 14 (11.5%) from
Paraguay, 2 (1.6%) from Argentina, 2 (1.6%) from Honduras and the rest from different Latin
American countries. Among the 122 women, 10 (8.2%) had been treated before current
pregnancy.
A total of 125 infants (52% girls, 48% boys) from 122 pregnancies were initially included
but 12.8% lost the follow-up before performing the last serology, thus only 109 infants com-
pleted the follow-up beyond 12 months, and are included in the analysis of the VT rate.
Vertical transmission was detected in 3 newborns, which represents a congenital transmis-
sion rate of 2.75% (95% CI: 0,57–8,8%). None of these 3 mothers received treatment before the
pregnancy. Only one infant had a case of symptomatic congenital Chagas disease (hydrops
fetalis, ascites, haemodynamic inestability, anaemia) and required admission to the neonatal
intensive care unit [7]. All infected infants had PCR at birth and at 1-month-old positive. After
treatment PCR became negative. In all three cases serological test was initially also positive and
became negative after the age of 12 months. Infected infants were treated with benznidazole.
Two of the patients were treated at one month of age, once we had two positive PCR; but in
the symptomatic case the treatment was initiated when the positive result of the first PCR per-
formed (at birth) was known, however after one month he had not completed the treatment
and the PCR remained positive. Side effects were observed only in one patient who suffered
moderate neutropenia (nadir: 600cel/mcl). This patient required a reduction of the dose of
benznidazole from 6mg/Kg/day to 5mg/Kg/day to resolve it.
Findings in infants with congenital infection are summarized in Table 1.
In contrast, no transmission was observed in 106 newborns, all of them with a negative
PCR result at birth and at 1 month of life. In all these infants, serological test became negative
during follow-up.
It should be noted that PCR did not report any false positive nor false negative in our sam-
ple. Therefore, the concordance between the determination of PCR at birth and at 1 month
later was 100%.
The first serology was done on average at 9.7 months of age (SD 1,45) but the mean age at
which uninfected patients had negative serology was 10.5 months (SD 2). The range of age the
serology was done was between 7,5–20,2 months.
The number of serology tests performed per patient varied from 1 to 4, and 20% of infants
required at least 2 determinations before a negative result was obtained.
Discussion
In our study most pregnant women with positive serology for T.cruzi (81%) came from Bolivia,
the country in Latin America with the highest prevalence of CD. The rate of VT in our cohort
was 2.75% (95% CI, 0,57–8,8%), according to the data reported in the literature [8][9], where
the referred prevalence is estimated at approximately 5% of newborns of infected mothers in
endemic areas and 2–3% in non-endemic areas.
The low observed transmission rate in our study compared to endemic areas, although with
a wide confident interval, might be influenced by the chronic phase of the disease in pregnant
women as they were probably infected in the childhood.
It’s important that in our study only the 8,2% of women had received treatment for CD,
and in the three cases in which we have documented VT, mothers had not received treatment
before. This disease in endemic areas affects mainly low socioeconomic population; in many
cases it is not diagnosed or even when the diagnosis is known, the treatment is not adminis-
tered or completed because it is usually poorly tolerated, specially in adults. The long asymp-
tomatic acute phase contributes to this underdiagnosis [2][10]. The ideal strategy to avoid this
situation would be to screen people from endemic areas in primary care, especially women of
childbearing age as an effective measure to reduce VT.
The fact that pregnant women present positive PCR during pregnancy increases the risk of
VT compared to women with positive serology but negative PCR. Murcia L. et al [3] propose
to include PCR in the management of pregnant women with Chagas disease, as they find a
NPV of 100%; with which its negativity indicates a low risk of VT, while its positivity would
force a closer monitoring of the newborn.
Congenital CD is usually asymptomatic. For patients presenting with symptoms, these are
variable and usually involve several organs and systems, as in the case of the symptomatic VT
identified in our cohort [7][11][12].
A positive serologic test in newborns can result from the placental transfer of maternal anti-
bodies, so the diagnosis should be based on methods for parasite detection (PCR or blood
smear examination), which are recommended to perform at birth and repeating at age 1
month due to the possibility of false negative results (depending on the level of parasitaemia).
In Spain, the use of PCR is more extended because is easier to perform, and it does not depend
on the experience of the laboratory staff compared to blood smear (). In our study, microhae-
matocrit was only performed in 30,4% of the sample (38/125). In this group, all the patients
have a negative result. In the three cases of congenital transmission only one has the both
determinations (PCR and microhaematocrit), in which the microhaematocrit result was nega-
tive in spite of a positive PCR. In Spain, the use of PCR is recommended due to its higher sen-
sitivity compared to blood smear (observation of the parasite by microscopic examination the
smear). The sensitivity of PCR is high during the acute phase (up to 90–95%) and decreases
during the chronic phase of disease (ranging between 50% and 80% in different case series)[13,
14]; furthermore, it has a specificity of nearly 100% [13]. Nevertheless, microscopic examina-
tion of blood smears continues to be useful in endemic areas, where molecular techniques
such as PCR are less frequently available in laboratories.
