Podas de olivo para hemicelulosas y bioetanol
Podas de olivo para hemicelulosas y bioetanol
FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS
Departamento de Química Inorgánica e Ingeniería Química
Septiembre de 2012
TITULO: LAS PODAS DE OLIVO COMO MATERIA PRIMA PARA LA
PRODUCCIÓN DE DERIVADOS DE LAS HEMICELULOSAS, PASTAS
CELULÓSICAS Y BIOETANOL
[Link]/publicaciones
publicaciones@[Link]
LAS PODAS DE OLIVO COMO MATERIA PRIMA PARA LA PRODUCCIÓN DE
DERIVADOS DE LAS HEMICELULOSAS, PASTAS CELULÓSICAS Y BIOETANOL
LOS DIRECTORES,
LA DOCTORANDA,
CERTIFICAN:
Fdo.: Dr.
r. Luis Jiménez Alcaide Fdo.:: Dr. Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual
UNIVERSIDAD DE CÓRDOBA
FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS
Departamento de Química Inorgánica e Ingeniería Química
Dr. Arturo Chica Pérez, Director del Departamento de Química Inorgánica e Ingeniería
Química, de la Universidad de Córdoba,
CERTIFICA:
Que la Tesis Doctoral titulada: “Las podas de olivo como materia prima para la
producción de derivados de las hemicelulosas, pastas celulósicas y bioetanol”
bioetanol ha sido
desarrollada
lada en los laboratorios del Departamento
D de Química Inorgánica e Ingeniería
Química de la Facultad de Ciencias (Universidad
( de Córdoba), de Ingeniería Química,
Química Física y Química Orgánica de la Universidad de Huelva, de Ingeniería Química
de la Facultad de Ciencias de Ourense (Universidad de Vigo), y del Laboratorio
L de
Celulosa y Papel de laa Universidad Federal de Viçosa (Brasil), y reúne todos los
requisitos exigidos a este tipo de trabajo,
trabajo por lo que autorizo su presentación y
posterior defensa pública.
Córdoba, 7 de Junio
Jun de 2012.
1. RESUMEN-SUMMARY 1
2. OBJETIVOS-AIMS 11
3. INTRODUCCIÓN 17
3.2. OLIVO 31
3.2.1. Origen 31
3.2.2. Morfología y Taxonomía 31
3.2.3. Producción del olivar en la Unión Europea, España y Andalucía 33
3.2.4. Podas de olivo: un residuo agrícola 35
3.2.5. Aplicaciones de las podas de olivo 37
[Link]. Aplicaciones basadas en el aprovechamiento global 37
[Link]. Aplicaciones basadas en el fraccionamiento de los componentes 40
I
ndice General
II
ndice General
5. BIBLIOGRAFÍA 131
III
ndice General
6.2. Total use of olive tree prunings by means of hydrothermal and combustion
processes 195
6.3. Ethanol pulping as stage in the bio-refinery of olive tree prunings 221
6.4. TCF bleaching sequence in Kraft pulping of olive tree pruning residues 247
7. CONCLUSIONES-CONCLUSIONS 345
INDICE DE FIGURAS V
IV
ndice de Figuras
Figura 3.9. Obtención de productos de alto valor añadido a partir de una Biorre-
finería de biomasa lignocelulósica. 46
Figura 4.3.1. Microscópio para medida de longitud de fibra de la materia prima. 115
V
ndice de Figuras
VI
Lista de Abreviaturas
C*: Color.
VII
Lista de Abreviaturas
E: Extracción alcalina.
F: Furfural.
GO: Gluco-oligosacáridos.
VIII
Lista de Abreviaturas
HMF: Hidroximetil-furfural.
L*: Claridad.
IX
Lista de Abreviaturas
R: Relación líquido-sólido.
T: Temperatura (°C).
X
Lista de Abreviaturas
t: Tiempo (minutos).
t1/2: Tiempo necesario para alcanzar una concentración de glucosa igual al 50% de
CGCMAX.
TREF: 100°C.
XI
Lista de Abreviaturas
XO: Xilo-oligosacáridos.
ω: 14.75°C.
XII
RESUMEN-SUMMARY
Resumen
3
Summary
4
Resumen
5
Summary
Por otra parte, la fracción principal de las podas de olivo se somete a los
procesos de pasteado “al etanol”, kraft y “a la sosa” para obtener pastas para papel.
6
Resumen
Papermaking involves two stages: pulping and sheet formation. The pulp
obtaining stage consists of the transformation of the raw materials
in isolated cellulosic fibers in a dilute aqueous suspension by the separating of lignin,
which is the agent which, like cement, agglomerates the fibers and fixes its position. In
the formation of paper sheets, the pulp, suitably treated to develop
some characteristic properties, is subjected to operations which are converted into
sheets and in turn remove most of their moisture.
Traditionally, only the main fraction of the raw material (trunk and branch
wood) is used in the paper industry which the richest in α-cellulose, discarding the
residual fraction (mixture of stems and branches and small leaves) which also has two
major components present in the lignocellulosic materials: the hemicellulose and the
lignin. An attempt to achieve integral utilization of natural resources suggests the need
to introduce new production lines of products in pulp making. So, after some
conditioning operations of raw materials (debarking, chipping, removal of foreign
materials, etc.), a way of achieving a total utilization of these ones may include the
separation of two fractions: a main fraction and a residual fraction. The first one can
be subjected to a hydrothermal treatment to separate the hemicellulose in the form of
degradation products in a liquid fraction, where high added value products (food
7
Summary
This present Doctoral Thesis Report is the work done by the undersigned in the
Inorganic Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cordoba,
with funding obtained in Research Projects (CTQ2007-65074-C02-01, TRACE2009-
0064, CTQ2010-19844-C02-01 and P10-TEP-6261), led by the Directors of this thesis, as
well as by the FPI Grant which I have enjoyed for the last four years.
The aim of this thesis is the use of olive tree pruning to produce hemicelluloses
derived-products, cellulose pulps and bioethanol, as well as heat energy.
8
Resumen
For a complete exploitation, olive tree pruning were divided into two parts: a
main fraction, consisting of trunks and stems of higher diameter (> 1 cm), and a
residual or secondary fraction, consisting of small stems (<1 cm) and leaves.
First, the two fractions obtained from olive tree pruning were characterized
chemically and morphologically (main and residual), determining the elemental (C, H,
N and S), immediate (volatile and fixed carbon) and component analysis
(holocellulose, α-cellulose, hemicelluloses, ethanol-benzene extractives and ash), as
well as the magnitude of their fibers.
Then the energy characterization of olive tree pruning was carried out, to
assess its interest as fuel for steam production, determining calorific values of the main
and residual fractions and flame temperatures in the combustion, dew point
temperatures of the combustion gases and the air/fuel ratios required. Subsequently,
the main fraction of olive tree pruning was subjected to a hydrothermal process,
separating two fractions: a liquid fraction, consisting of products of degradation of the
hemicelluloses (monomers, oligomers, organic acids and decomposition products of
sugars) and a solid fraction, enriched in α-cellulose and lignin. The liquid and solid
fractions are characterized by determining the main components and their
distribution.
The solid fraction from the hydrothermal treatment was subjected to a pulping
process with ethanol to obtain a pulp which can be used for paper
production. Alternatively, the pulp may be subjected to a simultaneous hydrolysis and
fermentation to obtain bioethanol.
Moreover, the main fraction of the olive tree pruning was subjected to
“ethanol”, Kraft and "soda" pulping processes, in order to obtain paper pulps.
9
Summary
In the Kraft pulping, the pulp obtained was subjected to bleaching processes in
order to assess the chemical reagent consumptions and to achieve a high ISO
brightness.
Finally, the “soda” pulp bleaching by a TCF sequence was studied, using an
enzymatic pretreatment, in order to assess the evolution of brightness and
colorimetric properties.
10
OBJETIVOS-AIMS
Objetivos
13
Aims
Aims
VI. Estudio del blanqueo TCF de pasta “a la sosa”, utilizando una etapa previa de
tratamiento enzimático con lacasa y/o xilanasa, con el fin de estudiar la evolución
de la blancura y las propiedades colorimétricas de la pasta celulósica obtenida.
14
Objetivos
The purpose of this report is the use of olive tree pruning, following a biorefinery
scheme, benefiting the major components to achieve degradation products of
hemicelluloses, paper pulps, bioethanol and thermal energy.
II. The study of the influence of operating variables on the hydrothermal treatment
of the olive tree pruning with and without a catalyst (temperature, time
and liquid/solid or catalyst concentration) in the composition of the liquid
fraction (glucose, xylose, arabinose and acetic acid) and in the yield of the solid
fraction.
III. The study of the influence of operating variables in the obtaining of cellulose
pulps from olive tree pruning and of the solid fraction of the hydrothermal
treatment, using ethanol (temperature, time and reagent concentration) in the
characteristics of the resulting pulps (cellulose and lignin contents, yield, etc.) and
of the paper sheets obtained with these pulps
(tensile index, burst and tear, elongation and brightness), in order to find the
optimum operating conditions.
15
Aims
Aims
IV. The bleaching study treatments, from the pulp obtained from olive tree pruning
using the Kraft process in order to achieve a brightness of above 90% ISO.
V. The study of TCF bleaching from soda pulp, using a prior stage of enzymatic
treatment with laccase and/or xylanase in order to assess the evolution of
brightness and colorimetric properties.
VI. The study of the influence of the operating variables on the autohydrolysis and
delignification with ethanol from olive tree pruning for bioethanol production by
simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation, and the influence of the resultant
bioethanol concentration, determining the optimum operating conditions to find
the maximum conversion of bioethanol.
16
INTRODUCCIÓN
Introducci n
19
Introduction
20
Introducci n
21
Introduction
Las funciones fundamentales de la pared celular de las células vegetales son las de
proteger el interior de la célula, proporcionar rigidez a la estructura celular y actuar como
mediadora en las relaciones de la célula con su entorno (absorción, transpiración,
translocación, secreción, etc.).
22
Introducci n
[Link].1. CELULOSA
23
Introduction
dentro y entre las unidades de glucosa dan como resultado una molécula recta y rígida
con alta resistencia a la tensión. Además de esto, las moléculas de celulosa tienden a
formar puentes de hidrógeno intra e intermoleculares, con un efecto profundo sobre la
morfología, rigidez, orientación, resistencia y reactividad que presentan las cadenas
celulósicas.
24
Introducci n
E. Región de una microfibrilla donde las cadenas celulósicas muestran un alto orden.
F. Organización de las moléculas de celulosa. Siendo la unidad básica que se repite, la celobiosa.
25
Introduction
[Link].2. HEMICELULOSAS
26
Introducci n
27
Introduction
[Link].3. LIGNINA
28
Introducci n
29
Introduction
Agua. Procede de los fluidos biológicos de las plantas, del carácter higroscópico de
la biomasa lignocelulósica, así como de las condiciones ambientales. Representa
un 0,08-0,1% del peso seco de la biomasa lignocelulósica.
Cenizas. Suelen ser sales inorgánicas como cloruros, sulfatos, silicatos,
compuestos de calcio, potasio y magnesio, y en menor medida de fósforo,
manganeso, hierro, cobre, zinc, sodio o cloro. Representan en torno a 0-15% del
peso seco de la biomasa lignocelulósica.
Proteínas. Suelen estar presentes en pequeñas cantidades. Las principales
proteínas que componen la pared celular son: extensinas, lectinas, arabino-
galactano proteínas, proteínas ricas en glicina y proteínas ricas en prolina.
Extraíbles. Son restos de los fluidos biológicos de la planta, de composición
heterogénea que se extraen fácilmente con distintos disolventes.
Sustancias pécticas. Son polímeros ricos en ácido D-galacturónico con una cadena
lineal altamente ramificada; siendo los principales el homogalacturonano, los
ramnogalacturonano I y II y el arabinogalactano. Suelen estar presentes en
porcentajes menores al 1%.
30
Introducci n
3.2. EL OLIVO
3.2.1. Origen
31
Introduction
y se encuentran dispuestas por pares opuestos en las ramas finas. En áreas tropicales y
subtropicales han sido descritos cientos de especies del género Olea. La duración de su
vida cubre décadas o incluso cientos de años. La característica más importante del género
Olea es su longevidad. Cuando este posee de 0 a 7 años no es productivo; desde los 7 a
los 30 años el árbol crece con un constante aumento de la productividad; entre los 35 y
los 75 años, el árbol alcanza la madurez y la plena producción y a los 150 años el olivo
empieza a envejecer manteniendo una importante productividad durante muchos siglos.
La producción del olivo es cíclica cuando un año tiene una producción mayor, al año
siguiente ésta es significativamente menor. Este ciclo se repite a través de la vida del
olivo.
A principios de primavera el olivo tiene yemas sobre los brotes que producirán
nuevos brotes (portadores de brotes) e inflorescencias (portadores de flores). Así que en
el olivo crecen flores y frutos sobre los brotes de años anteriores. Estos brotes se dividen
en portadores de madera (únicamente yemas de brotes); portadores de frutos
(únicamente yemas de flores); y mezcla, que tienen ambos tipos de yemas. Normalmente,
los brotes de vivacidad moderada se desarrollan hacia productores de frutos, mientras
que los más vívidos son los productores de madera.
32
Introducci n
En cada nudo crecen dos hojas, una opuesta a la otra. Su superficie superior (haz)
tiene color verde profundo, mientras que la inferior (envés) es gris plata. El haz es
correoso y lanceolado y los estomas del envés son pequeños, redondos y cubiertos de
una capa fina. Estas estructuras foliares, que previenen un exceso de transpiración y
pérdida de humedad, proporcionan al olivo resistencia a la sequedad del ambiente, a las
altas temperaturas y al viento.
El fruto del olivo es una drupa compuesta por una capa externa (pericarpo), la
pulpa o mesocarpo donde se forma la oliva, y el núcleo o endocarpo que incluye el
endosperma. Desde la formación a la maduración del fruto, período de 6 a 7 meses, el
fruto pasa por tres fases consecutivas de desarrollo:
1. Fase de crecimiento rápido en peso durante los primeros dos meses (junio-julio),
donde se incrementa el núcleo frente a la pulpa.
2. Fase de crecimiento lento en los siguientes dos meses (agosto-septiembre) durante
el cual crece la pulpa. Hacia el final de esta fase el núcleo se endurece y cesa el
crecimiento.
3. De nuevo, un rápido incremento del fruto desde octubre hasta que el color cambia
de verde a púrpura y negro.
33
Introduction
La importancia que representa el sector del olivar para Andalucía es clara en los
ámbitos económico, social, medio-ambiental y cultural. El cultivo del olivar representa en
esta región, aproximadamente el 26% de la producción agraria, siendo el segundo sector
agrícola en importancia económica, y a su vez el sector que más empleo agrario genera
(32% de mano de obra agraria).
El cultivo del olivo posee un alto valor medioambiental, y puede llegar a ser un
referente dentro del sector agrario, en la lucha contra el cambio climático. Junto a su
contribución por el desarrollo de sistemas sostenibles cabe citar también su papel como
sumidero de gases de efecto invernadero y su potencialidad para la generación de
energías renovables.
34
Introducci n
Tras la plantación del olivo, estos deben ser sometidos a ciertos cuidados para su
mantenimiento y la optimización de su cultivo; La realización de la poda es imprescindible
para el acondicionamiento de los árboles a la climatología y para elevar su productividad.
Los olivos, al igual que otros frutales, requieren procesos de poda que tiendan a
una mejora de la calidad de sus frutos (Pastor y Humanes, 2010).
La poda de los olivos se puede realizar al final de la cosecha, dependiendo del fin,
desde otoño hasta primavera, aunque debería retrasarse en las zonas donde hay riesgo
de heladas.
35
Introduction
36
Introducci n
Hasta el momento, para el residuo de poda de olivo, al igual que para la mayoría
de los residuos agrícolas, no se han encontrado aplicaciones tecnológica y
económicamente viables. Suele ser frecuente su
eliminación en los terrenos de cultivos por incineración,
aunque esta práctica conlleva inconvenientes tales como
propagación de plagas, mineralización del suelo,
contaminación atmosférica, incremento
incre de los riesgos de
incendios, desprendimiento inútil
inú de dióxido de carbono,
etc.
Tras la separación entre ramas gruesas y ramón,, este último suele apilarse para
ser quemado
emado directamente en los campos de cultivo en un tiempo muy breve al objeto de
evitar la propagación de ciertas plagas. Esta operación supone un coste relativamente
elevado para el agricultor y lleva consigo la falta de aprovechamiento de la energía
liberada.
ada. En muy pocos casos, las ramas finas se aprovechan incorporándolas al suelo tras
su picado. Esta práctica se desarrolla con el doble objeto de elevar el nivel de materia
orgánica del suelo, contribuyendo a mejorar las características estructurales y la fertilidad
liberando elementos nutritivos tras un lento proceso de mineralización,
mineralización y de evitar las
pérdidas de humedad del horizonte superficial. Sin embargo, su descomposición es muy
lenta y su presencia en el suelo es muy prolongada, lo que puede incrementar
increm algunos
problemas fitosanitarios y, sobre todo, tiene un coste mayor que la incineración (López
( y
col., 2000).
37
Introduction
Por tanto, los residuos de la poda del olivar son susceptibles de usarse para la
obtención de energía, puesto que:
38
Introducci n
alternativos a los combustibles fósiles. La biomasa más empleada es la leña, con un poder
calorífico en torno a los 20 MJ/kg. Presenta un balance de CO2 prácticamente nulo al
compensarse el producido en este proceso con el fijado por las plantas a través de la
fotosíntesis en la etapa de crecimiento.
- Puede aplicarse en ciclos de gas que son menos sensibles a las economías de
escala que los de vapor, en los que el precio del recurso de biomasa es muy determinante
para la rentabilidad del proyecto, principalmente el transporte desde el punto de
generación hasta el de consumo.
39
Introduction
40
Introducci n
41
Introduction
42
Introducci n
43
Introduction
44
Introducci n
tecnología química. Se emplea como materia prima biomasa vegetal, de origen agrícola o
forestal.
45
Introduction
Figura 3.9. Obtención de productos de alto valor añadido a partir de una Biorrefinería de
biomasa lignocelulósica
46
Introducci n
47
Introduction
48
Introducci n
49
Introduction
extracción de las hemicelulosas pero es muy costoso, mientras que valores bajos son más
favorables económicamente en principio, pero pueden tener problemas de limitaciones
difusionales y de transporte de los productos de reacción (Jiménez y col., 2008).
Donde, T (t) es la temperatura de reacción (que puede variar con el tiempo), Tref es
la temperatura de referencia seleccionada (suele utilizarse el valor de 100 °C,
temperatura a la cual la autohidrólisis prácticamente no tiene lugar), ω es un parámetro
que se calcula como R·Tref2/Ea donde R es la constante universal de los gases, y Ea la
energía de activación de la reacción de solubilización de las hemicelulosas (Abatzoglou y
col., 1992).
50
Introducci n
51
Introduction
52
Introducci n
53
Introduction
54
Introducci n
55
Introduction
para la detoxificación de estos licores, logrando así una fermentación eficiente de los
hidrolizados.
56
Introducci n
57
Introduction
Pasteado a la sosa.
58
Introducci n
Este método fue utilizado para la producción de pasta para papel, aunque
actualmente está casi en desuso, debido a que la calidad de la pasta no es muy alta y
contiene una mayor cantidad de lignina que otros métodos. Presenta la ventaja
medioambiental de no usar el azufre como reactivo (Jiménez y col., 1992b; 1999a; 2009;
López y col., 1999; 2005; Pérez y col., 2001).
Pasteado al sulfito.
Este proceso utiliza SO2 y sales amónicas o cálcicas como reactivo. Resulta más
ventajoso que el método a la sosa porque se obtienen rendimientos más altos y una
elevada blancura de la pasta de la celulosa. Entre los inconvenientes cabe destacar: su
adecuación a un número limitado de maderas, la baja resistencia mecánica de las pastas y
su poca resistencia al envejecimiento (Henriksen y col., 2004). El proceso está en franco
retroceso tanto por razones técnicas como ambientales (Jiménez y col., 2000a).
Pasteado al sulfato.
En lo que sigue se escribe sólo el proceso Kraft o “al sulfato”, que es el más
comúnmente utilizado en la industria pastero-papelera. Las pastas que se obtienen por
este procedimiento se suelen llamar Kraft (fuerte) si se usan para papeles crudos, o “al
sulfato” si van a recibir un posterior blanqueo, si bien ambas denominaciones se utilizan
indistintamente. La denominación de proceso “al sulfato” es debida a que es el sulfato
sódico, y no el sulfuro sódico, el reactivo que se repone, aunque el verdadero agente que
actúa durante la reacción es el sulfuro que se genera en el tratamiento de las lejías
residuales.
59
Introduction
- Las astillas se llevan a la lejiadora donde se cuecen con lejía blanca (disolución de
hidróxido sódico y sulfuro sódico), controlando la relación “líquido/sólido”.
- La cocción se efectúa durante el tiempo establecido, bajo las condiciones de presión
adecuadas (7 a 8 kg/cm2, durante 2 a 4 horas).
- La lejía negra o residual y la pasta se separan por filtración. La pasta se lava y la lejía
negra se envía a la fase de recuperación de reactivos (Jiménez y col., 2002c).
- La pasta una vez lavada pasa a la etapa de blanqueo o a la planta de fabricación de
papel crudo.
En las cocciones Kraft, una parte de la lejía negra puede recircularse para su
utilización como lejía de cocción. En algunos casos, de un 40 a un 60% de lejía de cocción
puede estar constituida por lejía negra sin que ello afecte al rendimiento de la cocción ni
a las características de las pastas obtenidas (Jiménez y col., 1999b; 2000d). Así se vuelven
a utilizar parte de los reactivos sin que medie una evaporación costosa, se favorece la
penetración de las astillas y se utiliza la energía calorífica de la lejía negra.
60
Introducci n
61
Introduction
Cabe resaltar una de las ventajas más importantes del pasteado Kraft: la
recuperación de sus lejías negras, que no sólo permite la recuperación de los reactivos
químicos utilizados, sino que, además, aprovecha el poder calorífico de las mismas para
generar el vapor necesario para el proceso, incluso obteniendo un excedente de energía.
La lejía negra recogida del digestor contiene sustancias orgánicas disueltas cuya
composición química exacta depende de las características de la especie de la madera
62
Introducci n
Las cenizas y otras impurezas son eliminadas del proceso por decantación de la
lejía verde. Los lodos de carbonato cálcico procedentes del proceso de caustificación se
separan por filtración de las lejías blancas, se lavan y se calcinan en un horno de cal para
regenerar la cal viva. El óxido de calcio se hace reaccionar con agua y se obtiene hidróxido
de calcio, que se emplea en el proceso de caustificación. La calcinación de los lodos se
efectúa en un horno rotatorio, con aporte de combustible (coque, carbón, fuel o gas)
(Martín Sampedro, 2011).
63
Introduction
El sistema de lavado tiene dos objetivos principales: eliminar los sólidos de la lejía
negra de la pasta de la forma más eficaz, y conducir la totalidad de la lejía negra al
sistema de recuperación con la menor dilución posible. En una operación ideal de lavado,
la lejía negra original se debe eliminar por completo sin ninguna dilución, siendo
reemplazado por un volumen igual de agua de lavado. En la práctica no ocurre esta
situación ideal, ya que parte de los sólidos permanecen en la pasta y parte del agua de
lavado diluye la lejía desplazada.
Muchas han sido las aportaciones científicas y técnicas para mejorar el proceso
Kraft a lo largo de muchos años. En lo que sigue se recogen algunas iniciativas recientes.
Así, son de gran interés los trabajos que estudian la condensación de la lignina en el
proceso de cocción; se ha estudiado el efecto de los iones magnesio y sodio, mediante la
64
Introducci n
También son objeto de estudio algunas modificaciones del proceso Kraft como el
estudio del pasteado Kraft-borato (Bujanovic y col., 2004); la adición de antraquinona al
proceso Kraft que permite una reducción del índice Kappa sin pérdida de rendimiento; y
la mejora del proceso al adicionar etanol en concentraciones de 0,1-0,4 M (Rutkowski y
col., 2003). La adición de 1% sobre materia en peso seco de carboximetilcelulosa permite
obtener pastas con mejores características físicas para las hojas de papel (Ekebag y col.,
2004). Otros autores han estudiado el efecto de surfactantes en la cocción Kraft,
obteniendo mejoras en la deslignificación y blancura. La adición de fosfonatos al pasteado
Kraft permite eliminar metales de las pastas, así como obtener mejores propiedades
físicas para las hojas de papel (Felissia y col., 2004).
El uso de enzimas hidrolíticas para mejorar las características de las fibras de pasta
Kraft de pino se ha estudiado recientemente (Spiridon y col., 2004).
65
Introduction
Los estudios relacionados con las características de las pastas Kraft son numerosos
y abarcan diversos aspectos de las mismas; en lo que sigue se destacan algunos de ellos
(Pérez y col., 1998; Mutjé y col., 2005).
El estudio de la estructura de las fibras de dos pastas de pino con distintos valores
del índice Kappa permite deducir que las pastas con un elevado índice Kappa son más
adecuadas para la deslignificación con oxígeno (Surma-Slusarska y col., 2003).
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Introducci n
Otros autores (Sjodahl y col., 2004) han descrito el efecto de la fuerza iónica y de
los componentes disueltos de la madera en el pasteado a composición de reactivos
constante de frondosas, encontrando una proporcionalidad entre estos parámetros y el
color de las pastas; el grado de deslignificación disminuye con la fuerza iónica y aumenta
con el incremento de los componentes disueltos de la madera. Un estudio similar con
abedul obtiene resultados similares para las pastas, pero encuentra una mayor
blanqueabilidad con una mayor concentración iónica, sin que afecte a este parámetro los
componentes disueltos de madera (Axelsson y col, 2004a). Estos datos se ven
corroborados por los estudios que muestran una mayor blanqueabilidad manteniendo
constante la concentración de álcali o incluso aumentándola en el transcurso de la
cocción (Axelsson y col, 2004b).
Negro y col. (2005) centran sus trabajos en la eliminación del “pitch” de las líneas
de agua mediante la flotación por aire disuelto con la ayuda de surfactantes.
Otros estudios se centran sobre el uso potencial de las pastas Kraft. En este
sentido se ha descrito la obtención de celulosa microcristalina mediante hidrólisis
(Hakansson y col., 2005) y la mezcla de distintas pastas Kraft para conseguir mejores
papeles (Mansfield y col., 2004), así como la reducción del uso de pastas Kraft para
refuerzo de pastas mecánicas (Harris, 2004).
67
Introduction
68
Introducci n
Las maderas frondosas han sido las materias primas más adecuadas para su
deslignificación mediante los procesos organosolv, aunque los resultados son muy
variables dependiendo de la especie maderera considerada. Por el contrario, las maderas
coníferas presentan menores niveles de deslignificación que las frondosas, no obteniendo
pastas de buena calidad (Muurines, 2000), siendo una de las posibles causas que
contribuyen a este diferente comportamiento, la mayor longitud de fibra de las coníferas,
con una estructura más entrecruzada, menor densidad de la madera y mayor proporción
de lignina.
69
Introduction
Acetocell: se basa en el empleo de mezclas ácido acético y agua a temperaturas del orden
de 200 °C (Norbert y Klaus, 1993).
Alcell (Alcohol Cellulose): se emplean mezclas de etanol y agua (1:1), obteniendo pasta de
celulosa (apta para la producción de papel y derivados de celulosa) y como subproductos
lignina, furfural, ácido acético y hemicelulosas. Las ventajas de este proceso son que no
utiliza azufre y se obtienen subproductos utilizables en otros procesos. Sólo es aplicable a
un número limitado de materias primas y requiere un aporte energético mucho mayor
(Williamson, 1987).
Milox: se basa en emplear ácido fórmico y ácido peroxifórmico en varias etapas (Ferrer y
col., 2011).
Organocell: se utiliza un medio para la deslignificación que contiene metanol, agua, NaOH
y antraquinona. Es un proceso en dos etapas: la primera con metanol-agua y la segunda
con metanol-agua-NaOH. Se obtienen rendimientos aceptables y es aplicable a multitud
70
Introducci n
de materias primas. El inconveniente más importante es que resulta difícil trabajar con
metanol a altas presiones, y la recuperación del disolvente se ve dificultada por la
presencia de NaOH (Schoroeter, 1991; Shatalov y Pereira, 2005).
Etilenglicol: mediante etilenglicol (Bouchard y col., 1990; Jiménez y col., 2003; 2004b y
2004c).
Proceso al etanol: Los procesos que utilizan alcoholes, y en concreto etanol, se están
usando cada vez más en el tratamiento de materias primas alternativas a las
convencionales, como residuos agrícolas y agroindustriales y plantas anuales leñosas y
herbáceas. Estos materiales normalmente son más fáciles de pastear que los materiales
madereros, sin embargo, y dependiendo de los materiales utilizados se pueden tener
graves problemas causados por el alto contenido de sílice que presentan algunos de estos
materiales, afectando tanto a la calidad de las pastas como a la recuperación de los
disolventes. Se han llevado a cabo diferentes estudios sobre el pasteado con alcoholes de
Cynara cardunculus (Oliet y col., 2005), caña de azúcar (Fernández- Rodríguez, 1996), paja
de trigo, paja de arroz (Navaee y col., 2004), podas de olivo (Jiménez y col., 2001; 2004b;
2004c), tallos de girasol (Caparrós y col., 2008), leucaena (López y col.,2010), Arundo
donax (Shatalov y col., 2005), residuos del la industria del aceite de palma, podas de
tagasaste (López y col., 2004), sarmientos de vid (Jiménez y col., 2004), fibras de abacá
(Visperas y col., 1984), paja de trigo (Jiménez y col., 2002b; 2002c), tallos de algodonera
(El-Sakhawy y col., 1995), tequila o agave (Idarraga y col., 1999).
71
Introduction
72
Introducci n
Europa
Asia
América del Norte
Otros
LAC
Figura 3.12.
3.12 Producción de papel y cartón, (FAO,, 2010)
2010
73
Introduction
Cada español utiliza papel en más de 300 usos relacionados con la educación, la
cultura, el arte, la comunicación, el comercio, la higiene o la sanidad, siendo el consumo
medio para el año 2006 de 176 kg/habitante, próximo al consumo medio de la UE, de 199
kg/habitante y año (Aspapel, 2012).
74
Introducci n
75
Introduction
el tratamiento de los efluentes. Por tanto, si bien es cierto que todos los procesos de
producción de pasta celulósica y papel presentan un cierto grado de contaminación, se ha
avanzado en las medidas de control para que las emisiones sean mínimas (Sonnenfeld,
2002).
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Introducci n
Otra fuente de contaminación han sido los olores producidos en las industrias de
producción de pastas Kraft, ya que el olfato es muy sensible a los compuestos azufrados,
tales como los mercaptanos; si bien mediante nuevas tecnología se ha logrado solucionar
en gran medida este problema, ya que la emisión de estos compuestos se reduce a
valores inapreciables instalando sistemas que capturan e incineran estos gases (hornos
especiales o calderas) (Area y col., 2008).
77
Introduction
Este proceso se lleva a cabo con la adición de reactivos químicos en una o más
etapas, donde además de aumentar el grado de blancura, se modifican otras
características de la pasta, como su capacidad de absorción de agua, el grado de
polimerización, la composición de hidratos de carbono y la viscosidad; la lignina se
solubiliza utilizando procesos de oxidación, reducción o hidrólisis, mientras que la
eliminación de carbohidratos y resinas se efectúa con etapas alcalinas, y la viscosidad es
modificada en las etapas de oxidación. En la primera etapa de una secuencia de blanqueo
se utilizan los reactivos químicos que contribuyen a la deslignificación de las pastas,
mientras que en las últimas etapas se utilizan agentes que eliminen el color residual.
Las principales sustancias absorbentes de luz en las pastas son la lignina y las
resinas, con lo que para obtener un grado de blancura elevado es necesario que sean
eliminadas de la pasta.
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Introducci n
degradación, buscando alcanzar el grado de blancura deseado en las últimas etapas tras
las etapas de oxidación (Loras, 1990; Dence y col., 1996).
Durante mucho tiempo, el cloro y sus derivados se han utilizado para el blanqueo
de pastas celulósicas, originando una elevada carga contaminante en los efluentes. Por
esta razón, las investigaciones se han orientado hacia la utilización de secuencias clásicas
con un reciclado máximo de sus efluentes y a la utilización de secuencias de blanqueo que
no incluyan cloro elemental (ECF) o secuencias totalmente libres de cloro (TCF) (Loureiro
y col., 2010; Colodette y col., 2007; Feria y col., 2012; Marques y col., 2010; Guo y col.,
2011; López y col., 2003).
79
Introduction
Oxígeno
La baja solubilidad del oxígeno en las lejías exige su utilización a presión elevada,
con el incremento en el coste de las instalaciones que esto conlleva; sin embargo, los
efluentes de blanqueo con oxígeno no contienen compuestos organoclorados ni cloruros,
siendo fáciles de depurar o reciclar, sin que presenten problemas de corrosión en los
circuitos de recuperación.
En cuanto a las variables más importantes del proceso de blanqueo con oxígeno,
destacan (Vidal y col., 1986):
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Introducci n
El grado de blancura de las pastas Kraft blanqueadas con oxígeno está relacionado
con el número Kappa de dichas pastas, pero no de forma lineal, ya que el oxígeno es un
reactivo que deslignifica las pastas y a la vez degrada los carbohidratos. Por esta razón,
existe una relación entre la viscosidad y el número Kappa de las pastas obtenidas. La
disminución de la viscosidad también está influenciada por la temperatura y la
concentración de álcali. Para el caso de pastas Kraft, el límite más bajo para el número
Kappa está comprendido entre 10 y 20, sin que se produzca una disminución notable en
las propiedades de resistencia de las pastas.
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Introduction
La deslignificación con oxígeno antes del blanqueo con dióxido de cloro de pastas
Kraft de maderas frondosas, reduce los AOX (compuestos organoclorados absorbibles) y
TOC (carbono orgánico total) de los efluentes en una proporción aproximada a la cantidad
de lignina eliminada en la etapa de oxígeno, pero sin afectar a la relación cloro/carbono
en los efluentes. Esta deslignificación aumenta, en medio alcalino, al aumentar la
temperatura de cocción del proceso Kraft, cuyo límite viene impuesto por las mayores
pérdidas de rendimiento y de las propiedades de resistencia de las pastas (Schwantes y
col., 1994).
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Dióxido de cloro
El blanqueo en varias etapas es más efectivo que en una sola, al eliminar las
sustancias disueltas ya atacadas por el lavado entre etapas y preparar la superficie de las
fibras para el siguiente tratamiento. Hay que resaltar que en las plantas industriales estos
sistemas deben estar muy controlados y optimizados para evitar la formación de
83
Introduction
precipitados de sulfato de bario, debido a los continuos cambios de pH a los que se ven
sometidas las pastas; se pueden utilizar ligandos inorgánicos que acomplejen los cationes
de bario evitando así su precipitación (Bryant y col., 2003).
Las principales variables del blanqueo de pastas con dióxido de cloro son la acidez,
concentración de dióxido de cloro, consistencia, temperatura, tiempo y condiciones de
obtención de las pastas a blanquear (Jiménez y col., 2005c; López y col., 2001).
Ozono
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Introducci n
un 60% menor y la DQO es apreciablemente más baja, si bien la DBO es del mismo orden
(Bokstrom y col., 2001).
Para el caso de pastas Kraft puede aplicarse ozono en la primera etapa de una
secuencia de blanqueo de pasta de madera frondosa, aunque la degradación de los
carbohidratos se traduce en una disminución de la viscosidad de la pasta blanqueada,
manteniendo las propiedades de resistencia al mismo nivel que una pasta blanqueada de
manera convencional. Las pastas al sulfato o al sulfito de maderas coníferas, pueden
blanquearse con ozono utilizando etapas previas con oxígeno, consiguiendo resultados
satisfactorios en cuanto a propiedades de resistencia respecto a las pastas
convencionales, y grados de blancura de 70-90% ISO (Eugenio, 2001).
La mejor selectividad del ozono hacia la lignina ocurre cuando la pasta cruda
posee un menor contenido en lignina, lo que indica la necesidad de una fuerte
deslignificación previa al blanqueo.
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Introduction
La incorporación de una etapa de ozono a una secuencia ECF o TCF consigue que
se consuman menos reactivos de blanqueo; sin embargo, los valores de índice de
tracción, índice de estallido, porosidad y opacidad son menores. La carga de ozono y la
consistencia durante el blanqueo afectan mucho al consumo de reactivos y a la calidad de
la pasta final.
Los tratamientos con ozono afectan a las propiedades de resistencia de las pastas,
mejorando la flexibilidad de las fibras, haciéndolas más compresibles, aumentando su
capacidad de enlace metálico, e incrementando la capacidad de enlace químico por
formación de grupos carbonilo y carboxilo, que aumentan el número de puentes de
hidrógeno entre las fibras. El incremento del enlace mecánico consigue una mayor
resistencia en húmedo inicial de las pastas, así como unos valores mayores para la
densidad aparente, resistencia a la tracción e índice de desgarro. El incremento del enlace
químico contribuye a unos mayores valores para los índices de tracción y de desgarro
(Jiménez y col., 2006d).
Por lo general, para pastas Kraft-oxígeno, los tratamientos con ozono degradan los
carbohidratos más que los tratamientos con otros agentes de blanqueo, por lo que en
secuencias de blanqueo donde hay una o más etapas con ozono, se disminuyen la
viscosidad, el índice de desgarro, el índice de estallido, el rendimiento y la selectividad y
aumentan los rechazos con respecto a los resultados obtenidos en pastas blanqueadas
con secuencias convencionales (Rodríguez, 2002).