When getting a positive PCR, it is recommended proceed with a second determination, to
confirm the result. The case of a neonate with discordant results (a positive PCR unconfirmed
in a new determination) would be controversial. We have not come across such a case in our
series but, in this situation,a false positive result could be possible due to transplacental transfer
and transient persistence of maternal parasite DNA [15]. A third determination could be
made (and if possible also microhaematocrit) and if they were also negative, in an asympto-
matics patient, it would be possible to wait without treatment and verify later a decrease of the
antibody titers over time. If there is no decrease, initiation of treatment should be considered.
In our case, PCR might improve the diagnostic yield if a higher sensitivity is confirmed. The
main drawback is the lack of standardization of the procedure and therefore it has not been def-
initely validated for diagnosis of congenital CD. Despite these shortcomings, in our study, PCR
has an excellent sensitivity to detect early CD in all 3 infected children. Furthermore, there was
no false positive results, since all 106 children with long-term follow up with negativization of
antibodies have had negative PCR at birth and at 1 month of age. If our results are confirmed
in larger prospective studies, blood PCR might be a very useful tool to rule out CD early on in
children born to T. cruzi infected mothers. It would be of particular interest in our setting
where a high proportion of children are lost to follow-up during the first months of life.
Antibodies negativization confirmed by serologic testing is recommended starting at age of
9 months, although antibodies may not actually become undetectable until age of 12 months.
In our case, the average age at which the antibodies were negative in non-infected patients was
10.5 months. According to our results, we suggest that serology should not be performed
before 10 months of age, to avoid unnecessary blood samples.
New advances in the treatment of this disease are also necessary. There are two approved
drugs: benznidazole (of choice) and nifurtimox (alternative treatment); both are more effective
in the acute phase of the disease; and more effective and better tolerated at a younger age. The
young infant’s treatment presents a cure rate close to 100% [4].
These drugs may cause side effects, most frequently gastrointestinal, cutaneous and hema-
tologic, so the treatment requires monitoring of patients. These reactions are more frequent
over the age of 7 years [16].
Our study presents some limitations, first of all because it is a retrospective descriptive
study. Due to the sample size, the confidence interval of the VT rate is wide. Performance of
multicenter studies with greater number of patients or studies with a longer period of follow-
up would be considered to obtain more consistent results. Another limitation is that we did
not perform the two parasitological determinations (microhaematocrit and PCR) in all new-
borns (only in the 30,4% of them) so a comparison between both techniques can not be done.
Nevertheless, our series provides important data regarding the estimation of the VT rate in a
non-endemic area and that reinforces, in conclusion, the need to carry out a universal screen-
ing in the population coming from endemic areas. An early diagnosis and an effective and bet-
ter tolerated treatment reduce the prevalence of the disease and its long-term complications.
Due to the non-negligible percentage of losses in follow-up of these patients, it seems rele-
vant that we have not obtained any false negative or false positive from the PCR. If these find-
ings are confirmed, it could imply avoiding unnecessary follow-ups with serological studies in
the future. However, the design of the study and the results obtained do not have the strength
to make possible to modify the current screening method, it would be necessary to perform
prospective studies with a larger sample size and designed specifically for this purpose.
Supporting information
S1 File. Database. Studied variables data.
(XLSX)
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the mothers and their children and to Marı́a Flores and Milagros
Garcı́a-López Hortelano for their help.
Author Contributions
Data curation: Laura Francisco-González, Alba Rubio-San-Simón, Marı́a Isabel González-
Tomé, Ángela Manzanares, Cristina Epalza, Marı́a del Mar Santos, José Tomás Ramos-
Amador.
Formal analysis: Laura Francisco-González, Alba Rubio-San-Simón, Ángela Manzanares,
Paloma Merino, José Tomás Ramos-Amador.
References
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
age, and 11.08 years for those older than one year-old. Only one case presented a symptom-
atic course (hydrops faetalis, haemodynamic instability at birth, ascites, anaemia). For 94%
treatment was completed. Considering patients who received benznidazole (47), AE were
recorded in 48,9%. Among the 32 patients older than one year-old treated with benznidazole,
18 (56.25%) had adverse events whereas in the 15 under one year, 5(33,3%) did. Eigtheen
(78.2%) of the patients with benznidazole AE were older than one year-old(median age 11.4
years). Of the patients treated with nifurtimox (9), AE were reported in 3 cases (33,3%).
Cure was confirmed in 80% of the children under one year-old vs 4.3% in those older
(p<0.001). Loss to follow- up occurred in 35.3% of patients.
Conclusions/Significances
Screening programs of CD since birth allow early diagnosis and treatment, with a signifi-
cantly higher cure rate in children treated before one year of age, with lower incidence of
adverse events. The high proportion of patients lost to follow-up in this vulnerable population
is of concern.