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El ozono reacciona con las estructuras fenólicas de la lignina rompiendo los anillos
fenólicos y produciendo compuestos con cadenas ácidas o ésteres. También puede actuar
sobre las cadenas laterales o sobre los núcleos aromáticos de la lignina. Existen varias
reacciones indeseables del ozono con los polisacáridos, dando lugar a pérdidas de
viscosidad, que se clasifican en dos grupos principales: las reacciones de rotura de
puentes glicosídicos y las de oxidación de grupos hidroxilo a carbonilo.
Las reacciones del ozono con las fibras celulósicas transcurren con más velocidad
cuando se realizan en fase gaseosa. En estas condiciones las etapas controlantes de la
velocidad de reacción son las de difusión gaseosa en la película que rodea las fibras y la
adsorción del reactivo en la superficie de las fibras. Una agitación adecuada disminuye la
resistencia que ofrece la película gaseosa al decrecer su espesor.
Los radicales hidroxilo generados durante el blanqueo con ozono son los
responsables principales de la degradación de los carbohidratos (Chirat y col., 1997).
Peróxido de hidrógeno
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Introduction
Las principales variables del proceso de blanqueo de pastas con peróxido son la
alcalinidad, concentración de peróxido, temperatura, tiempo, consistencia de la pasta y
aditivos.
Sólo pueden obtenerse buenos resultados de blanqueo con peróxido, si al final del
blanqueo el pH no es demasiado alcalino (pH˂9) y contiene además reactivo de blanqueo
residual, ya que una alcalinidad y temperatura elevadas aceleran la descomposición del
peróxido, donde la elevada alcalinidad puede dar lugar a una reversión de blancura por
acción del álcali y la elevada temperatura, disminuye el rendimiento y el grado de
polimerización de los carbohidratos; si bien no ejercen una influencia negativa en el grado
de deslignificación final alcanzado por la pasta, permiten conseguirlo, sin embrago, en
menor tiempo (Jiménez y col., 2005e).
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Introducci n
el blanqueo con peróxido, con un efecto positivo en el grado de blancura final, debido a la
rotura de la matriz rígida de la lignina (Brown y col., 1995).
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Introduction
Junto al peróxido actúa también el oxígeno, formado por dismutación del primero,
sobre la lignina, por lo que debido a la acción simultánea o secuencial de ambos
oxidantes, se dificulta la interpretación química del proceso, complicado además por las
reacciones no oxidantes promovidas por el álcali, que inician los procesos de oxidación y
cooperan o compiten con ellos. La acción del oxígeno origina una fragmentación y/o
formación de estructuras cromofóricas conjugadas, mientras que la acción del peróxido
implica la eliminación de grupos cromóforos sin una apreciable degradación.
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Las xilanasas fueron las primeras enzimas utilizadas en el blanqueo de pasta Kraft,
aunque no degradan la lignina; estas atacan la cadena principal de las hemicelulosas, y las
β-xilosidasas hidrolizan xilooligosacáridos a xilosa; otras, como las α-D-glucurosidasas,
rompen las ramificaciones, y las α-L-arabinosidasas, hidrolizan los enlaces entre los
xilanos y los ácidos acéticos y fenólicos. Además de hidrolizar las hemicelulosas, las
hemicelulasas favorecen la hidrólisis de la celulosa y potencia una posterior
deslignificación debido a la rotura de enlaces lignina-carbohidratos, a la eliminación de
xilanos reprecipitados que dificultan el acceso de los reactivos de blanqueo y/o a la
eliminación de regiones de hemicelulosas con alto contenido en ácidos hexenurónicos.
Sin embargo, su aplicación en las etapas previas al blanqueo mejora los efectos del
blanqueo (Viikari y col., 1994), permitiendo un ahorro de reactivos químicos, siendo
posible alcanzar el grado de blancura deseado y disminuyendo la contaminación por
cloroligninas.
91
Introduction
92
Introducci n
93
Introduction
94
Introducci n
95
Introduction
La conversión de celulosa a etanol puede llevarse a cabo en una o dos etapas: con
una hidrólisis y fermentación secuencial (SHF) (Garde y col., 2002) que presenta la ventaja
de poder realizar cada operación en sus condiciones óptimas de pH y temperatura; o, con
la hidrólisis enzimática y la fermentación simultáneas (SSF), cuya ventaja es la de reducir
la inhibición por producto final, consiguiendo así mayores tasas de hidrólisis y
necesitando menor cantidad de enzimas, obteniendo mejores rendimientos de etanol
(Ballesteros, 2000); y por último, el bioproceso combinado (BPC), donde en una misma
etapa tiene lugar la producción de enzimas, la hidrólisis enzimática y la fermentación de
los azúcares para obtener etanol (Xu y col., 2010), donde generalmente se utilizan
bacterias del género Clostridium (Ahring y col., 1996), obteniendo bajos rendimientos en
etanol debido a la formación de subproductos, a la baja tolerancia del microorganismo al
etanol y al crecimiento limitado del microorganismo en los hidrolizados debido a la
existencia de productos tóxicos.
96
Introducci n
97
Introduction
98
Introducci n
99
Introduction
[Link]. Fermentación
Existen bacterias que pueden producir etanol, entre las que destaca Zymomonas
mobilis, que utilizando una ruta diferente a la de Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ruta de Enter-
Doudoroff) puede utilizar la sacarosa, la glucosa y la fructosa para producir alcohol.
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Introducci n
Una vez incorporada a la célula, la levadura sigue el camino glucolítico por la vía
Embden-Meyerhof, donde la glucosa es fosforilada por el ATP dando lugar a glucosa-6-
fosfato, que es convertida a continuación a una forma isomérica, la fructosa-6-fosfato,
que mediante una segunda fosforilación se convierte en la fructosa-1,6-difosfato. La
enzima adolasa cataliza la rotura de la fructosa-1,6-difosfato en dos moléculas de tres
carbonos, el gliceraldehído-3- fosfato y su isómero dihidroxiacetonafosfato. El
gliceraldehído-3- fosfato se convierte en ácido 1,3-difosfoglicérico a través de la enzima
gliceraldehído-3-fosfato deshidrogenasa, que necesita de la coenzima NAD+, que acepta
dos átomos de hidrógeno convirtiéndose en NADH. De manera simultánea, cada molécula
de gliceraldehído-3-fosfato es fosforilada por la adición de una molécula de fosfato
inorgánico. Esta reacción, en la que el fosfato inorgánico se convierte en orgánico,
prepara el escenario para la conservación de la energía por fosforilación a nivel de
sustrato; la formación de ATP es posible porque cada uno de los fosfatos de la molécula
de ácido 1,3- fosfoglicérico presenta un enlace de alta energía. La síntesis de ATP tiene
lugar cuando cada molécula de ácido 1,3-difosfoglicérico se convierte en ácido 1,3-
fosfoglicérico, y después cuando cada molécula de fosfoenolpiruvato se convierte en
piruvato. El NADH se oxida a NAD+, a través de reacciones que suponen la reducción del
piruvato. Las levaduras reducen el piruvato a etanol y se libera CO2 (Romaní, 2011).
101
Introduction
Requerimientos nutricionales.
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Introducci n
Aireación.
pH.
103
Introduction
Temperatura.
Entre las ventajas del proceso SSF cabe destacar la reducción de costes por
eliminación de una etapa y una disminución del tiempo de operación de 1,6 veces
respecto a un proceso secuencial (Abe y Takagi, 1991); además se reduce
significativamente la inhibición por glucosa durante la etapa de hidrólisis y el riesgo de
contaminación, ya que al ser la etapa de hidrólisis la limitante, la concentración de
glucosa en el medio es baja e incluso nula (Lee y col., 2004), alcanzando velocidades de
hidrólisis más rápidas en un volumen de reactor reducido, así como una disminución
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Varios residuos agrícolas han sido sometidos a SSF con S. cerevisiae obteniendo
unos rendimiento en etanol próximo a 0.41-0.67 gramos de etanol/100 gramos de
materia prima, entre ellos: paja de trigo, con 0.67 g/100 g (Linde y col., 2008), paja de
arroz, con 0.42 g/100 g (Ko y col., 2009), colza, con 0.47 g/100 g (Li y col., 2009) o paja de
cebada, con 0.41 g/100 g (Linde y col., 2007).
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Introduction
La recuperación del etanol producido supone una de las etapas más importantes
del proceso global de la producción de etanol. Los métodos convencionales para
recuperar el producto a partir de las disoluciones de etanol obtenidas tras la
fermentación consisten en una primera etapa de destilación convencional del etanol
diluido hasta una concentración próxima a su punto azeotrópico (95.57% en peso); una
destilación extractiva o azeotrópica usando un tercer componente para romper el
azeótropo, y por último la eliminación del tercer componente para su reutilización en el
proceso.
Las etapas de recuperación del producto más usadas se basan en una destilación
convencional, con un porcentaje de etanol entre 95-96% debido a la formación de un
azeótropo (etanol-agua) con bajo punto de ebullición, seguida de una etapa de
deshidratación (Quintero y col., 2007).
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El ETBE, que se obtiene por reacción catalítica del isobuteno y el etanol, en una
proporción 1:0.8, se está imponiendo como aditivo sobre el resto de alternativas, al
presentar una serie de ventajas frente al MTBE, como una menor solubilidad en el agua,
un menor contenido en oxígeno, una baja presión de vapor, una reducción en la emisión
de CO e hidrocarburos no quemados, un menor poder corrosivo que los alcoholes, una
mayor resistencia a la separación de fases y un mayor rendimiento de fabricación.
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Introduction
sulfúrico de 0,5-2% durante 0,5-5 minutos. Después, se añaden las celulasas (producidas
en la propia fábrica usando hongos) para convertir la celulosa a glucosa. Tras la hidrólisis
enzimática, los azúcares son separados del sólido no hidrolizado (lignina y celulosa no
hidrolizada), que es quemado para aportar energía al proceso. Los azúcares se fermentan
a etanol usando una cepa de Saccharomyces recombinada, recuperando el etanol
mediante destilación.
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EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental
111
Experimental
Para determinar los contenidos de lignina, glucosa, xilosa, arabinosa, ácido acético,
hidroximetilfurfural (HMF) y furfural, la fracción sólida procedente del tratamiento
hidrotérmico se somete a una hidrólisis con ácido sulfúrico al 72%, durante una hora a 2
atmósferas (121 ° C). Tras el filtrado, de la fracción sólida se determina el contenido de
lignina, y en la fracción líquida se determinan los contenidos de glucosa, xilosa, arabinosa,
ácido acético, hidroximetilfurfural y furfural, mediante HPLC (Agilent 1200 series, con
columnas Bio-Rad Aminex HPX-87H eluida con 0.01 M H2SO4, con un caudal de 0.6 mL/min).
112
Experimental
Los métodos de análisis se realizan siguiendo las mismas normas indicadas en el caso
de la materia prima, excepto para el caso de la determinación de lignina, que se realiza
siguiendo la variante de la Norma Tappi T13-59.
113
Experimental
mediante HPLC (Agilent 1200 series, con columnas Bio-Rad Aminex HPX-87H eluida con 0.01
M H2SO4, con un caudal de 0.6 mL/min).
114
Experimental
115
Experimental
Se utiliza una bomba calorimétrica Parr 6200 Isoperibol (Figura 4.3.3), que determina
el poder calorífico siguiendo la nora UNE 164001 EX.
116
Experimental
117
Experimental
118
Experimental
Consta de un tamiz fino (luz de malla de 0,16 mm), sobre el que quedan las fibras,
mientras que el agua pasa al desagüe (Figura 4.3.8).
4.3.9. REFINADOR-DESINTEGRADOR
119
Experimental
Para el refinado de las pastas crudas se utiliza un refinador PFI de la firma Metrotec
(Figura 4.3.10), con los sistemas adecuados de medida del número de vueltas, a que se
somete el material a refinar, y de consumo de la energía necesaria para el refinado.
120
Experimental
Se utiliza una centrífuga Willians para disminuir la humedad de las pastas. Consta de
una cesta donde se alberga lateralmente una tela metálica que retendrá la pasta y deja pasar
el líquido clarificado (Figura 4.3.11).
121
Experimental
Consta de una cámara de desgote provista de una tela metálica, un cono de cierre y
un embudo dispuesto en un soporte adecuado (Figura 4.3.13). El aparato tiene por misión
medir el grado de refinado de las pastas, siguiendo la norma UNE 57-025 (4).
122
Experimental
Está compuesto por una tolva superior de metacrilato transparente, abatible para la
extracción de hojas, y una tela metálica montada sobre un disco taladrado, que hace de
soporte de las hojas (Figura 4.3.15). Completa la instalación un sistema de aspiración
formando sifón y un depósito para el desagüe. Permite la elaboración de hojas de 215 mm
de diámetro.
123
Experimental
Se utiliza una prensa modelo PR.03-402 (Figura 4.3.16), con el fin de reducir la
humedad de las hojas de ensayo de papel fabricadas en el formador de hojas de ensayo.
Consta de un juego de placas y aros secadores, donde se intercalan las hojas de papel
que han de secarse (Figura 4.3.17).
124
Experimental
fracción sólida del pasteado son introducidas en un autoclave a 121°C durante 15 minutos.
Las muestras obtenidas tras el tratamiento fueron centrifugadas a 5000 rpm durante 5
minutos y el sobrenadante analizado mediante HPLC. (Figura 4.3.18).
4.4. PROCEDIMIENTOS
125
Experimental
refinan-desfibran las pastas en el refinador Sprout-Bauer (figura 4.3.9). Las pastas así
obtenidas pueden utilizarse directamente para la formación de hojas o ser blanqueadas, o
pueden secarse para posteriores ensayos. Para el secado de las pastas se filtran éstas en un
filtro de 0,16 mm de luz de malla, se someten a un escurrido en una centrífuga y se secan a
temperatura ambiente hasta una humedad aproximada del 10%.
126
Experimental
La fracción sólida autohidrolizada y pasteada constituye el sustrato para las SSF. Los
ensayos fueron llevados a cabo bajo unas determinadas condiciones de operación, fijando:
relación líquido/sólido, relación enzima-sustrato y relación actividad β-glucosidasa a celulasa.
La enzima comercial empleada es ‘‘Celluclast 1.5 L’’ celulasa de Trichoderma reesei y
‘‘Novozym’’ β-glucosidasa de Aspergillus niger, proporcionadas por Novozymes (Madrid, Spain).
Los ensayos SSF fueron llevados a cabo en matraces Erlenmeyer colocados en agitadores
a 120 rpm (pH=5). Las suspensiones que contienen agua y el sólido pretratado deben ser
llevadas al autoclave durante 15 minutos a 121 °C. Los experimentos comienzan con la adición
de las enzimas y el inóculo de la levadura, preparándose 100 mL de medio que contiene 10 mL
de inóculo y 10 mL de solución de nutrientes (conteniendo 5 g de peptona/L, 3 g de extracto de
levadura/L, y 3 g de extracto de malta/L). Todas las muestras fueron retiradas a diferentes
tiempos previamente fijados y centrifugadas a 5000 rpm durante 5 minutos. El sobrenadante
fue analizado por HPLC, para determinar la concentración de azúcares, ácido acético y etanol.
127
Experimental
polinómico. Este diseño satisface los requerimientos generales de que todos los parámetros
del modelo matemático pueden ser estimados sin un número excesivo de experimentos
(19).
n = 2k + 2*k + nc [1]
4.6. MODELOS
n n n
Y = ao + Σ bi Xni + Σ ci Xni + Σ dij Xni Xnj
2
(i<j) [2]
i =1 i=1 i=1;j=1
donde:
X -X
Xn = 2 -------------- [3]
Xmax. - Xmin.
128
Experimental
Los coeficientes ao, bi, ci y dij son constantes características desconocidas, que se
estiman de los datos experimentales.
Utilizando datos experimentales para cada una de las variables dependientes de los
procesos considerados, para los distintos experimentos del diseño experimental, y
procediendo con ellos a un análisis de regresión múltiple, utilizando el programa BMDP,
considerando todos los términos de la ecuación [2] y eliminando aquellos términos cuyos
valores de F de Snedecor sean menores que cuatro, utilizando el método de stepwise, se
encuentran ecuaciones que relacionan las distintas variables dependientes con las
independientes.
129
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PUBLICACIONES
Información y criterios de calidad de las
Publicaciones
La Normativa Reguladora de los Estudios de Doctorado especifica en el Capítulo
II en su Art. 24, que las tesis doctorales realizadas como compendio de publicaciones
deben estar al menos constituidas por un mínimo de 3 artículos publicados o
aceptados en revistas incluidas en los tres primeros cuartiles de la relación de revistas
del ámbito de la especialidad y referenciadas en la última relación publicada por el
Journal Citation Reports (SCI y/o SSCI). Es por esta razón, que se incluye este apartado
relativo a la calidad de las publicaciones científicas indexadas, proporcionado el título
del manuscrito, los autores, lo datos de la revista y los datos del Journal Citation
Reports del último año disponible.
PUBLICACIÓN I
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Olive tree trimmings, a widely available agricultural residue lacking
added value applications, were subjected to treatments with hot, compressed water
under a variety of operational conditions. As a result of treatments, hemicelluloses
were solubilized, and the treated solids were enriched in cellulose and lignin. Spent
solids from autohydrolysis were assayed as substrates for enzymatic hydrolysis and for
bioethanol production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation.
RESULTS: Liquors from the aqueous fractionation stage resulted in the formation of
soluble hemicellulose-derived saccharides (mainly of oligomeric nature) at yields up to
26.2 g per 100 g oven-dry raw material. Enzymatic hydrolysis of spent solids from the
aqueous fractionation step led to solutions containing up to 58.8 g glucose L-1
(corresponding to cellulose to glucose conversions up to 83.2%). Simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation assays using spent solids as substrates enabled the
production of media containing up to 38.2 g ethanol L-1, corresponding to 72% of the
stoichiometric amount.
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INTRODUCTION
In Spain, olive trees (Olea europaea) are spread over about 2.4 × 106 ha, resulting
in yearly generation of about 3 metric tons ha-1 year-1 of olive tree trimmings (OTT).1,2 OTT
lack added value, and are usually burnt3-5 in situ, resulting in environmental hazards.
A profitable application for OTT would result in a double benefit: on one hand, the
economic profit derived from the marketable products; and on the other hand, the
disappearance of environmental risks.
6-8
OTT valorization can be performed according to the biorefinery approach,
based on the selective separation of its chemical components and further utilization of
the resulting fractions for specific purposes. As a typical lignocellulosic material (LCM), the
structural OTT components are polysaccharides (including cellulose made up of glucose
units, and hemicelluloses made up of sugars such as xylose and substituents such as
acetyl groups) and lignin (a polymer made up of phenylpropane units). OTT also contains
lower amounts of other components (such as extractives or ashes).