Author summary
Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, has traditionally been con-
fined to endemic locations in South America (with vectorial transmission), but is nowa-
days emerging in Europe, mainly in Spain, due to immigration.
A series of characteristics of this disease condition its management. It is usually asymp-
tomatic (especially in early stages), it can be transmitted from mothers to child (vertical
transmission) and treatment is more effective at a younger age or during the early stages
of infection. For these reasons early diagnosis and treatment of infected children is a pri-
ority. To date, there are few publications on pediatric CD series in non-endemic regions.
In this paper we describe the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 51 children
diagnosed with pediatric CD in a non-endemic area, as well as the the safety and efficacy
of treatment in this patient population.
We found that most patients were asymptomatic at diagnosis. The cure percentage was
clearly higher when they were treated before one year-old (80% vs 4.3% in children older
than one).Adverse events to treatment have occurred especially in older children, being
frequent in this age group (median age 11 years).
The high proportion of patients lost to follow-up that occurs in this vulnerable popula-
tion is also noteworthy (35.3% in our case). We highlight, as a conclusion of our study, the
need of carrying out systematic screening for this disease (women of childbearing age,
children of mothers with positive serology) to reduce the rate of vertical transmission and
to achieve higher cure rates and better tolerance to treatment.
Introduction
Chagas disease (CD), caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, was listed in 2010
by the World Health Organization (WHO) [1] as one of the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs).
However, 6 to7 million people are estimated to be infected around the world [2]. Due to
migratory flows in recent decades, CD has shifted from being confined to endemic areas in
Latin America, to being a disease that can be diagnosed worldwide.
Inclusion criteria
All patients under 18 years of age diagnosed with CD in the participating hospitals, between
2004 and 2018. Patients diagnosed outside of the Community of Madrid were excluded.
Diagnostic criteria
• Children during the first year of their life: The presence of a positive parasitological test, with
direct visualization -microhaematocrit- or more frecuently with molecular biology methods-
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-, with subsequent confirmation, and / or confirmed persis-
tence of positive serology beyond nine months of life (without decline of antibody titers).
We considered these diagnostic criteria for this age group because during the first year of life,
a positive serological test can result from the placental transfer of maternal antibodies and
because parasitological methods are adequate for the diagnosis of congenital disease, due to
the high levels of parasitemia [13,14].
• After one year-old, the diagnosis was undertaken using two different serological tests for CD
(enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, chemiluminescence analysis or immunochromatogr-
apy, depending on the hospital). In case of disagreement between these two tests, for the
diagnosis, a third determination was considered necessary, with a different technique (indi-
rect immunofluorescence).
Vertical transmission route was considered in those children that were born in Spain and
whose diagnosis was made in the first year of life (followed from birth) and also for those who
were born in Spain and did not have a travel history to an endemic area nor blood transfus-
sion, regardless of age at diagnosis.
Details of adverse events (AE) to treatment were not uniformly collected in medical rec-
ords. We have clasiffied them as mild, when symptoms did not interfere with the patient’s
daily activity or did not require symptomatic treatment; moderate, when clinical manifesta-
tions needed treatment or interruption/change of the CD treatment and severe, when clinical
manifestations entailed vital risk or produced sequels.
Treatment response, was defined as cured when a serological test became negative during
the follow-up (confirmed with a second determination) [7].
Statistical analysis
was performed by describing qualitative variables with absolute numbers and percentages, and
quantitative variables with mean and standard deviation, or with median and interquartile
range, if the variables did not follow a normal distribution. Statistical significance was set at
0.05 for all tests performed. The statistical analysis was done with SPSS v.25 program (IBM
SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
Results
Fifty-one cases of pediatric CD were identified (59% male, 41% female). Twenty-six (50,9%)
were born in Spain and twenty-five (49%) came from endemic areas. All the mothers had
Latin American origins: 94% (n = 48) came from Bolivia, 2%(n = 1) from México, 2%(n = 1)
from Honduras and 2%(n = 1) from Paraguay. None of them had received treatment for CD
prior to their children’s diagnosis, despite that 5 (10%) were aware of the diagnosis previously.