The chemical fractionation of LCMs requires the degradation of at least one of
their structural components.9 Hemicellulose solubilization in aqueous media has been
proposed as a first biorefinery stage, leading to a liquid stream containing hemicellulose-
derived compounds, and to treated solids containing increased proportions of cellulose
and lignin, which may show increased susceptibility to further hydrolysis or
delignification.
Autohydrolysis, performed with hot, compressed water, is a technology suitable
for causing the solubilization of hemicelluloses, owing to the catalytic action of
hydronium ions coming from water autoionization and in situ generated acids.10 Under
selected operational conditions, autohydrolysis may result in the selective solubilization
of hemicelluloses, leading to the formation of soluble saccharides (mainly of oligomeric
nature) and sugar-degradation products.
Hemicelluloses of hardwoods and many agricultural materials are mainly made up
of substituted xylan. Upon autohydrolysis, these feedstocks may yield
xylooligosaccharides (XO), which find applications in chemical, food and pharmaceutical
industries.11-13
Alternatively, XO can be easily converted into xylose, 14-16 opening the way for the
fermentative production of biofuels or chemicals (for example, ethanol, lactic acid or
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xylitol).
In the manufacture of second-generation bioethanol, pretreatment of
17-19
lignocellulosic feedstocks is one of the most important stages, owing to the
associated costs. Considered as a pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis, autohydrolysis
presents favourable features, including its limited corrosion effects, selectivity with
respect to cellulose dissolution, recovery of valuable hemicelluloses-derived compounds,
and high cellulase susceptibility of treated solids. 20-22
This work provides an assessment on the utilization of OTT, a widely available
waste of lignocellulosic nature, based on autohydrolysis fractionation. The recovery of
valuable products from hemicelluloses, the susceptibility of solids toward enzymatic
processing, and the manufacture of second-generation bioethanol from treated solids are
assessed in selected experiments.
Raw material
OTT were collected in Cordoba (southern Spain), milled to pass an 8 mm screen,
air-dried, homogenized in a single lot to avoid compositional differences between
batches, and stored in a dark and dry place until use.
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where tMAX (min) is the time needed to achieve TA (°C), tF (min) is the time needed
for the whole heating–cooling period, and T(t) and T´(t) represents the temperature
profiles of heating and cooling, respectively. Calculations were made assuming the values
reported in literature for ω and TREF (14.75°C and 100°C, respectively). S0 varied in the
range 3.02–4.23, corresponding to TA of 175 and 215°C, respectively.
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Content
Glucan
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Autohydrolysis
Hydrothermal processing was carried out under non-isothermal conditions up to
TA in the range 175 –215°C (which corresponded to S0 in the range 3.02 –4.23). The
operational conditions covered the experimental domain of practical interest, from mild
conditions (leading to limited OTT solubilization) up to harsh conditions (leading to
autohydrolyzed solids with high susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis). Additionally,
intermediate severity conditions could be interesting owing to the possibility of
recovering valuable hemicellulose-derived products. Table 2 shows data of the yields in
solid and non-volatile components (including saccharides and non-saccharide compounds
derived from lignin and extractives), as well as the compositional data of autohydrolyzed
solids.
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Table 2. Results obtained in hydrothermal pretreatments: solid yield (YA, g treated solids /100 g oven-dry raw material), non volatile compounds (NVC, g non
volatile compounds in liquid phase /100 g oven-dry raw material), and composition of spent solids (measured as g of component/100 g of oven-dry treated
solids).
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Material balances
The solid yield YA varied from 70.0 g per 100 g oven-dry OTT (in the mildest
experiment, carried out at S0 = 3.02) up to 52.1–52.2 g per 100 g oven-dry OTT (in
experiments carried out at the highest severities, corresponding to S0 of 4.08 or 4.23). In
experiments carried out at S0 > 3.5, the values of YA (in the range 52–57 g autohydrolyzed
solids per 100 g oven-dry OTT, with an average value of 55.0 g per 100 g oven-dry OTT)
agreed well with the joint contributions of cellulose and Klason lignin in the raw material
(53.8 g per 100 g), suggesting a high retention of both components in the solid phase. The
non-volatile components of liquors (NVC), mainly made up of saccharides, increased from
22.0 g per 100 g oven-dry OTT (in the experiment performed at S0 = 3.02) to 35.4 g per
100 g oven-dry OTT (in the experiment carried out at S0 = 3.68). Under harsher conditions,
the NVC content decreased, a fact ascribed to monosaccharide decomposition into
volatile furans. In the experimental domain defined by S0 in the range 3.68–4.23,
decomposition increased steadily with the harshness of the operational conditions,
resulting in decreased NVC yields (whose minimum value, 27.2 g per 100 g oven-dry OTT,
was achieved under the severest conditions assayed).
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The overall concentration of these species first increased with S0 (up to reach a
maximum of 29 g L-1 in the experiment carried out at S0 = 3.68, corresponding to 23.9 g
per 100 g oven-dry OTT), and then decreased with S0 (owing to the increased effects of
decomposition reactions). XO were the most abundant hemicellulose-derived
saccharides, reaching their maximum concentration (16 g L-1) in the experiment
performed at S0 = 3.68. GO reached a fairly constant concentration (about 8 g L-1) in
experiments performed at S0 in the range 3–3.8, and their concentration decreased under
harsher conditions. The rest of hemicellulose-derived components (AcO, which reached a
maximum concentation of 3.02 gL-1 in the experiment performed at S0 = 3.68) and ArO
(which decreased steadily with S0, reaching concentrations in the range 1.45 –0.16 g L-1)
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are of minor importance for the purposes of this study. The substitution pattern of XO is
defined by molar ratios xylose/acetyl groups about 2: 1, and by molar ratios arabinosyl
substituents/xylose in the range 0.01–0.24. Complementary information on the
composition of autohydrolysis media is displayed in Fig. 2, which shows the concentration
profiles of low molecular weight products (monosaccharides, organic acids and furans).
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incidence of decomposition reactions at high severities, resulting from its well known
lability. Formic acid can be generated from sugar decomposition or from formyl groups in
lignin. Considering the flat profile observed in experiments (essentially independent of
the concentrations of sugars and furans), it can be concluded that formic acid was
predominantly generated from lignin. Levulinic acid reached low concentrations, and did
not play a significant role in the overall process. Furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural
(denoted HMF), generated from pentoses and glucose, respectively, increased their
concentrations under harsh conditions, when the concentrations of sugars were higher.
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byproduct, but at low concentrations (data not shown), owing to the limited residual
xylan remaining in the hydrolysis substrates.
Gt − G0
CGCt = 100 ⋅ (2)
GPOT
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t
CGCt = CGCMAX ⋅ (3)
t + t1 / 2
where CGCMAX (%) is the cellulose conversion predicted for an infinite reaction time, and
t1/2 (h) is the time needed to achieve a glucose concentration equal to 50% of CGCMAX .
When the experimental data in Figs 3 and 4 were fitted to this equation, the values
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obtained for CGCMAX were similar to the conversions achieved after 96 h (CGC96),
confirming that no further improvements in glucose concentration should be expected by
increasing the reaction time. Concerning t1/2, decreased values were obtained for
substrates pretreated at higher S0, going from 17.4 h (in the experiment defined at S0 =
3.77 and LSR = 15 g g-1) to 10.2 h (in the experiment at S0 = 4.08 and LSR = 15 g g-1); or
from 17.6 h (in the experiment at S0 = 3.86 and LSR = 6 g g-1) to 9.8 h (in the experiment at
S0 = 4.23 and LSR = 6 g g-1).
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Additionally, the data are expressed as conversions into ethanol, denoted CE and defined
as the percentage ethanol obtained in the considered experiment with respect to the
amount corresponding to the stoichiometric substrate conversion into ethanol. Operating
at the intermediate LSR (8 g g-1) the highest ethanol concentration (23.2 g L-1)
corresponded to CE = 72.0%; whereas in experiments performed at the highest loading of
solids (LSR = 4 g g-1), the maximum ethanol concentration (38.2 g ethanol L-1)
corresponded to CE = 63.1%.
These results compare well with data reported in related studies. Cuevas et al.28
employed acid-pretreated substrates to obtain 20.3 g ethanol L-1 , whereas SSF of steam-
exploded OTPB (operating at LSR = 10 g g-1 and ESR = 15 FPU g-1) resulted in CE = 68.3%,26
and OTPB subjected to steam explosion and alkaline peroxide delignification led to SSF
media containing 29.4 g ethanol L-1 at CE = 65.2%.35
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In conclusion, this work confirms the feasibility of getting value from a waste
(lacking added value) by means of a process based on the biorefining philosophy.
Fractionation of the raw material was carried out by autohydrolysis, which yields a liquid
phase containing hemicellulose-derived compounds (at yields up to 29.5 g saccharides
per 100 g oven-dry OTT), and a solid phase with improved potential for further hydrolysis
and fermentation. Autohydrolysis liquors can be used for a variety of purposes, including
bioethanol production by fermentation with suitable microorganisms. Using spent
autohydrolysis solids obtained under selected conditions as a substrate for SSF, media
containing 38.2 g ethanol L-1 were obtained. Obtaining higher bioethanol concentrations
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are grateful to ‘Xunta de Galicia’ for the financial support of this work, in
the framework of the Research Projects with reference ‘Use of forest residues for biofuel
production’ (reference 08REM002383PR).
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the soda pulping of olive tree wood. Biores Technol 69:95–102 (1999).
4 Jiménez L, Pérez I, García JC and Rodríguez A, Influence of process variables in the
ethanol pulping of olive tree trimmings. Biores Technol 78:63–69 (2001).
5 Fernández-Bolanos J, Felizon B, Heredia A, Rodríguez R, Guillen R and Jimenez A, Steam-
explosion of olive stones: hemicelluloses solubilization and enhancement of
enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. Biores Technol 79:53–61 (2001).
6 Wyman CE and Goodman BJ, Biotechnology for production of fuels, chemicals, and
materials from biomass. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 39:41–49 (1992).
7 Harvey BG and Meylemans HA, The role of butanol in the development of sustainable
fuel technologies. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 86:2–9 (2011).
8 Clark JH, Green chemistry for the second generation biorefinery–sustainable chemical
manufacturing based on biomass. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 82:603 –609.
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8712 (2010).
21 Petersen MØ, Larsen J and Thomsen MH, Optimization of hydrothermal pretreatment
of wheat straw for production of bioethanol at low water consumption without
addition of chemicals. Biomass Bioenergy 33:834–840 (2009).
22 Pienkos PT and Zhang M, Role of pretreatment and conditioning processes on toxicity
of lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysates. Cellulose 16:743–762 (2009).
23 Lavoie JM, Capek-Menard E, Gauvin H and Chornet E, Production of pulp from Salix
vinimalis energy crops using the FIRSST process. Bioresource Technol 101:4940–
4946 (2010).
24 Ghose TK, Measurement of cellulose activities. Pure Appl Chem 59:257–268 (1987).
25 Paquot M and Thonart P, Hydrolyse enzymatique de la cellulose regeneree.
Holzforschung 36:177–181 (1982).
26 Cara C, Ruiz E, Oliva JM, Sáez F and Castro E, Conversion of olive tree biomass into
fermentable sugars by dilute acid pretreatment and enzymatic saccharification.
Biores Technol 99:1869–1876 (2008).
27 Bustos G, Ramírez JA, Garrote G and Vazquez M, Modeling of the hydrolysis of sugar
cane bagasse with hydrochloric acid. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 104:51–68 (2003).
28 Cuevas M, Sánchez S, Bravo V, García JF, Baeza J, Parra C, et al, Determination of
optimal pre-treatment conditions for ethanol production from olive-pruning
debris by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Fuel 89:2891–2896
(2010).
29 Vegas R, Alonso JL, Domínguez H and Parajó JC, Processing of rice husk autohydrolysis
liquors for obtaining food ingredients. J Agric Food Chem 52:7311–7317 (2004).
30 Vegas R, Alonso JL, Domínguez H and Parajó JC, Manufacture and refining of
oligosaccharides from industrial solid wastes. Ind Eng Chem Res 44:614–620
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31 Vegas R, Kabel M, Schols HA, Alonso JL and Parajó JC, Hydrothermal processing of rice
husks: effects of severity on product distribution. J Chem Technol Biotechnol
83:965–972 (2008).
32 Cara C, Romero I, Oliva JM, Sáez F and Castro E, Liquid hot water pretreatment of olive
tree pruning residues. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 136–140:379–394 (2007).
33 Cara C, Moya M, Ballesteros I, Negro MJ, González A and Ruiz E, Influence of solid
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192
PUBLICACIÓN II
The aim of this work is to chemically characterize olive tree prunings and use
the material in hydrothermal and combustion processes. The influence of the
hydrothermal treatment conditions, with and without acid catalyst, of the main
fraction of olive tree prunings (stems with a diameter > 1 cm) (temperature 150
to 190ºC, time 0 to 20 minutes after reaching the operation temperature,
liquid/solid ratio 6 to 8, and sulphuric acid concentration 0.1 to 0.5%), on the
composition of resulting liquid fraction and on the solid yield of resulting solid
fraction were studied. A polynomial model was found for to reproduce the
glucose and arabinose concentration, as well as the experimental results for
solid yield with errors less than 20% at worst (˂ 10-12% in 90-95% of all
cases). Good content values of glucose (5.33%) and arabinose (2.76%), and
an acceptable value of the solid fraction yield (57.96%) were obtained
operating with following values of temperature, time, liquid/solid ratio and
sulfuric acid concentration: 186ºC, 18 min, 7:1 and 0.1%, respectively. With
these values are saved, with respect to the use of higher values for operating
variables, 2.1% energy, 80% sulfuric acid and more than 10% of capital
facilities. Residual fraction of olive tree prunings (leaves and stems with a
diameter ˂ 1 cm) had a heating value of 18699 kJ/kg, a flame temperature of
1207-2234°C, and a dew point temperature of combust ion gasses of 45-53°C.
Contact information: a: Chemical Engineering Department, Campus de Rabanales, Building Marie Curie (C-3),
University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain. B: Chemical Engineering Department, University of Huelva,
Spain.* Corresponding author: [Link]@[Link]
INTRODUCTION
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be also called biomass biorefinery, which uses all the raw material (Towers et al., 2007,
Kelley, 2007).
The easiest physical-chemical process for the exploitation of lignocellulosic
materials is combustion. The residual biomass of forests and agricultural waste (straw, stalks,
stems, leaves, etc.) has been widely used as fuel for producing heat for heating or for
producing steam or electricity in small industrial plants. These waste materials are at present
still interesting as energy sources, using them in combustion processes (Nieblas et al., 1990,
Rey et al., 1993; Arvelakis and Kouki, 2020; Ozturk and Bascetinlik, 2006, Overend and
Wright, 2008).
The aim of this study was to evaluate the optimal use of olive tree prunings,
separating it into two parts: a main one, consisting of wood, and a residual one, formed by
the leaves and young stems. The main fraction was subjected to a hydrothermal treatment,
with and without acid catalyst, studying the influence of operating variables (viz.
temperature, time and liquid/solid ratio or sulphuric acid concentration) on the composition
of the resulting liquid fraction (glucose, xylose, arabinose and acetic acid) and solid yield of
solid fraction. The residual fraction was used as fuel, determining the heating values, flame
temperature and dew point temperature of the combustion gases.
EXPERIMENTAL
Material
Olive tree prunings, directly from an olive tree forest, are separated into two
fractions, with the following characteristics: a) main fraction, consisting of woody stems
above 1 cm diameter, b) residual fraction, consisting of leaves and stems with diameter less
than 1 cm. Wood chips were used with a 30 x mms size.
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(UNE-32019) and fixed carbon (difference between 100 and the sum of ashes plus volatiles).
Elemental analysis was made using the Dumas method with a Eurovector EA 3000. The raw
material was subjected to extraction and quantitative acid hydrolysis (TAPPI T249-cm-85) to
determine the sugar content, using a refractive index detector and an Aminex HPX-87H
column, eluted with 0.01 mol L-1 H2SO4 at a flow rate of 0.6 mL min-1.
Hydrothermal Treatment
The amounts of main fraction of olive tree prunings and water required to obtain an
appropriate liquid/solid ratio was placed in a 15 L batch reactor that was heated by an outer
jacket containing electrical wires. The reactor contents were stirred by rotating the reaction
vessel via a motor connected through a rotary axle to a control unit including the required
instruments for measurement and control of pressure and temperature. Once the mixture
was heated at the selected temperature for the indicated time, the reactor was
depressurized, and the liquid and solid fractions were separated for subsequent treatment or
analysis.
Experimental Design
In the study of hydrothermal treatment, using three independent variables studied [viz.
temperature (T), time (t) and liquid/solid ratio (R) or sulphuric acid concentration (S)], it was
used a central composite factorial design, which places the experiments (points) in a cube:
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one in the center, 8 vertices and 6 faces (Montgomery, 1991). The total number of tests
required for the three independent variables studied was found to be 15.
The values of the independent variables were normalized by using following equation
in order to facilitate direct comparison of coefficients and expose the individual effects of the
independent variables on each dependent variable,
X - X
Xn = 2 --------------- (1)
Xmax - Xmin
Heating value
The calorific values were determined according to EN/TS 14918:2005 (E) Solid
biofuels—Method, and UNE 164001 EX standards by using a Parr 6200 Isoperibol
Calorimeter.
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those of sunflower stalks (5.9%) and similar to those of other agricultural residues considered
(6.1 to 6.4%).The nitrogen content of the main fraction was less than the mentioned
agricultural residues (0.5 to 1.3%); for the residual fraction the nitrogen content was similar
to that of wheat straw (0.5%) and lower than those of other agricultural wastes considered.
Finally, the sulfur content was low, as in the agricultural residues studied (Jimenez et al.,
1991)
The holocellulose content of the olive tree prunings was higher than those
agricultural residues considered (60.8 to 64.1%), higher than for agro-industrial residues
(60.3 and 64.1% for sunflower seed husk and olive marc) higher than those of eucalyptus
residues (61.8%) similar to olive stones (67.6%) and holm oak residues (66.4%).. The lignin
contents were similar to those of cotton stalks (18.3%), eucalyptus residues (17.9%),
sunflower seed husk (17.3%) and olive stones (19.1%); higher than those of wheat straw
(14.5% ), sunflower stalks (14.1%), olive marc (13.3%) and holm oak residues (13.9%); and
lower than those of vine shoots (21.6%). Extractable contents were lower than those of the
materials considered (13.4 to 17.9%), except in the case of olive stones (12.2%) which is
similar to the fraction from olive tree pruning. The ash content was lower than those of most
of the materials considered (3.7 to 9.5%) and the order of olive stones, holm oak and
eucalyptus residues (1.1 to 2.4%). The volatile contents were similar to those of holm oak
residues (80.6%) and higher than those of other materials considered (69.5 to 75.5%). Finally,
the fixed carbon content of the main fraction was similar to wheat straw (18.6%), cotton
stalks (20.3%) and seed husk sunflower (19.3%) higher than those from sunflower stalks
(15.9%) and holm oak residues (17.6%) and lower than those of the other materials
considered (21.5 to 25.8%). In the case of the residual fraction, the fixed carbon is less than
the materials considered (Jiménez and González, 1991).
Results obtained for glucan, xylan and arabinan content (33.8%, 16.6% and 2.01%,
respectively) were in agreement with reported results (Car et al. 2008).
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On the other hand, the influence that temperature has on the xylose and acetic acid
concentration also can be observed (Table 2), by comparison the values of experiments
performed under identical conditions of time and liquid/solid but a different temperature. It
is apparent that the concentrations of xylose and acetic acid increased with increasing
temperature (compare data of xylose and acetic acid concentration from the experiments 3
and 2; 7 and 6; 9 and 8; 5 and 4; 15 and 14; and 15 and 1). Also note in Table 2, comparing
experiments to the temperature and liquid/solid identical, but at different times, that the
concentrations of xylose and acetic acid increase with increasing time (compare data the
experiments 6 and 2; 7 and 3; 8 and 4; 9 and 5; 11 and 10; and 11 and 1). When comparing
experiments performed under identical conditions of temperature and time but with
different liquid/solid ratio, it was found that the xylose and acetic acid concentration
decreased with increasing liquid/solid ratio (compare data from the experiments 4 and 2; 5
and 3; 8 and 6; 9 and 7; 13 and 12; and 13 and 1); this is logical for the highest dilution of the
liquid fractions resulting from hydrothermal treatment.
It follows that it is required operate with high values of operation variables to obtain
high values of the concentrations of xylose and acetic acid. Also from the above comparisons
it can be deduced that the most influential variable in acetic acid and xylose concentration
was the temperature and that the liquid/solid ratio had less influence.
Table 2. Composition of Liquid Fraction and Solid Yield of Solid Fraction Resulting from
Hydrothermal Treatment without Catalyst
XT, Xt, XR Glucose, Xylose, Arabinose, Acetic acid, Solid yield,
g/L g/L g/L g/L %
0, 0, 0 1.64 1.15 1.17 0.19 71.10
1, 1, 1 4.11 8.14 2.72 1.13 58.52
-1, 1, 1 2.42 2.13 2.19 0.32 65.15
1, 1, -1 5.54 9.60 2.82 1.33 59.27
-1, 1, -1 2.49 3.21 2.35 0.42 75.75
1, -1, 1 3.43 5.93 2.42 0.52 59.70
-1, -1, 1 2.01 0.17 0.22 0.03 79.43
1, -1, -1 3.54 6.67 2.60 0.76 71.22
-1, -1, -1 0.93 0.25 0.40 0.05 88.78
0, 1, 0 2.01 1.20 1.59 0.29 67.04
0, -1, 0 1.25 0.41 0.85 0.10 82.97
0, 0, 1 1.56 0.82 1.21 0.10 70.19
0, 0, -1 1.90 1.16 1.40 0.21 79.80
1, 0, 0 3.51 1.84 1.98 0.29 65.90
-1, 0, 0 1.82 0.37 0.60 0.09 87.59
XT, Xt, XR = Normalized values of temperature, time and liquid/solid ratio, respectively
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where GLs is the glucose concentration, ARs the arabinose concentration, YIs the solid yield,
and XT, Xt and XS are the normalized values of the temperature, time of processing, and
sulfuric acid concentration, respectively. These equations reproduced the experimental
values for the glucose concentration, arabinose concentration and solid yield with errors less
than 20, 18 and 10%, respectively. It was found for arabinose concentration that 95% of the
results had an error less than 10%.
Table 3. Composition of Liquid Fraction and Solid Yield of Solid Fraction Resulting from
Hydrothermal Treatment with Catalyst
XT, Xt, XS Glucose, Xylose, Arabinose, Acetic acid, Solid yield,
g/L g/L g/L g/L %
0, 0, 0 3.19 2.24 1.86 0.19 62.65
1, 1, 1 7.01 11.33 4.44 1.25 51.78
-1, 1, 1 5.03 6.80 2.75 0.63 54.39
1, 1, -1 6.95 11.22 3.30 1.18 52.12
-1, 1, -1 3.13 1.46 1.92 0.14 66.74
1, -1, 1 6.68 11.10 2.76 0.82 53.58
-1, -1, 1 2.21 0.71 1.77 0.09 67.20
1, -1, -1 3.39 2.11 1.98 0.17 65.68
-1, -1, -1 0.86 0.27 0.72 0.02 71.99
0, 1, 0 4.10 2.97 2.36 0.31 59.50
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These results suggest that it is appropriate to use sulfuric acid, because the sugars
content of the liquid fraction obtained in the hydrothermal treatment were considerably
higher than when the acid was not added. But the yield of the solid fraction decreased and
thus the possible production of cellulosic pulp or ethanol also would be reduced, if this was
the purpose for the solid fraction
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In order to find the best possible compromise between efficient use of the raw
material (viz. a good solid yield for the solid fraction) and rich composition of the liquid
fraction, the next procedure were followed: Eqs 5 to 7 were used to simulate different cases,
as presented in Table 4 (cases C to K). The first two cases in Table 4 represent operate
without sulfuric acid: in the A case it is operated to achieve maximum values of sugars, and in
B for maximum yield of the solid fraction.
The operating conditions of the cases C to K were chosen so as to obtain glucose and
arabinose concentrations near to the possible maximum without using acid catalyst (case A)
and values of the yield of the solid fraction not too low. These operating conditions represent
not very high values of temperature, time, liquid/solid ratio and sulfuric acid concentration.
The goal of using these moderate values is to save energy for heating, sulfuric acid and
capital facilities, with respect to the case of using the highest values of operating variables.
An interesting case may be the E, because it operates with values of temperature (186
º C) and time (18 min) lower than the maximum (190 º C and 20 min, respectively), a
liquid/solid ratio (7:1) and low sulfuric acid concentration (0.1%), getting good values for the
sugars contents and an acceptable value of solid fraction yield With these values are saved,
with respect to the use of higher values for operating variables, 2.1% energy, 80% sulfuric
acid and more than 10% of capital facilities.
Comparing the results of cases E and G show that an increase in the sulfuric acid
concentration produced an increase in sugars concentration, but a decrease in yield.
Moreover, operating with values of temperature and time lower than those used in
case C, made it possible to obtain lower values of sugars contents and the values of yield did
not increase too much (cases I to K).
Table 4. Simulation of Composition of Liquid Fraction and Solid Yield of Solid Fraction in the
Hydrothermal Treatment from Olive Tree Prunings
Cases Glucose, g/L Arabinose, g/L Solid yield, g/L
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C: Eqs 4 to 6
XT = 1; Xt = 0.75; XR = 0; XS = -1 5.52 3.09 57.12
D: Eqs. 4 to 6
XT = 0.75; Xt = 1; XR = 0; XS = -1 5.84 2.82 57.34
E: Eqs 4 to 6
XT = 0.80; Xt = 0.80; XR = 0; XS = -1 5.33 2.76 57.96
F: Eqs 4 to
XT = 0.75; Xt = 0.75; XR = 0; XS = -1 5.11 2.64 58.45
G: Eqs 4 to 6
XT = 0.80; Xt = 0.80; XR = 0; XS = 0 5.40 3.24 54.48
H: Eqs 4 to 6
XT = 0.75; Xt = 0.75; XR = 0; XS = 0 5.18 3.12 54.97
I: Eqs. 4 to 6
XT = 0.75; Xt = 0.5; XR = 0; XS = -1 4.52 2.46 59.56
J: Eqs. 4 to 6
XT = 0.5; Xt = 0.75; XR = 0; XS = -1 4.70 2.27 59.78
K: Eqs 4 to 6
XT = 0.50; Xt = 0.50; XR = 0; XS = -1 4.11 2.10 60.89
Combustion Process
Heating values
Table 5 presents the experimental results of the heating values of the two factions of
the olive tree prunings. These values are of the same magnitude as those found in the
literature (Jiménez et al., 1991, Jiménez and González, 1991) for different lignocellulosic
materials (wheat straw, sunflower stalks, vine shoots, cotton stalks, olive stones, olive marc,
holm oak residues and eucalyptus residues).
In the literature (Jiménez et al., 1991, Jiménez and González, 1991) empirical equations
are found that predict the heating values (HV, kJ / kg) of lignocellulosic materials:
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Table 5. Heating Values of the Fractions of Olive Tree Prunings Determined Experimentally
and by Equations 8 to 14; Errors Compared to Recent Experiments.
Heating values, KJ/g Main Fraction Residual Fraction
Experimental 19110 18699
Calculated Eq.7 19964 (4.47%) 17629 (5.72%)
Calculated Eq.8 21576 (12.90%) 18986 (1.54%)
Calculated Eq.9 20131 (5.34%) 20184 (7.94%)
Calculated Eq.10 18408 (3.67%) 18007 (3.70%)
Calculated Eq.11 19888 (4.07%) 19430 (3.91%)
Calculated Eq.12 18766 (1.80%) 17947 (4.02%)
Calculated Eq.13 20146 (5.42%) 19391 (3.70%)
By applying the experimental data of Table 1 in Equations 8 to 14, the values of the
heating values presented in Table 5 were obtained, also showing the values of the errors in
these estimates for the experimental values.
As noted, Eqs. 11-13 are the ones that best reproduced the values of the heating values
of the olive tree prunings (with errors less than 4%).
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The high values of flame temperature, for all materials considered, demonstrate the
possibility of using these materials in the production of steam.
The dew point was low for combustion gases of all materials tested, thus avoiding
condensation in chimneys and flue pipes, preventing corrosion that could cause the
condensation; anyway, in the event of such condensation, the phenomenon is expected not
to be very serious given the low sulfur content of the material considered. This is an
additional advantage associated with the clean nature of these fuels.
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Heat loss Excess air in the combustion, Main Fraction Residual Fraction
% % T, ºC T, ºC
10 10 2013 2234
20 1910 2122
30 1818 2023
40 1737 1934
50 1664 1854
20 10 1840 2040
20 1747 1938
30 1664 1849
40 1591 1768
50 1525 1696
30 10 1664 1842
20 1581 1752
30 1508 1672
40 1442 1600
50 1384 1536
40 10 1485 1641
20 1413 1562
30 1349 1492
40 1292 1429
50 1240 1373
50 10 1303 1436
20 1241 1368
30 1186 1309
40 1138 1255
50 1094 1207
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Table 8. Comparison of Heating Values and Energy Costs Obtained by Combustion of Various
Fuels
Fuel Heating Cost of fuel, Cost of the unit of
values, MkJ/t €/t heat, €/MkJ
Main fraction of olive
tree prunings 19.11 60 3.14
Residual fraction of
olive tree prunings 18.70 60 3.20
Coal 25.94 100 3.86
Heating oil 37.67 800 21.24
Commercial propane 43.89 1650 37.59
*millions of KJ/t
CONCLUSIONS
Polynomial equations were found reproduce the composition of the liquid fraction
(glucose and arabinose) and solid yield of solid fraction obtained by hydrothermal treatment
of main fraction of olive tree prunings with errors less than 20%, in all cases (10-12%lower in
90-95% of cases).
The highest possible glucose, xylose, arabinose and acetic acid concentrations in liquid
fraction were obtained by using 190°C, 20 minutes, a liquid/solid ratio of 8, and 0.5% of
sulphuric acid concentration. On the other hand, to obtain high yield of solid fraction
requires the use of low values of operational variables (150°C, 0 min, liquid/solid ratio of 6:1,
and 0.1% sulphuric acid concentration).
Based on the polynomial equations found to simulate the the hydrothermal treatment
of main fraction of olive tree prunings, it was concluded that by operating with values of
temperature (186 °C) and time (18 min) lower than the maximum (190 °C and 20 min,
respectively), a liquid/solid ratio (7:1) and low sulfuric acid concentration (0.1%), it is possible
to obtain good values for the glucose and arabinose content (5.33% and 2.76%, respectively)
and an acceptable value of solid fraction yield (57.96%) saving, with respect to the use of
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higher values for operating variables, 2.1% energy, 80% sulfuric acid and more than 10% of
capital facilities.
The residual fraction of olive tree prunings had a heating values de 18699 kJ/kg, a
flame temperature de 1207-2234 °C, and a dew point temperature of combustion gasses of
47-53 °C (considering different heat losses and various excess air in the combustion). On the
other hand, the price of kJ obtained by combustion of this residual fraction is less than that
of coal and much lower than those of liquid fossil fuels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Ecopapel, S.L. (Écija, Sevilla, Spain) and ENCE (Huelva,
Spain) for their support, to Spain’s DGICyT and Junta de Andalucía for funding this research
within the framework of the Projects CTQ 2010-19844-C02-01, TEP-6261 and TRA-
2009_0064.
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Contact information: Chemical Engineering Department, Campus de Rabanales, Building Marie Curie (C-3),
University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain. * Corresponding author: iq1jiall@[Link]
INTRODUCTION
Olive tree prunings are very abundant in the Mediterranean area, particularly in
Spain. These biomaterials come from logging, which occurs every year or every two years,
depending on weather conditions and the soil nature. This felling operation is necessary
for suitable growth and development of trees and optimal production of olives (Pastor and
Humanes, 2010). The olive tree prunings are an agricultural waste which must be removed to
avoid contamination of soils, plague invasion and interference with agricultural
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work. Currently, olive tree prunings are removed by burning in the same cropland, or by
shredding the prunings and scattering them on the ground. These removal solutions are
costly because they entail a lot of labour, and furthermore, they are not free of problems
such as risk of fires, air pollution, plague proliferation, etc. (Sánchez et al., 2002;
Rodriguez et al., 2010). For these reasons, removal of olive tree prunings is interesting, based
on a biorefinery scheme of lignocellulosic materials (Ruiz et al., 2009; Rodriguez et al., 2010;
López et al. 2010; Spinelli and Pichi, 2010; Ballesteros et al., 2011; Cara et al, 2012), so that
agricultural waste becomes an agricultural by-product, obtaining several products of
commercial value, which in turn makes farms more profitable.
Lignocellulosic materials (hardwoods and softwoods; agricultural, agro-food and
forestry residues; and non-wood plants) have been traditionally used for the production of
cellulosic pulp for paper or other uses, or for the production of heat energy (through
combustion) or energy products (via gasification and pyrolysis). The cellulosic pulp industry
(the most current consumer of lignocellulosic resources) now faces the problem of a scarce
supply of conventional raw materials (hardwood and softwood) in several regions of the
world (FAO, 2012). Thus, the possibility of using alternative feedstocks at the same time, such
as agricultural residues which do not have the same value as waste products is being
investigated. Furthermore, this process avoids economic losses for farmers who have to get
rid of such residues.
Traditionally in the production of pulp only the rich cellulose fraction (wood from
trunks and branches) is used, discarding the use of the residual fraction (mixture of stems,
branches of small size, and leaves), which normally is burned to produce energy. In addition,
the main fraction, which is richer in cellulose, is only used to obtain α-cellulose, missing two
important components: hemicellulose and lignin. An attempt to achieve an integral
exploitation of the natural resources suggests the need to introduce new production lines to
take advantage of all the components of these resources by fractioning them (Stephen et al.,
2010; Hoekman et al., 2011; Romaní et al., 2011). Thus, after the separation operations of
the main and residual fractions of lignocellulosic materials, and other operations of
conditioning from these fractions (bark removal, chipping, removal of foreign materials, etc.),
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a way to achieve an integral exploitation of them consist of their processing separately. The
main fraction can be subjected to a hydrothermal treatment to degrade the hemicelluloses
to monomers and oligomers that may have different applications (food additives, medicines,
ethanol, xylitol, furfural, etc.) (Moure et al., 2006; Quing and Wyman, 2011; Ballesteros et al.,
2011). Subsequently, the resulting solid fraction of the hydrothermal treatment is subjected
to a suitable pulping with the purpose of separating the cellulose (used for the making pulp
for paper or other uses) from the lignin, which can be used for the production of various
products with high commercial value, such as resins, polyurethanes, acrylates, epoxies,
composites, etc. (Rodriguez et al., 2010). Alternatively, the separated cellulose in the pulping
process can be subjected to a process of simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation to obtain
bioethanol, which can be used as fuel (Wang and Cheng, 2011). Moreover, the residual
fraction of the raw material can be used for energy production by conversion processes of its
energy such as combustion process (Overend and Wright, 2008; López et al., 2010; Spinelli
and Pichi, 2010; Saidur et al., 2011; Li et al., 2012).
The consecutive hydrothermal and pulping treatment gives rise to moderate amounts
of monomers and oligomers from the hemicelluloses, as well as pulp for paper having worse
characteristics than those obtained directly from original raw materials (Sánchez et al, 2011).
This suggests the use of olive tree prunings through its separation in a main fraction and
other residual fraction; the main fraction can be pulped with ethanol to obtain pulp for
paper, or it may be subjected to hydrothermal treatment and subsequently to pulping with
ethanol, and can use the result pulp for bioethanol production, by simultaneous hydrolysis
and fermentation. The residual fraction is subjected to combustion to produce thermal
energy.
EXPERIMENTAL
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stems above 1 cm diameter, and b) a residual fraction, consists of leaves and stems with
diameter less than 1 cm.
The content in holocellulose, lignin, α-cellulose, ethanol–benzene extractives, and
ashes of the two fractions of olive prunings were determined in accordance with the
following TAPPI standards: T-9 m-54, T-222, T-203 0S-61, T-204 and T-211, respectively.
The fiber lengths of the raw material were determined by using a projection
microscope Visopan. Elemental analysis was made using the Dumas method with a
Eurovector “EA 3000” in the Spectroscopy Unit at the NIR/MIR Central Service for Research
Support of the University of Córdoba (Spain). The calorific values were determined according
to EN/TS 14918:2005 (E) solid biofuels method and UNE 164001 EX standards (UNE
Standards, 1990) by using a Parr 6200 Isoper ibol Calorimeter.
Pulping
Main fractions of the olive tree pruning samples were pulped with ethanol-water in a
stainless steel reactor of 2 L (Parr Instruments Company, Moline, Illinois) fitted with two six
blade turbine impellers. The vessel was heated with an external fabric mantle to reach the
operating temperature. The heating rate to reach the working temperature is 17 °C/min.
Time zero was taken to be when the system reached the preset temperature. After a suitable
breakdown of this main fraction of olive tree prunings to get sizes between 1 and 5 cm in
length and width, respectively, and a thickness between 0.5 and 1 cm, these were mixed with
ethanol and water, to achieve a liquid/solid ratio (by weight) of 8:1 (on dry basis, considering
the olive tree pruning moisture as water). Concentrations of ethanol in water between
60%and 80% (w/w) were used. Operational temperatures ranged from 175 and 195°C, and
the process time ranged from 40 and 120 minutes. At the end of the treatments, the media
were cooled, and the pulped solids were recovered by filtration and washed (first with
ethanol-water and then with distilled water). Pulp samples were subjected to chemical
analysis using the same methods indicated for the raw material.