The median age at diagnosis was 103.5 months (IQR: 1,4–167). They ranged in age from 0
to 17 years-old. Sixteen cases (31.4%) were diagnosed under one year of age, the median age of
diagnosis in this group was 0.7 months (IQR 0.09–1.54). For those older than one year-old
(n = 35, 68.6%), the median age of diagnosis was 11.08 years (IQR: 8.14–14.7). The results bro-
ken down by age group (under 1 year-old vs over one year of age, are detailed in Table 1)
Vertical transmission, as defined in the Patients and Methods section, was considered in 26
cases (50.9%). Of these Spanish-born cases, follow-up from birth was performed in 61.5% (16/
Children < 1 year-old. N/total (%) Children �1 year-old. N/total (%) Total
N 16/51 (31,4) 35/51 (68,6) 51
Median age at diagnosis 0.7 months (IQR 0.09–1.54) 11.08 y.o. (IQR 8.14–14.7) –
Diagnostic procedures PCR: 15/16 (93,7) PCR + Serology: 19/35 (54,3) 34/51
Serology: 1/16 (6,25) Only Serology: 16/35 (45,7) 17/51
Treatment completed 15/16 (93,7) 33/35 (91,4) 48/51
Treatment drugs Benznidazole 14/15 (93,3) 25/33 (75,7) 39/48
Nifurtimox 0/15 (0) 1/33 (3,03) 1/48
Benznidazole followed by nifurtimox 1/15 (6,6) 7/33 (21,2) 8/48
Treatment adverse events Benznidazole 5/15 (33,3) 18/32 (78,26) 23/47
Nifurtimox 0/0(0) 3/9 (33,3) 3/9
Loss to follow-up Total 6/16 (37,5) 12/35 (34,3) 18/51
Before treatment 0/16 (0) 2/35 (5,7) 2/51
During treatment 1/16 (6,2) 0/35 (0) 1/51
After treatment 5/16 (3,1) 10/35 (28,5) 15/51
Patients who continued follow up Total 10/16 (62,5) 23/35 (65,7) 33/51
Cured 8/10 (80) 1/23 (4,3) 9/33
Decreasing serological titers 1/10 (10) 10/23 (43,4) 11/33
Serology remains positive 1/10 (10) 12/23 (52,2) 13/33
Born in Spain 16/26 (61,5) 10/35 (28,5) 26/51
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010232.t001
26). The other 10 (38,4%) were missed oportunities of early diagnosis (diagnosed at more than
one year of age). They all (10) were born before 2013, the year of publication of Spanish guide-
lines for the diagnosis and management of pregnant women and children with Chagas disease
[7]. None of these ten patients had a history of travel to endemic areas nor previous blood
transfussions either.Their diagnosis (10/26) were reached because they were referred when the
mothers were diagnosed with Chagas disease.
In the remaining 25, the route of transmission was not determined, since the children were
not born in Spain, and therefore whether infection occured through vertical or vectorial trans-
mission could not be ascertained.
Clinical data
The reasons for consultation / follow-up of pediatric patients were: mother with positive serol-
ogy after pregnancy in 22 patients (43%), positive maternal serology during pregnancy in 12
(23.5%), screening of immigrant population from endemic areas in 8 patients (15.6%), mother
with positive serology before pregnancy in 5 (10%), and adoption in the remaining 4 (7.8%).
The clinical presentation was asymptomatic in 50 cases (98%), and symptomatic in only
one case, which was diagnosed in the acute phase (hydrops fetalis), previously reported [15].
This child had a case of symptomatic congenital Chagas disease (hydrops fetalis, ascites, hae-
modynamic instability, anaemia) and required admission to the neonatal intensive care unit.
The patient had a positive PCR result at birth, and responded favourably to a 60-day course of
treatment with benznidazole with resolution of the symptoms.
Diagnostic testing
In patients younger than one year-old, followed from birth (n = 16 15 cases (94%) were diag-
nosed by PCR (associated with microhematocrit in two of them), confirmed with a positive
serology beyond 9 months of age, while for the remaining case (6%) PCR was not performed at
birth, being diagnosed at 10 months, by persistence of positive serology, with no decrease in anti-
bodie titers. In patients older than one year (n = 35), the diagnosis was made with serology for all
cases (two determinations, different techniques), associated with positive PCR in 19 (54.3%).
Follow-up
Eigtheen (18/51) patients (35,3%), were lost to follow-up: in 2 cases (4%) before starting treat-
ment (because they returned to their country of origin), in 1 (2%) during treatment (as he
moved to another Spanish autonomous community). The remaining 15 (29,3%) patients were
lost after having completed the treatment.
For the patients who completed the treatment and continued on follow-up (n = 33): 24
(47%) continue to be monitored (as the serology has not yet been negative), while 9 (17.6%)
have been deemed cured and discharged.
Cure (negative serology in at least two determinations) was observed in 80% of patients
diagnosed when they were younger than one year-old (8/10), compared to 4.3% of those older
than one (1/23), being this difference statistically significant (p <0.0001).
From the 24 patients who had positive serology at the last follow-up visit: 11 (45.8%) had
decreasing titers (only 1 of them started treatment within the first year of life) and 13 (54.16%)
did not show a decrease in antibody titers (12 of them older than one year-old at diagnosis).
The patient flow chart of the study is detailed in Fig 1
For all patients who had a positive PCR, it became negative after treatment. The mean time
at which the PCR was negative (after the end of treatment) was 4.5 months (Range: 0.9–15.9).
The average follow-up time of cured patients (time until negative serology) was 20.1 months
(Range 8–57).