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Paper sheets were obtained with an Enjo-F39-71 former (T205- Sp-95 method, TAPPI
Standards) and analyzed for breaking length, burst index, tear index and brightness in
accordance with the following methods: T-494, T-403, T-414 and T-525, respectively.
Hydrothermal-Saccharification-Fermentation process
The production of bioethanol from the main fraction of the olive tree prunings
involves a hydrothermal treatment and a subsequent pulping, followed by subjection of the
resulting solid fraction (hydrothermed-pulp) to simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation (SSF).
The hydrothermal treatment consisted of mixing the main fraction of olive tree
prunings with water (liquid/solid ratio = 8) and heating to 196 °C for 12 min. A solid fraction
obtained was pulped to 185 °C, using an ethanol concentration of 60% for 60 min.
Hydrothermal treatment and pulping were carried out in the reactor described above
(pulping session). SSF was performed under the following conditions: Liquid/solid ratio = 8
g/g hydrothermed pulp (oven-dry basis); enzyme/solid ratio = 10 FPU/g (oven-dry basis); and
β-glucosidase/cellulose activity ratio = 5 IU/FPU. The commercial enzyme concentrates
employed in this work ("Celluclast 1.5 L" cellulases from Trichoderma reesei and "Novozym"
β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger) were provided by Novozymes (Madrid, Spain), and the
strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae CECT-1170 was obtained from the Spanish Collection of Type
Cultures, Valencia, Spain.
The SSF was carried out in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks placed in an orbital shaker at 120
rpm (pH =5). Suspension containing water and hydrothermed-pulp was autoclaved (121 ºC,
15 min), separately from the nutrients and thermostatted at 35 ºC. The SSF experiment
started with yeast inoculation and enzyme addition. Preparing 100 mL of media required 10
mL of inocula (leading to an initial yeast cell concentration about 1.0 g/L) and 10 mL of
nutrient solution (5 g peptone/L, 3 g yeast extract/L, and 3 g malt extract/L). A given time,
sample was withdrawn from the media and centrifuged (500 rpm, 5 min). Supernatant was
assayed for ethanol by HPLC (Requejo et al. 2012a).
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The carbon content of the main fraction of olive tree prunings was higher than other
agricultural residues (from 42.5 to 46.2% for sunflower stalks, cotton stalks, wheat straw and
vine shoots); the content of carbon for the residual fraction was lower than the considered
agricultural residues, except in the case of sunflower. The hydrogen content of both fractions
were higher than those of sunflower stalks (5.9%) and similar to those of other agricultural
residues considered (6.1 to 6.4%).The nitrogen content of the main fraction was less than the
mentioned agricultural residues (0.5 to 1.3%); for the residual fraction the nitrogen content
was similar to that of wheat straw (0.5%) and lower than those of the other agricultural
wastes considered. Finally, the sulfur content was low, as in the agricultural residues studied
(Jimenez et al., 1991).
The holocellulose content of the olive tree prunings was higher than those
agricultural residues considered (60.8 to 64.1%), higher than for agro-industrial residues
(60.3 and 64.1% for sunflower seed husk and olive marc), higher than those of eucalyptus
residues (61.8%) similar to olive stones (67.6%) and holm oak residues (66.4%). The lignin
contents were similar to those of cotton stalks (18.3%), eucalyptus residues (17.9%),
sunflower seed husk (17.3%) and olive stones (19.1%); higher than those of wheat straw
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(14.5%), sunflower stalks (14.1%), olive marc (13.3%) and holm oak residues (13.9%); and
lower than those of vine shoots (21.6%). Extractable contents were lower than those of the
materials considered (13.4 to 17.9%), except in the case of olive stones (12.2%) which was
similar to the residual fraction from olive tree prunings. The ash content was lower than
those of most of the materials considered (3.7 to 9.5%) and these values were similar to the
percentages of olive stones, holm oak and eucalyptus residues (1.1 to 2.4%) (Jiménez and
González, 1991). Lengths of fiber of the two fractions of the olive tree prunings as well as
other agricultural residues are presented in Table 2. As seen, the average length of the fibers
of the main fraction of the olive tree prunings was lower than those of wheat straw and
sunflower stalks, and greater than the vine shoots, which was higher than that corresponding
to the residual fraction of the olive tree prunings. As shown, the main fraction had a similar
fiber length to the one of the hardwood, as Eucalyptus globulus (1.05 mm).
Skewnes Kurtosis
Main Olive T. 1.03 1.53 0.70 0.51 0.89
Residual Olive T. 0.63 0.86 0.35 0.30 0.84
Wheat straw 1.18 2.60 0.60 0.99 1.02
Sunflower stalks 1.37 3.09 0.56 0.89 0.56
Vine shoots 0.80 1.09 0.56 0.31 0.66
L = Average length; Lmax = Maximum length; Lmin = Minimun length
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where T is flame temperature (ºC), HV is the heating values (kJ/kg), p is the heat loss (parts
per unit), mCO2, mH2O, mSO2, mN2, mO2 and mA are the mol/(kg combustible material) of
CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, O2 and ash, respectively; cpCO2, cpH2O, cpSO2, cpN2, cpO2 and cpA
(Jiménez et al., 1991) are the molar specific heats of CO2, H2O vapor, SO2, N2, O2 and ash,
respectively (J/°[Link]). E is the air excess in combustion (parts per unit), and C, H, S, N, O and
A are the mass percentages of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and ash of
combustible material.
The values of flame temperature were found when this equation was solved, which
are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Flame Temperature (°C) as a Function of the Heat Losses and the Excess Air Used in
the Combustion from the Olive Tree Pruning
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10 20 30 40 50
10 2234 2122 2023 1934 1854
20 2040 1938 1849 1768 1696
Main fraction 30 1842 1752 1672 1600 1536
40 1641 1562 1492 1429 1373
50 1436 1368 1309 1255 1207
10 2013 1910 1818 1737 1664
20 1840 1747 1664 1591 1525
Residual fraction 30 1664 1581 1508 1442 1384
40 1485 1413 1349 1292 1240
50 1303 1241 1186 1138 1094
The high values of flame temperature demonstrated the possibility of using these
materials in the production of steam.
For the determination of the dew point, it is necessary to know the mole fraction of
water vapor in the flue gases to find the pressure of the water vapor (in mm of Hg), by the
equation:
For a fuel whose percentages of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen, being
C, H, S, O and N, respectively, burned with an excess of air E (parts per unit), the mole
fraction of vapor in the combustion gasses (XH2O) is given by (Jiménez et al., 1991):
The calculated values of the dew point temperatures are presented in Table 4. As
noted, these values were low, thus avoiding condensation in chimneys and exhaust fumes, as
well as preventing corrosion that could result from condensation. Anyway, in the event of
such condensation, the phenomenon would not be very serious, given the small sulfur
content of the material considered. This is an additional advantage for which these fuels can
be regarded clean.
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Finally, the air/fuel ratio (AFR, kg air/kg fuel) used in the combustion of the olive tree
prunings is given by Jiménez et al (1991):
Table 4. Dew Point Temperature (°C) of the Flue Gases of Olive Prunings and Air/fuel Ratio
Used in the Combustion, Depending on the Excess Air Used
Excess air used, Dew point temperature, ºC Air/fuel ratio use in combustion,
% kg/kg
Main fraction Residual fraction Main fraction Residual fraction
10 50.6 52.6 6.68 5.51
20 49.0 51.1 7.29 6.01
30 47.5 49.7 7.90 6.51
30 46.3 48.4 8.50 7.02
50 45.0 47.2 9.11 7.52
Table 5 compares the heating values, unit cost of the fuel (Requejo et al. 2012b), and
cost of the heat units obtained by combustion of the different fuels. As can be seen, the units
of energy obtained by combustion of olive tree prunings were cheaper than those obtained
from mineral coal and even much cheaper than those obtained from fossil fuel fluids.
Moreover, it should be pointed out that some of the advantages of the studied lignocellulosic
residues are their renewability, the release of very small amounts of sulfur dioxide in
combustion gases, and lower amounts of ash compared to the solid fossil fuel, so they can be
regarded as good competitors with fossil fuels.
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Table 6 compares the heating values, unit cost of the fuel and cost of the heat units
obtained by combustion of the different fuels. As can be seen, the unit of energy obtained by
combustion of olive tree prunings was cheaper than the one obtained from mineral coal and
even much cheaper than the one obtained from fossil fuel fluids. Moreover, it should be
pointed out that some of the advantages of the studied lignocellulosic residues are
renewable and release very small amounts of sulfur dioxide in combustion gases and
amounts of ash lower than the solid fossil fuel, so, at worst, they are good competitors with
fossil fuels.
Pulping
The main fraction of the olive tree prunings is pulped with ethanol, as indicated in
Experimental. Table 6-1 presents the values of the dependent variables (pulp yield, contents
of holocellulose, α-cellulose and lignin, and paper sheets properties – breaking length, burst
index, tear index and brightness-) for three experiments, under the conditions that are also
specified in the table. As noted, the pulp yield and lignin content decreased with an increase
in values of operational variables (temperature, time and ethanol concentration), while the
contents of holocellulose and α-cellulose increased. With regard to the stretch properties of
the paper sheets, the higher values correspond to the pulp obtained under median values of
the operation variables. This fact may be due to a degradation of cellulose fibers caused by a
high temperature (195 °C) sustained for a long time (120 min) as noted by other authors
(Gilarranz et al., 1998). The brightness decreased by increasing the values of the operation
variables.
On the tables 6-1 to 6-4, show results found by other authors are shown for the
pulping of olive tree prunings through various processes. Comparing experimental results
found for the ethanol pulping, with those provided by Jiménez et al. (2001) (Table 6-1), it is
apparent that values were lower for the pulp yield and the content of α-cellulose and lignin,
and higher for the content of holocellulose. This fact can be explained by the different
operational procedure: in this work, the mixture of the olive tree prunings was performed by
heating with ethanol and water in a reactor at 17 °C/min, while in the data provided by
Jiménez et al. (2001) the heating rate was much lower (4 °C/min), which makes the combined
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effect of temperature-time (severity factor) much greater and, therefore, the delignification
is more intense.
Results found for the soda pulping (Table 6-1, Jiménez et al., 1999) showed that for
equal values of temperature and time, the yield and content of holocellulose were lower
than those found for the ethanol pulping, being and α-cellulose, and lignin contents were
similar to the values for the ethanol pulping; This indicates a higher degradation of the
hemicelluloses in the soda pulping process. With regard to the values of the stretch
properties and the brightness, these values were smaller for the soda pulping, except in the
case of the tear index, which was higher in the soda pulping.
At the same values of temperature and time, the pulp yield in the Kraft pulping (Table
6-1, Jimenez et al., 2000a) was higher than in the ethanol pulping when those values of active
alkali, sulfidity and liquid/solid ratio were low (5, 8 and 4, respectively); but if the values of
these three operational variables were increased, the yields and lignin content were minor.
The contents of holocellulose and α-cellulose of the ethanol pulp were greater than the
corresponding Kraft pulp obtained with identical values of temperature and time and low
values of active alkali, sulfidity and liquid/solid ratio. But if the values of these last three
variables of operation increased, the values of the holocellulose and α-cellulose content
surpassed those obtained with the ethanol process. The breaking length and burst index
values were lower in the case of the ethanol process, but the brightness was greater. If
refining is carried out in the Kraft pulp (López et al., 2000), the values of the stretch
properties of the paper sheets will increase significantly, as stated in table 6-2.
Concerning sulfite pulping (Table 6-2, Jimenez et al., 2000b) similar conclusions to
those for Kraft pulping were reached. With respect to the ethanol pulping: lignin and pulp
yield were lower and the holocellulose and α-cellulose were higher for the ethanol pulp
compared to values for sulfite pulp; both pulps were obtained with identical values of
temperature and time, low value of liquid/solid ratio and low concentrations of sulfite and
anthraquinone, respectively. But when values of sulfite and anthraquinone concentrations,
as well as the liquid/solid ratio were increased, the opposite occurred. Regarding the
properties of paper sheets, it was observed that the values were higher when pulp was
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obtained with sulfite to high concentration and with high values of the concentration of
anthraquinone and liquid/solid ratio.
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Table 6-1. Characterization of pulps and paper sheets corresponding to olive tree prunings obtained by various pulping processes
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Burst
Process Holocellulose, α-cellulose, Breaking Tear I., Brightness,
Operational conditions Yield, % Lignin, % I.,
pulping % % length, m mNm2/g %
kN/g
165 ºC, 60 min,7.5% active
Kraft (López alkali, 16% sulfidity, 6
2589 1.38 3.97
et al., 2000) liquid/solid ratio, 3500 number of
PFI beating revolution
185 ºC, 80 min, 5% sulfite, 0%
46.77 76.79 62.00 22.10 0.24 2.78 33.81
antraquinone, 4 liquid/solid ratio
185 ºC, 80 min, 12.55% sulfite,
Sulfite
0.05% antraquinone, 6 41.82 82.20 66.35 12.84 0.27 1.42 41.79
(Jiménez et
liquid/solid ratio
al., 2000b)
185 ºC, 80 min, 20% sulfite,
0.1% antraquinone, 8 liquid/solid 42.49 87.61 70.69 10.78 0.63 2.78 52.45
ratio
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For low values of temperature and time (175 ° C and 40 min) and for high values (185
°C and 80 min), the pulp yields were higher for the ethanol pulp, relative to the
ethanolamine-soda pulp (Table 6-3, Jimenez et to the., 2004a). The content of holocellulose,
α-cellulose and lignin for ethanol pulp were intermediate to the ethanolamine-soda pulp,
under different conditions of concentrations of soda and ethanolamine and liquid/solid ratio.
With regard to the properties of the paper sheets, the breaking length and tear index were
always higher for the ethanol pulp, while burst index was always less (Jimenez et al., 2008).
Finally, by comparing the obtained results in this work with those for ethylene glycol-
soda (Table 6-4, Jiménez et al. 2004c), it can be observed that the pulp yield was higher in the
ethanol pulp when the temperature and time were low (175 °C and 40 min); but if the values
of these operational variables are increased (185 °C and 80 min), the yield of ethanol pulp
was lower. The contents of holocellulose, α-cellulose and lignin from the ethanol pulp were
checked and had intermediate values between those corresponding to low and high values of
the concentrations of ethylene glycol and soda and liquid/solid ratio in the ethylene glycol-
soda pulping; but when the values of temperature and time were increased, the values of
holocellulose, α-cellulose and lignin content from ethanol pulp decreased relative to the
ethylene glycol-soda pulp. On the other hand, the values the breaking length and tear index
always were higher for the ethanol pulp (Jimenez et al., 2004b).
In summary, it can be concluded that the obtained ethanol pulp at a temperature of
185 °C and 80 minutes, provided a greater value of the pulp yield that the pulps obtained
through other procedures that operate with low or average concentrations of reagents,
except the case of the pulp obtained with ethylene glycol-soda process. Similar conclusion
can be considered for the holocellulose and α-cellulose, which had higher values than those
obtained through different processes considered, operating with low or average
concentrations of reagents; the opposite happens with the content of lignin, which was
lower. Concerning the properties of the paper sheets of ethanol pulp may be indicated that
the value of the breaking length was exceeded only by the corresponding to the Kraft pulp,
the value of burst index was only surpassed by the ethanolamine-soda pulp, and brightness
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only surpassed by of the sulfite pulp obtained under high concentrations of reagents; the
higher tear index value corresponded to the ethanol pulp.
Bioethanol production
An alternative to the use of olive tree prunings for paper pulp production is the use of
the pulp for bioethanol production. This was obtained by subjecting the pulp to the process
of simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation. The hydrolysis can be carried out with
commercial enzymes and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Requejo et al. 2012).
To facilitate the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose of pulp, it is desirable to remove the
hemicelluloses before the pulping through a hydrothermal treatment. In this way, the solid
from hydrothermal treatment is enriched in α-cellulose, thus providing its transformation to
bioethanol by simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation.
Operating as indicated in the Experimental part, the concentration of bioethanol will
grow over time to remain constant when the moment is approximately 72 hours. The
maximum value entered for the concentration of bioethanol (Bmax) was 28.0 g bioethanol/L
(Requejo et al. 2012a). This result is comparable with the literature reported for bioethanol
production from this feedstock and is close to the threshold reported for economic feasibility
(Zhang and Lynd 2010).
The bioethanol conversion (defined as “g bioethanol/100 g potential bioethanol”) is a
key parameter to assess the efficiency of a given process. The bioethanol conversion (BC) can
be calculated as a function of Bmax using the equation,
ܤ௫
= ܥܤ × 100
ܧܥ 92 ρ
× ×
100 162 ܮ
+ 1 + ݅ܮ/100
ܵ
where Bmax is the maximum bioethanol concentration achieved in the experiment, CE is the
α-cellulose content of pulp (60.9 g cellulose/100 g oven-dry pulp), 92/162 is the
stoichiometric factor for bioethanol production from cellulose (g bioethanol/g cellulose), ρ is
the density of liquors (average value, 1005 g/L), L/S is the liquid-to-solid ratio (fixed at 8 g/g),
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and Li is the lignin content of pulp (29.2 g lignin/100 g oven-dry HPS). The bioethanol
conversion calculated was 70.1 g bioethanol/100 g potential bioethanol.
This result compared well with the literature and confirmed the efficiency of the
scheme hydrothermal-organosolv pulping for the development of second generation
bioethanol biorefineries (Garrote et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2010).
CONCLUSIONS
The total use of olive tree prunings can be carried out with separation of the material
into two fractions: a main fraction (trunks and stems with diameter > 1 cm) and another
residual (leaves and stems with diameter 1 < cm).
Pulp can be obtained from the main fraction, which can be used for paper or
bioethanol production. Pulping with ethanol to 60%, to 185 °C for 80 min obtains a pulp with
a yield of 46.30% and the contents of holocellulose, α-cellulose and lignin of 77.17%, 62.49%
and 21.73%, respectively. The paper sheets obtained had a breaking length of 1168 m, a
burst index of the 0.44 kNg, a tear index of 2.25 tear mNm2g and a brightness of the 43.66%.
On the other hand the main fraction may be subjected to a hydrothermal treatment and to a
pulping with ethanol, and the obtained pulp being subject to a simultaneous hydrolysis and
fermentation process to obtain bioethanol with a conversion of the 70 g bioethanol/100 g
potential of bioethanol.
The residual fraction can be used as fuel, with a heating value of 18700 kJ/kg, a flame
temperature of 1094 to 2013°C and a dew point temperature of combustion gasses of 47 to
53°C.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Ecopapel, S.L. (Écija, Sevilla, Spain) and ENCE (Huelva,
Spain) for their support, to Spain’s DGICyT for funding this research within the framework of
the Projects CTQ-2010-19844-C02-01, TEP-6261 and TRA-2009-0064.
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PUBLICACIÓN IV
1
*A. Requejo, 1A. Rodríguez, 2J.L. Colodette, 2J.L. Gomide, and 1L. Jiménez.
1
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Córdoba, Spain.
2
Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Department of Forest Engineering, Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil.
*
Corresponding author: Ana Requejo Silva, Chemical Engineering Department. Campus of Rabanales,
University of Córdoba. Córdoba. Spain. Phone: +34 957 218658 Fax+34 957 218625 e-mail:
a92resia@[Link].
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present work was to find a suitable Kraft cooking process for olive tree
pruning (OTP), in order to produce pulp of kappa number about 17. The Kraft pulp
produced under optimized conditions showed a viscosity of 31.5 mPa·s and good physical,
mechanical, and optical properties, which are suitable for paper production. The physical-
mechanical and optical properties were measured before and after bleaching. Although
the OTP pulp was bleached to 90.9% ISO brightness (kappa < 1), the process demanded a
long sequence of stages, OZQPOZQPO. The bleached pulp showed a brightness reversion
equal to 1.3%. Furthermore, this bleached pulp did not need a high intensity of beating
due to high drainability degree in the unbeaten pulp. So that, OTP is suggested as an
interesting raw material for cellulosic pulp production because its properties are
comparable to those of other agricultural residues, currently used in the paper industry.
Keywords
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1. Introduction
The papermaking industries has traditionally used wood as raw material, but at present,
agricultural residues are presented as a potential source of cellulose fibers, due to its low
cost and wide availability in the fields, since their use in less than 40%, and often burned
in the field with the loss of energy as well as causing environmental problems such as
fires, plagues, CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, etc. For this reason, agricultural residues
are proposed as a resource with high economical and environmental potential, for the
production of cellulose pulp and paper (López et al., 2001).
These agricultural residues have some disadvantages which include a low pulp
quality, its high content of non-fibrous material and the silica content of the consumed
cooking liquor, which makes recycling difficult; these disadvantages are alleviated firstly,
by the presence of these residues in small areas with no or low abundance of woody
species as well as its high production speed (Roncero et al., 2003); and secondly, by the
reduced consumption of chemicals and energy in cooking and bleaching operations by
effect of the more porous and readily accessible tissue structure of non-wood raw
materials (Martín-Sampedro et al., 2012).
In particular, olive tree prunings (OTP) residues are the most abundant agricultural
residues in the Mediterranean region of the European Union, being the only woody crop
in Spain which has increased its area harvested in 2010 (0.3%) (Survey about areas and
yields. 2011. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment); only in Spain, the
production amounted to 13.9 million tons (FAO, 2012). For this reason, residues from
olive tree pruning are proposed as a potential source of cellulose fibers for its use in the
paper industry.
Economical and environmental problems related to the paper industry are mainly
due to bleaching processes that use chlorine compounds. The conventional technologies
cause many environmental disadvantages by the discharge of AOX (adsorbable organic
halogens) in the effluents from bleaching.
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compounds are very important in chemical pulp bleaching because they degrade lignin
and therefore, decrease their molecular size and increase their solubility in water and
alkali (Shatalov and Pereira, 2007).
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pulp of acceptable strength properties and where the brightness levels were lower than
81.5% in TCF bleaching sequences and higher than 90% in ECF bleaching sequences. The
aim of this work was to achieve a value of brightness around 90% ISO (an interesting
cellulose pulp value for the paper industry) using a TCF bleaching sequence for Kraft pulp
from olive tree pruning waste with a kappa number around 17.5. In the bleaching
sequence the yield of process, kappa number, and viscosity of the bleached pulp, as
well as the physical, mechanical, and optical properties of handsheets, taking
into account the consumption of chemical reagents and the brightness degree achieved
were studied.
2. Methods
OTP waste was supplied from the southeast of the province of Córdoba (Spain). These
residues were separated manually, removing the leaves and the fractions of wood with
a diameter greater than 1 cm. When the size of the sample was homogenized, it was
stored in polyethylene bags to achieve constant moisture, determining the oven dry
quantity, according to TAPPI 664 cm-97, in order to carry out a chemical
characterization of the raw material. In this work, the main fraction was utilized with a
wood chip size of 30 x 3 mm.
A morphological analysis of the cellulose fibers that form part of the cell wall of plant cells
was done. The wood chips from initial raw material were disaggregated and treated with
a solution of acetic acid and nitric acid in the ratio 5:1 for 6 hours; these chips were
washed with distilled water and this sample was disaggregated and colored in blue Astra
with agitation for ten minutes; a small amount of suspension for the preparation of a
sample porter was made to be used on an image analyzer, where only one hundred of
fibers of unbleached pulp were measured. The length, width and diameter of light were
determined by microscopy. The cell wall thickness of the fiber was mathematically
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determined as a half of the difference between the fiber length and the diameter of light
(LCP 02 pp-97).
The number per gram of fibrous material, coarseness, and fines content in both
pulps (unbleached and bleached pulps) were also determined in the Galai CIS-
100 equipment, in which a fibrous suspension flow took place at a constant speed. A laser
beam came into contact with a quartz cuvette, resulting in the images which are captured
by a video camera and analyzed using a Wshape© software, suitable for analysis of the
fibrous material. The results were interpreted by the software and transferred
to Excel for data processing.
A fraction of this raw material was milled in a Wiley mill for sample preparation,
according to TAPPI T 257 cm-85 (2000). Subsequently, by using standard
analytical procedures, hot water soluble compounds (TAPPI T 207 cm-08), acetone
extractives (TAPPI T 280 wd-06), length of fiber (TAPPI T 233 cm-06), total extractives
(TAPPI T 204 om-88), contents of insoluble lignin in acid (TAPPI T 222 om-98), and soluble
in acid Klason lignin (Goldschmid, 1971) were determined. At the same time, an aliquot of
the sample previously homogenized and with constant moisture (TAPPI T 264 cm-
97 method) was subjected to quantitative acid hydrolysis with 5 mL of 72% sulfuric
acid; and later, posthydrolysis was performed with 4% sulfuric acid at 121 °C and 2 atm
for 60 minutes to ensure complete conversion of oligomers to monomers. The solid
residue from acid hydrolysis was recovered by filtration and considered as Klason lignin.
The monomers and acetic acid contained in the liquid phase were determined
by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify sugar contents
(glucose, xylose, arabinose) and acetyl groups. Chromatographic analysis was performed
using a refractive index detector and an Aminex HPX-87 H column, elute with 0.01
M H2SO4 at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/min.
Following the analysis of carbohydrates (Wallis et al. 1996) and uronic acid
contents (Sundberg et al., 1996), the siringyl/guaiacyl ratio were determined by liquid
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chromatography after oxidation with nitrobenzene (Lin and Dence, 1992), and acetyl-
group analysis (Solar et al., 1987).
Finally, the relation between the dry weight and the saturated volume of
chips (basic density) was determined by TAPPI T 258 om-94.
The Kraft cooking process was carried out in an electrically heated rotary digester,
Regmed, with four individual reactors with a capacity of two liters for each one. The
time and temperature were controlled through a computer. The Kraft cooking
process was studied by varying the active alkali concentration between 18-24%, in
order to achieve an appropriate relation between yield and kappa number. The chosen
Kraft cooks were carried out to produce pulp with a kappa number of about 17; this
parameter (selected on the basis of previous experiments, data not shown) was
reached maintaining the following variables constant: sulfidity: 30%; liquor/wood
ratio: 4/1; maximum temperature: 165°C; time to maximum temperature: 70 min; time
at maximum temperature: 60 min.
The pulp was separated from the liquor and disintegrated for 10 minutes at
2000 rpm without rupture of the fibers. A sufficient quantity of pulp was produced to
determine the yield of the cooking process. The following standards were used for
analysis: TAPPI T 257 – 02, TAPPI T 236 om-06 and TAPPI T 230-om 04.
The residual alkali was determined according to SCAN standard (N-2:88).
The Kraft pulp was bleached with a totally chlorine-free sequence (TCF) composed of
OZQPOZQPO stages to achieve a brightness of about 90% ISO, where: O refers to the
oxygen delignification. In this stage, the alkali and oxygen charges were used to achieve a
Kappa number of 10.8; the following stage Z refers to the ozone stage; Q refers to the
chelant stage; PO refers to the hydrogen peroxide and oxygen stage; Z refers to the ozone
final stage with the same conditions that the same previous Z stage has; Q refers to the
second chelant stage with the same conditions that the same previous Q stage has; and
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finally, PO refers to the hydrogen peroxide and oxygen final stage. General oxygen
delignification and bleaching conditions are listed in Table 1.
The following standard analytical procedures: kappa number, TAPPI T 236 om-06;
viscosity; TAPPI T 230 om-04; forming handsheets for reflectance testing, TAPPI T 272 sp-
08; diffuse brightness of pulp, TAPPI T 525 om-06; brightness stability, TAPPI T 260 wd-98;
and hexenuronic acid contents, TAPPI T 282 pm-07 were used for the characterization of
the resulting bleached pulp. The indirect analysis of TOC allowed for the evaluation of the
total yield of the bleached pulp is described by Longue Júnior et al. (2005)
Table 1. General Oxygen Delignification and Bleaching Conditions and Chemical Reagents
Consistency (%) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
H2SO4 (%) - 4 - - 4 - - -
The bleached pulp was refined in a PFI mill to zero, 100, 150 and 200 revolutions.
Handsheets were made in an ENJO-F-39.71 sheet former, TAPPI T 205 sp-02 which were
stored in an air-conditioned environment with a constant moisture of 50% ± 2% and
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The fiber length and the width of the cell wall are the most studied anatomical
parameters because of their influence on the quality of the production of paper pulp.
The longest fibers contribute to better resistance to tearing, in comparison
to the shortest ones. Therefore, the longest ones are the most appropriate to make
handsheets; likewise, those fibers which have a greater thickness results in a higher grade
of opacity and softness for printing and writing paper and tissue paper, (Gomide et al.,
2005). OTP data–length (0.71 mm), width (13.61 µm) and thickness values (3.75 µm) are
between the average values of the hardwoods (0.75-1.5 mm; 10-20 µm; and 3.2-
7.3 µm, respectively) (García Hortal, 2007).
The dimensions of the fibers in the pulp (Table 2) were determined with
the automatic Galai-CIS-100 equipment, which quantifies a large number of fibers, fibers
fragments and fines, which reduce the measurement of length of all fibers.
A decrease in the individual weight of each fiber causes a high number of fibers
per gram of pulp, since these ones suffer some alterations in the process of making
pulp and paper, as shown Table 2. The presence of fines has a drastic effect on the
drainage of the paper sheets, concluding that the increase in drainage resistance (°SR) of
the pulp is directly related to the increase of the fines generated from the treatments,
which were carried out in pulps. The percentage of fines is very important for bonding, as
they increase the possibility of bonds among the fibers; thus, a pulp without fines has a
low ability to form bonds and a lower physical and mechanical resistance however, an
excess of fines causes problems of drainage, drying and pressing in paper machines. An
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increase in the density of the final paper sheets causes a growth in the porosity and in
the specific surface area of the fiber (Santana et al., 2008). An increment in
refining intensity causes some damage to the structure of the fibers, such as a decrease
in average length and width, increasing, consequently, the fines content in the pulp.
Table 3 shows the results obtained in the chemical characterization of olive tree pruning
(OTP) compared to Eucalyptus urograndis.
The data show that the cellulose content was slightly lower in the agricultural
residue than the reference specie of eucalyptus. The Klason lignin contents of OTP were
lower than E. urograndis. However, the siringyl/guaiacyl ratio (S/G) is higher
for E. urograndis (2.9) than for the OTP (2.0).
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The operating variables of the Kraft process were fixed, except the active alkali. Sulfidity:
30%; ratio liquor/wood: 4/1; maximum temperature: 165 °C; operating time to maximum
temperature: 70 min; and operating time at maximum temperature: 60 min. To
achieve an optimum effective alkali concentration, where a Kappa number of
about 17, an adequate yield and a moderate consumption of reagents were obtained in
order to perform a delignification curve using an effective alkali concentration between
18% and 24%. In this study, the kappa number, the total yield of the process and the
yield without rejects, the pH of black liquor, and the residual effective alkali concentration
were evaluated (Table 4).
Table 4. Characterization of several Kraft pulps from OTP using an effective alkali
concentration between 18-24%.
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The pulp obtained after the Kraft process, with a concentration of 20% effective
alkali, showed a Kappa number of 17.5, a viscosity of 31.52 mPa·s, a value of brightness of
33.0% ISO, and a content of hexenuronic acids of 48.8 mmol/kg.
When OTP was compared to other agricultural waste, the physical properties for
paper were found to have similar values to the ones found in literature for this type of
waste. OTP shows a value for the tear index equal to 2.05 mNm2/g, versus to rice
straw with a value of 0.51 mNm2/g, or vine shoots, with a value equal to
1.59 mNm2/g. In the case of the breaking length, OTP has a value of 1640 m compared to
the value presented by vine shoots, equal to 1316 m; however, for the burst and traction
index, OTP has the lowest value, 0.31 kPam2/g and 20.80 Nm/g, respectively from
agricultural residues studied by Rodriguez et al. (2008);
the kappa number for OTP (17.5) is lower than for other compared raw materials, which
may explain the greater degradation of Kraft pulp from OTP which were obtained by
treatment with hard conditions.
In the case of OTP it is necessary to refine the pulp to obtain appropriate values in
the properties of paper, not being necessary a high intensity in the refining to achieve
high levels of drainability. According to Lindstrom (1992), the refining and the properties
of the paper sheets are related to the morphological properties of the fibers, as well
as their chemical composition and structure. So that, the use of agricultural waste is of
great interest for the paper industry; thus, an economic assessment of this type of waste
is provided which, until now, has not been commercially exploited.
The bleaching sequence was carried out on Kraft pulp obtained from the cooking
processes mentioned above, starting from a kappa number equal to 17.5. The aim of the
selected sequence was to obtain cellulose pulp with a brightness degree about 90% ISO,
without using non-chlorinated chemical reagents.
The first stage in the bleaching sequence is an oxygen delignification which is
affected mainly by the kappa number and hexenuronic acids content (Li and Gellerrstedt,
1997). The higher kappa pulps contained, proportionally, more lignin available for
reaction than the lower kappa ones because of their similar or lower HexA contents.
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Therefore, the higher kappa pulps produced higher overall oxygen delignification
efficiency than the lower kappa ones, given that HexAs do not react with oxygen. In this
work, the influence of HexAs on kappa number was calculated assuming that 10 mmol/kg
pulp of HexAs is equivalent to one kappa unit (Colodette et al., 2007).
In this stage, the kappa number is equal to 10.8, the viscosity present a value of
19.9 mPa·s, and the final pH is 10.6; this pulp present a value of brightness equal to 45.4%
ISO.
In the following stage Z, a brightness of 55.9% ISO and 70.7% of reagent
consumptions were obtained; only in this stage, the obtained pulp was not washed; in the
remaining stages, the pulp was washed with distilled water after each stage. In the next
stage Q, 0.2% of TAED was applied and a kappa number of 7.1 was obtained; In the PO,
5% of H2O2 was applied and a reagents consumptions equal to 72.1%, obtaining a
brightness of 71.4% ISO. In the Q second stage, a brightness with a value of 81.9% ISO
was obtained and a viscosity equal to 10.8 mPa·s. The final stage PO was carried out in
two ways, in order to study the hydrogen peroxide concentration; a brightness of 88.9%
was obtained with a concentration of hydrogen peroxide equal to 4% and a brightness of
90.9% was obtained with a concentration of hydrogen peroxide equal to 5%. In both
cases, the brightness reversion was low, with a value of 1.08% ISO and 1.3% ISO,
respectively which is indicative of a good quality in the stability of the obtained pulp. The
consumption of reagents was next to 100% in the final stage PO that indicates that
the chemical reactive load is suitable (Table 5).
consumption (%)
Brightness (% ISO) 45.5 55.9 57.2 71.4 83.19 81.88 88.92 90.9
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Brightness rever-
HexAs content
(mmol/kg) - - - - - - - 3.55
Finally, the obtained pulp with the TCF bleaching sequence was subjected to a refining
study, where a certain number of revolutions in the PFI mill were applied to the Kraft
pulp to achieve a given Schopper-Riegler degree (°SR), evaluating the changes
in the physical-mechanical properties of the paper sheets formed from refined pulp
(Table 6). Beating causes surface delaminations which favor the appearance of new
contact surfaces. Thereby, the ability to form hydrogen bonds is increased and thus, the
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tensile index. The intensity in the refining causes a high compression of the fibers and a
decrease of the pores or the empty interfibrillar spaces, making the flow of water more
difficult and therefore, reducing the drainability of the pulp. The refining assessment is
not always easy, since a large increase in the degree of refining (°SR) is desirable in
some cases, but sometimes it requires a slight improvement. However, a good resistance
is important in both cases. Thus, the assessment should be based on the properties that
are important in each specific case, depending on the quality of the paper that is required
to obtain.
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for OTP (0.96 kPam2/g) than for A. donax (1.37 kPam2/g). However, the tensile index was
greater for OTP (24.43 Nm/g) than for [Link] (14.62 Nm/g); and lastly, the
tear index value was lower for OTP (3.36 mNm2/g) than for [Link] (9.96 mNm2/g);
Although the pulping conditions for both materials were very close, the value for tensile
index for OTP showed that this agricultural waste is a suitable raw material for pulp and
paper production since it presents comparable characteristics to other agricultural
residues previously studied.
For the same species A. donax, the TCF bleaching sequence included an ozone
stage; in this sequence, the tensile index for bleached pulp unrefined dropped in respect
to the TCF bleaching sequence using only hydrogen peroxide, being equal
to 12.38 Nm/g, as the higher value presented by OTP. The burst index (1.11 kPam2/g)
and the tear index (8.84 mNm2/g) values were higher than the ones for OTP and lower
than those obtained for the TCF bleaching sequence without ozone.
The brightness did not reach 80% ISO in both TCF bleaching sequences for
A. donax (Shatalov and Pereira, 2005; 2008a,b), whereas for OTP, the brightness achieved
by the sequence used was equal to 90.9%.
Studies by Tanaka et al. (2004) about EFB bleached Kraft pulp with the OAZP
sequence have a tensile index of 63.9 N.m/g, a burst index equal to 5.05 kPa.m2/g and a
tear index of 11.7 mN.m2/g, values higher than those presented by bleached OTP pulp,
but with a lower brightness value (73.9% ISO) than OTP (90.9% ISO).