The detailed information of the 33 patients who completed the treatment and continued
follow-up is in Table 2
The average follow-up time of this 33 patients was 57.8 months (Range 8–168), median
time 36 months (IQR 18.5–72).
Discussion
To our knowledge, we present one of the largest pediatric CD series diagnosed, treated and fol-
lowed in a non-endemic area, regardless of their origin. As in other published series [10,11],
Bolivia was the most frequent country of origin of the cases or of their mothers in our study.
Table 2. Age at the start of treatment, time of follow up and outcome in the 33 patients that continued follow-up.
Age at the start of treatment (months) Follow-up time (months) Outcome (Serology)
1 0.1 22 Cured
2 0.3 36 Remains positive
3 0.56 19 Cured
4 0.59 15 Cured
5 0.76 31 Decreasing titers
6 1.48 12 Cured
7 1.77 8 Cured
8 2.89 11 Cured
9 2.89 12 Cured
10 7.82 25 Cured
11 41.03 103 Decreasing titers
12 41.92 36 Remains positive
13 55.16 42 Decreasing titers
14 90.22 168 Decreasing titers
15 97.74 57 Remains positive
16 104.28 72 Remains positive
17 105.46 18 Decreasing titers
18 125.37 99 Remains positive
19 122.84 22 Decreasing titers
20 130.79 57 Cured
21 133.19 32 Remains positive
22 137 72 Remains positive
23 147.42 45 Decreasing titers
24 149.36 36 Remains positive
25 165.55 65 Decreasing titers
26 166.08 92 Remains positive
27 177.81 14 Remains positive
28 176.79 72 Decreasing titers
29 191.51 26 Remains positive
30 192.99 146 Decreasing titers
31 200.18 102 Decreasing titers
32 201.92 14 Remains positive
33 202.05 29 Remains positive
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010232.t002
As main findings of our study, we highlight the need to perform screening programs of CD
to allow early diagnosis and treatment, as most patients were asymptomatic. It is also impor-
tant to highlight the significantly higher cure rate in early treated chidren (younger than one
year-old), with lower incidence of adverse events to treatment also for this group. The high
rate of loss to follow-up in this vulnerable population is also noteworthy.
It is important to carry out children screening from birth when the mothers have a previous
positive serology (33.5% of patients in our series) [7], as well as the need to study the previous
children of these mothers (in our series, 43% of patients were so diagnosed). Despite this, of
the patients in the series born in Spain, 38,4% had not been followed from birth, maybe
because this follow-up recommendations (including PCR and /or microhaematocrit detection
at birth and 1 month later, and a serological determination at 9 months of age or later) were
not published in our country until 2013[7], and all of them were born before this year.
Although there were already recommendations before, there was perhaps less awareness. Even
today this screening is not done systematically in all hospitals, even though it is becoming
more widespread.
Furthermore, a good strategy to avoid disease underdiagnosis would be to screen people
from endemic areas in primary care, particularly women of childbearing age. It is of para-
mount importance to treat the disease prior to pregnancy, since it might reduce or even pre-
vent the rate of congenital transmission [7,16,17]. In our work, in 10% of the cases, even
though the mothers knew the diagnosis before gestation, they had not been treated.
Another group to which special attention should be paid are immigrant population and
internationally adopted children from Latin America [18]. 7% of the patients in our case series
were diagnosed by screening from the intercountry adoption consultation.
CD is usually asymptomatic when there is vertical transmission, or other transmission
route during childhood. In our case, 98% of the patients did not present suggestive symptoms
of the disease at diagnosis
For patients with congenital infection, presenting with symptoms at birth, these may be var-
iable and usually involve several organs and systems, as in the case of the only symptomatic
patient in our series [15].
In other published series of pediatric-age patients in non-endemic areas, most cases have
also been asymptomatic [10,11,19].
In their work, Fumadó et al [10] describe a series of 22 cases, 5 of congenital transmission,
all asymptomatic, and mostly from Bolivian origin. Rodriguez-Guerineau [11] et al, report 45
cases of Chagas disease diagnosed or treated in Spain and Switzerland, with only one symp-
tomatic case, with gastrointestinal complications in the chronic phase of the disease (megaeso-
phagus). In our series there were no cases of megaesophagus or megacolon.
In their recent paper, Simón et al [19] describe 40 cases of Chagas disease in pediatric popu-
lation, and they reported that only 3 of 12 children in the acute phase presented with signs and
symptoms of Chagas disease: low weight at birth, hepatosplenomegaly, respiratory distress,
myocarditis, anaemia and jaundice.
Due to the usual asymptomatic course, it is especially important to develop screening pro-
grams for the early diagnosis of the disease.
During the first year of life, a positive serological test can result from the placental transfer
of maternal antibodies. Therefore, the diagnosis should be based on methods for direct para-
site detection (PCR or blood smear examination-microhaematocrit), to be able to start early
treatment if a positive result is obtained. In addition, these tests are more sensitive at this
period because the acute infection phase presents with greater parasitaemia [14]. For the
patients diagnosed within this age range of our series, the diagnosis was carried out in 94% by
parasitological tests.
In all cases in which PCR was performed on infected patients younger than one year-old,
no false positives were identified (a positive serological test was confirmed after 9 months of
age), in keeping with other studies [5]
For patients older than one year-old, like for adults, serology continues to be the most fre-
quent method for diagnostic purposes.
Treatment during pediatric age is well tolerated and effective in 50–70% of cases, therefore
it can decrease the risk of complications and future vertical transmission [17]. Benznidazole is
the treatment of choice for CD (first treatment option in 98% of treated patients in our series),
with nifurtimox being a normal second-line therapeutic option [7]. Benznidazole achieves
cure for up to 100% of children with congenital infection treated during the first year of life
and 76% in patients with acute infection, decreasing to 9–15% in adult patients with chronic
disease [9]. Nifurtimox has cure rates of around 86% in children and 7–8% in adults [9].
Recently, a paediatric formulation of nifurtimox has been approved and it can probably will
be used as a first line treatment as well in future.
The negativization of serology, and therefore cure in our series, is clearly greater in the
group of patients diagnosed and treated within the first year of their life, in accordance with
other studies (Rodriguez Guerineau et al, Simon et al). We highlight the low cure rate in those
over than one year of age, probably due to the high median age at diagnosis (11.08 years).
When the infection is not diagnosed in time, children enter the chronic phase of CD and they
require a longer follow-up in time, in order to achieve cure criteria.
The main limitation in evaluating treatment response for CD (in patients older than 1 year,
as in adults) stems from the need for a long-term follow-up (years to decades) to demonstrate
seroreversion from positive antibodies to a negative serology with conventional tests. Alterna-
tive early markers of cure have been suggested, such as decrease of total anti T.cruzi antibody
titers or ELISA anti F2/3[20], but nowadays the only criteria of CD cure is seroreversion [9].
In our case, of the 33 patients who continued follow-up, although only 9 patients (27,2%)
were considered cured due to negative serology, 11 cases (33.3%) had decreasing antibody
titers and will probably end up becoming negative when the follow up period will be
prolonged.
Our results are similar to those of the series by Rodriguez-Guerineau et al, where they
describe that the only factor associated with the cure rate was age at diagnosis and treatment
(p = 0.008), finding a cure rate of 100% in children under one year, while it was only 4.2% in
those over this age (median age: 4 years).
In other pediatric series published in endemic areas [21] the results of seroconversion were
variable (from 5 to 90%), for different reasons (different parasite lineages, varying age groups
and varying times of post-treatment follow-up and different times since acute phase of the
disease).
There is better tolerance to treatment (lower AE rate) in children than in adults [22,23],
specially when administered in patients younger than 7 years-old. In a study [24] conducted
on 107 patients with CD treated with benznidazole, AE were described in 41% of cases, 77.3%
of wich were in children older than 7 years-old.
In our series of patients, AE due to benznidazole were reported in almost 50% of cases,
more frequent in children older than one year (78.2% of patients with benznidazole AE), with
a median age of 11.4 years. Among the 32 patients older tan one year treated with benznida-
zole, 18 (56.25%) had adverse events whereas in the 15 under one year-old, 5(33,3%) did.
Our study presents some limitations, firstly due to its retrospective nature and because it
presents a significant percentage of losses to follow-up (35%), higher than in other series in
non-endemic areas [9], although this information is provided in few publications under the
conditions of our study. We believe that this figure is largely attributable to the characteristics
of the studied population (immigrant population that sometimes has difficulties in going to
medical appointments or returns to their country of origin) [25]. This high rate of losses to fol-
low-up is of concern and efforts should be made to improve it.
Another limitation could be the variability in the serological techniques among the different
hospitals. Moreover, some hospitals changed the technique over time. Therefore, the ability to
detect antibodies could be different and furthermore the new serological techniques detect
lower levels of antibodies. This reinforces the need to explore new cure markers of this disease,
more accurate than conventional serology.
The mean follow-up time has been heterogeneous depending on the patients year of diag-
nosis, specially for those with no cure criteria. Although in all there has been a minimum fol-
low-up time, until at least two serologies have been performed. This represents another
limitation of the study and may condition the results interpretation since probably some
patients with declining serology titers end up fullfiling cure criteria by prolonging follow-up.
However, it provides data of one of the largest series of pediatric CD patients in non-
endemic areas, reinforcing the importance of early diagnosis and treatment, to achieve higher
cure rates, particularly in children under one year. We also highlight, the considerable rate of
treatment AE in the pediatric population older than one year of our series, higher than in
other studies [19].
Prospective studies with longer follow-up period, to determinate more accurately the char-
acteristics of treatment response in pediatric age and future complications in adulthood are
needed.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González, Milagros Garcı́a-
López Hortelano, Rogelio López Vélez, Luis Ignacio González-Granado, Cristina Epalza,
Marı́a Flores-Chavez, José Tomás Ramos Amador, Marı́a Isabel González-Tomé.
Data curation: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González, Álvaro Vázquez-Pérez,
Marı́a Isabel González-Tomé.
Formal analysis: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González.
Investigation: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González, Álvaro Vázquez-Pérez,
Milagros Garcı́a-López Hortelano, Rogelio López Vélez, Luis Ignacio González-Granado,
Mar Santos, Cristina Epalza, Ana Belén Jiménez, Marı́a José Cilleruelo, Sara Guillén, Tania
Fernández, Iciar Olabarrieta, Marı́a Flores-Chavez, José Tomás Ramos Amador, Marı́a Isa-
bel González-Tomé.
Methodology: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González, Álvaro Vázquez-Pérez,
Milagros Garcı́a-López Hortelano, Cristina Epalza, Ana Belén Jiménez, Marı́a José Ciller-
uelo, Sara Guillén, Tania Fernández, Iciar Olabarrieta, Marı́a Flores-Chavez, José Tomás
Ramos Amador, Marı́a Isabel González-Tomé.
Supervision: Milagros Garcı́a-López Hortelano, Rogelio López Vélez, Luis Ignacio González-
Granado, Mar Santos, Cristina Epalza, Ana Belén Jiménez, Marı́a José Cilleruelo, Sara Guil-
lén, Tania Fernández, Iciar Olabarrieta, Marı́a Flores-Chavez, José Tomás Ramos Amador,
Marı́a Isabel González-Tomé.
Writing – original draft: Luz Yadira Bravo-Gallego, Laura Francisco-González, Álvaro Váz-
quez-Pérez, José Tomás Ramos Amador.
Writing – review & editing: Laura Francisco-González, Milagros Garcı́a-López Hortelano,
Rogelio López Vélez, Luis Ignacio González-Granado, Mar Santos, Sara Guillén, Marı́a Flo-
res-Chavez, José Tomás Ramos Amador, Marı́a Isabel González-Tomé.
References
1. World Health Organization (WHO). Working to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical dis-
ease. First WHO report on neglected tropical diseases. 2010. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/
handle/10665/44440
2. World Health Organization (WHO). Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis).2021. [consulted Jan-
uary 2022] Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topics/chagas-disease#tab=tab_1
3. Howard EJ, Xiong X, Carlier Y, Sosa- Estani S, Buekens P. Frequency of the congenital transmission of
Trypanosoma cruzi: a systematic review and meta analysis. BJOG. 2014; 21:22–33 https://doi.org/10.
1111/1471-0528.12396 PMID: 23924273
90
Los resultados de esta memoria, dividida en tres trabajos de investigación
clínica, amplían la evidencia científica existente hasta la fecha en cuanto a datos de EC
en edad pediátrica y su tratamiento, así como de la TV de la misma, en un área no
endémica.
En los RN infectados por TV (3) descritos en los 2 primeros artículos, la PCR fue
positiva en todos los casos, tanto al nacimiento como al mes de vida y se negativizó
después del tratamiento, permitiendo por tanto un diagnóstico y tratamiento precoces
92
de estos pacientes. El hecho de que estos pacientes presentasen PCR positiva ya al
nacimiento, orienta sobre la posible transmisión intraútero (probablemente por vía
transplacentaria).
93
Estos resultados refuerzan la gran utilidad de la PCR para el diagnóstico precoz
de EC en esta población, ya que evita demoras en el diagnóstico e inicio del
tratamiento y posibles oportunidades perdidas de diagnóstico, teniendo en cuenta que
se trata de una población con importantes porcentajes de pérdidas de seguimiento a
largo plazo. Si bien sería necesario obtener mayor evidencia científica para poder
modificar el algoritmo diagnóstico validado hasta el momento para los RN, de la
evidencia obtenida aunando los datos publicados hasta el momento y nuestros
resultados, podemos deducir que a priori la probabilidad de falsos negativos o
positivos con las técnicas moleculares actualmente empleadas, siempre refiriéndonos
a casos de EC congénita en fase aguda, es muy baja (dadas su alta sensibilidad y
especificidad). En un estudio realizado recientemente en España 55 (Flores-Chavéz M et
al, 2020) diseñado para evaluar el rendimiento de una técnica de diagnóstico
molecular para la detección de T. cruzi, se encontró que en 29 casos de EC congénita,
las técnicas moleculares (PCR convencional y T.cruzi-LAMP) detectaron el 100% de los
casos, mientras que la rentabilidad del microhematocrito fue del 88%. En nuestro
segundo estudio, en consonancia con los datos descritos, el único caso de TV que
presentaba ambas técnicas de detección directa (PCR y microhematocrito), la PCR fue
positiva mientras que no se consiguió visualizar el parásito con la microscopía.
94
existe sintomatología que pueda sugerir afectación orgánica. Habitualmente se realiza
un ECG de rutina en pacientes diagnosticados de EC (en fase crónica) y se valora la
posibilidad de realizar Rx de tórax (para descartar cardiomegalia)22,59.
95
Respecto a este resultado creemos que podría explicarse en parte por tratarse de un
estudio realizado en un área no endémica (madres con menor parasitemia, infección
probablemente en fase crónica, etc) y que quizá también puede haber ocurrido que, al
tratarse de una recogida de datos retrospectiva, algunos síntomas leves sin
repercusión clínica no hayan sido recogidos en los registros clínicos, en relación con el
cribado de la EC; sobre todo en los 10 pacientes en los que, pese a que se ha
considerado la vía de infección por TV,al haber nacido en España sin posibilidad de
transmisión vectorial y sin historia de viajes a sus países de origen ni de transfusiones o
trasplante de órganos, el diagnóstico de EC se realizó por encima del año de edad.
Puede haber ocurrido por tanto, un sesgo de información o de memoria en cuanto a
síntomas leves que puedan haber presentado estos pacientes en periodo perinatal,
que podrían haber tenido relación con la TV de la EC.
96
El tratamiento de elección para la EC, y la opción mayoritaria en los pacientes
tratados en nuestro estudio, es el benznidazol; utilizado en todos los casos de TV de los
dos primeros artículos y como tratamiento inicial en el 98% de los pacientes de la
cohorte descrita en el tercero. A pesar de que no existen ensayos clínicos
aleatorizados que comparen benznidazol y nifurtimox, benznidazol sigue
considerándose el tratamiento de elección para la EC (y nifurtimox la segunda opción
terapéutica), por su mejor tolerancia y su posible mayor eficacia 5,43,49. En caso de
intolerancia a alguno de los fármacos, se puede utilizar el otro como alternativa, como
ha ocurrido en nuestra cohorte en 8 pacientes (1 menor de un año y 7 mayores de un
año), en los que se realizó un cambio de tratamiento de benznidazol a nifurtimox, al
haber presentado EA con el primer tratamiento.
En pacientes tratados durante el primer año de edad, las tasas de curación con
benznidazol descritas en la literatura, son cercanas al 100%, y descienden
significativamente si se trata la enfermedad en edad adulta o fase crónica43.
97
prolongado el período de seguimiento se habría conseguido curación al menos en el
90% de los casos.
98
completado tratamiento). Creemos que para que se produzca este hecho confluyen
dos factores, por un lado el largo periodo de seguimiento que suele requerir esta
patología, especialmente cuando se diagnostica por encima del año de edad,
encontrándose los pacientes por lo general asintomáticos, y las características de la
población estudiada. Se trata de población inmigrante, en ocasiones con condiciones
socioeconómicas adversas62, con dificultad para asistir a las citas médicas o que
pueden volver a su país de origen o trasladarse a otra región. Para intentar minimizar
estas pérdidas de seguimiento podría plantearse una colaboración estrecha con los
pediatras de atención primaria, a donde habitualmente la población tiene menos
dificultades para acudir, dada la cercanía y accesibilidad, y el poder realizar citas
telefónicas para seguimiento y comunicación de resultados; así como un abordaje
multidisciplinar que incluyese la valoración del riesgo social de dicha población.
100
Limitaciones
Habría sido también interesante poder disponer del resultado de la PCR de las
madres gestantes (especialmente en los casos de TV); pero al no tratarse de una
prueba incluida de rutina en los cribados de embarazadas, no hemos podido aportar
este dato.
102
recoger y estudiar y por tanto dispondríamos de estudios con menos heterogeneidad
en los resultados que los que hemos podido realizar hasta la fecha.
Sería ideal poder plantear también alguna estrategia de coordinación entre los
dos niveles asistenciales (atención primaria y hospitalaria), para intentar disminuir los
porcentajes de pérdidas de seguimiento en estos pacientes y homogeneizar los
programas de cribado de población de áreas endémicas.
103
VI. CONCLUSIONES
104
1. La tasa de transmisión vertical de enfermedad de Chagas encontrada en
nuestro medio está en consonancia con los datos publicados hasta el
momento en otras cohortes españolas y europeas y parece menor que
la descrita en áreas endémicas.
105
a los mayores de un año de edad al diagnóstico (80% vs 4,3%), lo que
apoya la importancia del diagnóstico y tratamiento precoces en estos
pacientes.
106
VII.BIBLIOGRAFÍA
107
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de Trypanosoma cruzi como una vía de transmisión re-emergente.
rev.univ.ind.santander.salud 2014; 46: 177-188.
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12. Carlier Y, Truyens C. Maternal-fetal transmission of Trypanosoma
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hundred years of research. UK, USA: Elsevier, 2017, 2d edition, chap 23, p517-559.
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