For Eucalyptus globulus bleached Kraft pulp with XQPPP (Shatalov and Pereira,
2008b), where X is an enzyme treatment, the physical properties were lower or similar
to those obtained in this study to OTP; the tensile index value was equal to 8.98 Nm/g,
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the burst index value was equal to 0.40 kPam2/g, and the tear index presented a value of
4.26 mNm2/g, with a final brightness (85.7% ISO) lower than the OTP bleached pulp.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Kraft pulp from OTP was obtained with a kappa number of 17.5 and a viscosity of 31.5
mPa·s. This pulp was bleached with a TCF sequence (OZQPOZQPO), where ozone used in
this sequence causes a decrease in the viscosity (6.25 mPa·s), but a value of brightness of
90.9% ISO and a kappa number below one were achieved. So that, OTP, under-utilized
biomass resource, can be used as raw material in the pulp and paper industry due to their
good qualities for pulp production, comparables to those of other agricultural residues.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Ecopapel, S.L. (Écija, Seville, Spain) for their support, to Spain’s
DGICyT and Junta de Andalucía for funding this research within the framework of the
Projects CTQ 2010-19844-C02-01 and TEP-6261.
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35. Wehr, T. R., Barrichelo, L. E. G., 1992. Cozimento Kraft com madeiras de
Eucalyptus grandis de diferentes densidades básicas e dimensões de cavacos, NBR
11941 ± Madeira. In Congresso anual de celulose e papel da ABT, 25, 1-1.
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This study aimed at assessing the biobleachability of soda pulps obtained from
olive tree pruning residue. The enzymatic (LMS) pre-treatment was applied
prior to a simple totally chlorine free (TCF) bleaching sequence, consisting of
an alkaline extraction and a hydrogen peroxide stage. Additionally, the effect
of adding xylanase jointly with or prior to LMS was evaluated. All of these
enzymatic pre-treatments were associated with an enhancement of the
bleaching sequence. The best results were found when both enzymes were
applied in the same stage: lowest hydrogen peroxide consumption (63
percent); kappa number, 11.6; brightness, 46 percent ISO. The mechanical
properties observed were similar to those reported by other authors who have
studied pulps from olive tree pruning residue. Finally, bleached pulps were
subjected to accelerated ageing in order to assess the evolution of brightness
and colorimetric properties. Although biobleached pulps showed lower stability
upon ageing, the best optical properties, even after ageing, were observed in
pulps treated with both xylanase and laccase.
Keywords: Olive tree pruning residue; Alternative raw materials; Xylanases; Laccases; Biobleaching.
INTRODUCTION
The 2009 worldwide production of paper and cardboard was 376.8 millions of tons,
which meant a 6.4 percent increase in production from 2004 (FAO 2011). In Spain, about 6
millions of tons of paper and cardboard were produced in 2010, and that same year
consumption per capita was approximately 160 kg (ASPAPEL 2011). These figures highlight
the need for using and applying increasingly clean technologies in these processes, where
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saving energy and water go hand in hand with more efficient use of raw materials, so that
the goal of sustainable development is finally within reach.
It is on the basis of this principle that the idea of abandoning conventional raw
materials in favor of alternative options is gaining momentum. These alternative raw
materials comprise non-woody plants and residues from agriculture and forestry such as
olive tree pruning, cereal straw, sunflower stalks, or vine shoots. The advantages of using
these raw materials include their availability in certain geographic regions where water is
scarce and/or forest resources are limited, the added value of using agri-food residues, and
the potential to produce “special” papers by virtue of the wide variability in morphology and
chemical composition of all these alternative raw materials. In spite of that, they are not free
from disadvantages such as a very short harvest period or their high ash and extractive
contents, which contribute to a low pulping yield.
The olive tree (Olea europaea) is a typical Mediterranean plant that is extremely well
adapted to the climatic features of the region in which it is indigenous: mild, rainy winters,
and hot, dry summers. According to data published by FAO, in 2009, olive plantations in
Spain covered approximately 2,500,000 hectares, generating 53 percent of the European
Union’s production that same year, and making Spain the biggest producer in the world,
followed by Italy (25%) and Greece (14%). Twice a year, olive trees are pruned for
regeneration, creating a large amount of waste, which is a major problem for the agricultural
industry. The present solution is collecting and shredding the prunings to subsequently
spread the resulting material back onto the fields, which turns out to be an unwise practice
due to its cost and the proliferation of pests. Another common solution to the problem is to
burn these residues; in theory, this is a controlled practice, but often it is a cause of man-
provoked fires. An alternative solution supported by several studies is processing
lignocellulosic agricultural residues to obtain cellulose fibers that are destined to the pulp
and paper industry.
Several research efforts have focused on the production of paper pulp from olive tree
prunings. Kraft, soda, and organosolv pulping processes have been studied to this end
(Jiménez et al. 1999, 2001, 2008; López et al. 2001). Pulping processes such as Alcell (ethanol
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and water), MD Organocell (ethanol and soda), or Organocell (methanol and soda
anthraquinone) have also been widely used (Jiménez et al. 2004). López et al. (2000) have
compared Kraft, soda, and sulphite pulping of olive tree pruning residue and reported that
soda pulping is the least polluting and provides high yields and pulps with high holocellulose
content (79.7%).
In a different line of research, the use of microbial enzymes to treat pulps before
applying the standard bleaching sequences is considered a valuable alternative to be applied
in the pulp and paper industry. These enzymes could help to address the environmental
concerns and the low selectivity inherent to the application of the Elemental Chlorine Free
(ECF) and Totally Chlorine Free (TCF) bleaching sequences, respectively. Many researchers
have pretreated pulps with enzymes, mainly with laccase, and have reported that
enzymatically pretreated pulps require smaller amounts of chemicals in subsequent
bleaching, that the quality of the pulps is maintained, if not improved, and that the pollutant
load of the process effluents is reduced (Eugenio et al. 2010; Moldes et al. 2008; Moldes and
Vidal 2011; Valls et al. 2012; Viikari et al. 1986). The interest of the use of laccases lies in the
fact that these enzymes oxidize a wide variety of phenolic compounds (Thurston 1994) with
only the requirement of molecular oxygen. Moreover, the combination of laccases and low
molecular weight chemical compounds (laccase-mediator system) can extend the oxidative
action of laccases to non-phenolic structures (Bourbonnais and Paice 1992). However, the
industrial use of laccase-mediator systems (LMS) still has some drawbacks, such as the
toxicity of some mediators, the cost of the enzymes and the optimization of the industrial
scalability. Therefore, researchers are still working in this field, trying to optimize the
production of enzymes, to find natural mediator with less environmental problems, and to
optimize the conditions for industrial operations.
Xylanases have also been applied to biobleaching processes, as their removal of the
xylan layer enhances the bleaching effect of chemical reagents (Birijlall et al. 2011; Ko et al.
2011; Valls and Roncero, 2009). Thus, numerous biobleaching studies using xylanases or
laccases have been published (Chauhan et al. 2006; Fillat et al. 2010; Eugenio et al. 2011).
However, few studies have been found that assess both enzymes in sequence or jointly
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(Oksanen et al. 1997; Bajpai et al. 2006; Kapoor et al. 2007; Valls and Roncero 2009). Finally,
to the best of our knowledge, the application of these enzymes to pulps obtained from olive
tree pruning residue has not been studied yet.
Consequently, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using
commercial xylanase and laccase, in sequence or jointly, as a previous treatment to a
standard TCF bleaching sequence acting on soda anthraquinone pulp obtained from olive
tree pruning residue. To this end, delignification degree, viscosity, brightness, CIE L*a*b*,
and CIE L* C* color coordinates and mechanical strength were analyzed. Finally, the
consumption of hydrogen peroxide was also measured, as well as the optical properties
before and after an accelerated ageing process of the resulting paper sheets.
EXPERIMENTAL
Pulp Production
Pulping process
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Olive tree pruning residue pulp was obtained using a cylindrical 15 L batch reactor
heated by electrical wires. The reactor incorporated a rotating axle to ensure proper
agitation and was connected to a control unit equipped with appropriate mechanisms for
measuring and controlling pressure and temperature. Cooking conditions with soda-
anthraquinone in the reactor were as follows: 175ºC, 15% NaOH, 1% AQ for 120 minutes,
and an 8 to 1 liquid/solid ratio. Material cooked under these conditions was subsequently
washed to remove residual cooking liquor and then fiberized in a wet disintegrator at 1200
rpm for 30 minutes, which was followed by beating in a Sprout-Bauer refiner. Finally, the
fiberized material was passed through a screen (mesh size, 0.16 mm) to remove uncooked
particles.
Oxygen delignification
Pulp obtained from the soda-anthraquinone process was treated with oxygen for
further delignification. This treatment was carried out in a 20-liter rotary reactor with a
jacket-type electrical heater controlled by a computer to set and maintain the treatment
temperature. Conditions of oxygen delignification were 110 °C, 60 minutes, 0.6 MPa of
oxygen pressure, 3% NaOH o.d.p. (over dry pulp), 0.5% MgSO4 o.d.p., and 10% consistency.
Pulp before and after oxygen delignification was characterized by determining their
content of ash (T211 om-93), hot water solubles (T207 om-93), 1% NaOH solubles (T2012
om-07), ethanol extractives (T204 cm-07), Klason lignin (T222 om-88), holocellulose (T9 m-
54), and α-cellulose (T203 OS-61).
Enzymatic Pre-treatments
The pulp obtained from olive tree pruning residue was subjected to a laccase
treatment using a commercial enzyme (L). A commercial xylanase was also used in a previous
step or jointly with the laccase treatment (XL or X+L, respectively) with the intent of assessing
whether or not it would enhance the laccase effectiveness.
The laccase treatment was conducted in duplicate in 500 mL pressurized reactors,
adding the commercial laccase and chemicals to 50-g of pulp from olive tree pruning residue
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and blending intensively before adding oxygen at a pressure of 6 kg/cm2. Both reactors were
submerged in a thermostatic bath at 45 °C for 2 hours. The pH was kept at a value of 6.5 by
using phosphate buffer (100 mM). Temperature and pH were selected as per the product
specification sheet. During the laccase treatment, consistency, laccase dose and mediator
concentration were fixed at constant values: 10% (w/v), 17.5 U/g over dried pulp (odp), and
0.05 mmol/g odp acetosyringone (4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-acetophenone), respectively.
Also, 2-3 drops of 0.05% (v/v) Tween 80 were added in all assays, in order to improve the
interaction between enzyme and substrate. When xylanase was added to test its influence
during the laccase treatment, the concentration was 20 AXU/g odp. When a xylanase
treatment was carried out as a previous step to the laccase treatment, conditions were as
follows: 10% (w/v) consistency, 2 hours, 20 AXU/g odp, 45ºC temperature, and pH 6.5 (as per
the product specification sheet).
Controls were included in the experimental design as follows: i) EP: all enzymatic
treatments omitted (designated as conventional bleaching); ii) LcEP: bleaching carried out in
the absence of both laccase and mediator, but in the presence of the rest of ingredients used
in the laccase treatment — pH 6.5, 6 kg/cm2 O2 and 45°C for 2 hours; iii) XcLcEP: bleaching
carried out with two enzymatic treatments without the corresponding enzymes, but with the
rest of ingredients used in both enzymatic treatments — pH 6.5, 6 kg/cm2 O2 (only in Lc
stage) and 45°C for 2 hours. The control (X+L)cEP was not assayed because it is equivalent to
the LcEP control.
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the hydrogen peroxide treatments were selected based on previous reports (Eugenio et al.
2011; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012). Residual hydrogen peroxide in the bleaching effluent
was determined by standard iodometric titration.
Accelerated Ageing
The bleached and the unbleached handsheets were subjected to accelerated ageing
to analyze the evolution of their optical properties. The accelerated ageing was carried out in
a climatic test cabinet CTS (model C-20/250/S) as a moist heat treatment at 80ºC and 65%
relative humidity that lasted 6 days, as specified by the standard UNE 57092-4. After
accelerated ageing, pulps were characterized in terms of brightness and CIE L*a*b* and CIE
L*C* color coordinates also in keeping with the aforementioned standards.
After soda-anthraquinone pulping, the olive tree pulp obtained showed a kappa
number and viscosity of 38.7 and 794 mL/g respectively, and a brightness of 18.4 % ISO. The
chemical composition of this pulp was: 2.3% ash content; 1.4% hot water solubles; 3.0% of
1% NaOH solubles; 4.6% ethanol extractives; 6.3% Klason lignin; 86.9% holocelluloses; and
35.0% α-cellulose. In order to reduce the lignin content of this pulp and improve the
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effectiveness of the subsequent bleaching process, an oxygen delignification step was carried
out before entering the biobleaching sequence. Para-meters of the resulting oxygen-
delignified pulp were kappa number 19.0; viscosity 680 mL/g; and brightness 29.9% ISO. The
chemical composition of this pulp was also determined: 2.0% ash content; 0.5% hot water
solubles; 3.1% of 1% NaOH solubles; 4.4% ethanol extractives; 3.5% Klason lignin; 89.0%
holocelluloses; and 34.9% α-cellulose.
Afterwards, several biobleaching sequences were carried out, all of them consisting of
an enzymatic treatment (with xylanase and/or laccase) followed by a TCF bleaching sequence
(alkaline extraction plus hydrogen peroxide bleaching), as described in the experimental
section.
Pulp Characterization
Changes in kappa number, viscosity, and brightness of the olive tree pulp, after each
stage in the different biobleaching sequences are shown in Figs. 1 to 3, respectively, . The
unbleached pulp (oxygen delignified) was used as control.
The kappa number decreased after each stage of all bleached sequences with one
enzymatic/control stage, the biggest reduction taking place after the hydrogen peroxide
stage (Fig. 1). These results are consistent with those reported elsewhere (Eugenio et al.
2010, 2011; Valls and Roncero 2009). However, with the two enzymatic treatments carried
out in sequence, a slight increase in the kappa number was found after the laccase stage.
This increase in the kappa number could be associated with grafting of the natural mediator
(acetosyringone) to the fibers. It has been suggested that mediators can remain temporarily
stuck to the fibers, consuming reagent during the kappa number determination (Dyer and
Ragauskas 2004; Cadena et al. 2011; Fillat et al. 2012).
If the sequences are compared, it can be observed that, when enzymes are added
(LEP, (X+L)EP and XLEP), the final kappa number is smaller than in controls and in the
conventional bleaching sequence EP. A plausible explanation for this finding could be that
these enzymes render lignin easier to remove in the subsequent chemical bleaching, as has
been reported also elsewhere (Eugenio et al. 2010, 2011; Fillat et al. 2010; Martin-Sampedro
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et al. 2011a; Valls and Roncero 2009). Similar delignification rates were obtained after the
three biobleaching sequences (37.5% LEP, 38.8% (X+L) EP, and 37.3% XLEP), but when
xylanase and laccase were applied in the same step, the delignification rate was highest.
Other researchers have reported that the xylanase treatment enhances the laccase
treatment (Surma-Ślusarska and Leks- Stępień 2001; Valls and Roncero 2009). However, most
studies report that, when both enzymes are applied in sequence, there is more
delignification than when they are used jointly in a single step (Surma-Ślusarska and Leks-
Stępień 2001; Oksanen et al. 1997; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012). Our results contradict
these reports, and perhaps the reason lies in the raw material used, olive tree pruning
residue instead of birch, pine, or oil palm empty fruit bunches used in other studies.
Nevertheless, it must be pointed out that the difference between the XLEP and (X+L)EP
kappa numbers was less than 0.3.
Fig. 1. Kappa number of the unbleached pulp and after each stage of the different biobleaching
sequences
Figure 2 shows the evolution of viscosity after each stage of the bleaching sequences.
As it is shown, no big differences were found at the end of the sequences, and all bleached
pulps presented a viscosity of 650-700 g/mL. According to SCAN-C15, the degree of
polymerization (DP) of cellulose can be deduced from the pulp’s viscosity. Thus, all bleached
pulps had a DP in the range of 930 to 1010. These results indicate that the biobleaching
process causes no significant degradation of the polysaccharide chains, which is consistent
with findings reported elsewhere (Eugenio et al. 2010; Oudia et al. 2008). However, after the
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stage in which xylanase and laccase were applied jointly, an increase in viscosity was
observed. Similar increases after xylanase treatment have been attributed to the elimination
of hemicelluloses of low molar mass due to xylanase action (Gonçalves et al. 2008; Roncero
et al. 2005). In our study, when xylanase was applied in a previous step (XLEP), no increase in
viscosity was observed after the enzymatic treatment. However, viscosity did increase after
the alkaline extraction in this sequence and also in (X+L) EP. These results could indicate that,
when xylanase was applied (in sequence or jointly with laccase), some hemicelluloses chains
of low molecular mass were shortened and converted into alkaline-soluble material that was
removed in the subsequent alkaline extraction.
Fig. 2. Viscosity of the unbleached pulp and after each stage of the different biobleaching sequences
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residue was increased from 30 to 44 percent ISO after the LEP sequence, whereas brightness
of E. globulus pulp treated with a similar LEP sequence (with the same commercial laccase),
has been reported to increase from 34 to 63 percent ISO (Martin-Sampedro et al. 2011a).
Comparable increases in brightness have also been reported after applying fungal or
bacterial laccase in an LEP sequence to raw materials such as E. globulus, flax, or oil palm
empty fruit bunches (Eugenio et al. 2010, 2011; Fillat et al. 2010, Martin-Sampedro et al.
2012). The lower bleachability of the olive tree pruning residue pulp could be due to
differences in the lignin structure or the presence of different chromophore groups in the
original pulp that make the subsequent bleaching difficult. Similar brightness has been
obtained by López et al. (2003), who have reported on the bleaching of Kraft pulp from olive
tree residue using hydrogen peroxide, ozone, or chlorine dioxide as bleaching agents.
In all cases, enzymes brought about higher increases in brightness compared to the
respective control sequences, which is consistent with the results found for the kappa
number. Brightness was highest in sequences in which both xylanase and laccase were
applied, regardless of whether both enzymes were applied jointly or in sequence. There-fore,
it can be concluded that xylanase enhances the laccase treatment, as other authors have
reported (Oksanen et al. 1997; Surma-Ślusarska and Leks-Stępień 2001). These researchers
suggest that, by eliminating some of the xylan on the fiber surface, the xylanase treatment
favors enzyme and/or chemical access, therefore, affording better pulp bleaching.
Fig. 3. Brightness of the unbleached pulp and after each stage of the different biobleaching sequences
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Fig. 4. CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*C* color coordinates of unbleached pulp and bleached pulps at the end of
the bleaching sequences
After the biobleaching sequences in which enzymes were added, all pulps increased
L* and decreased C* (i.e. lightness increased and color decreased), compared to the
unbleached pulp. The same behavior has been observed when applying xylanase and/or LMS
to different raw materials (Eugenio et al. 2011; Fillat et al. 2012; Martin-Sampedro et al.
2012). However, after control and conventional sequences, although a decrease in the a*
coordinate took place, an increase in the b* coordinate was observed, causing an increase in
color (C*). The b* coordinate indicates the position between yellow and blue, and an
increase in this coordinate means a shift to yellow. Therefore, the addition of an enzymatic
pre-treatment in the bleaching sequences contributes to reduction of the yellowness of the
resulting paper, which could be related to a smaller content of hexenuronic acids. A
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reduction in the amount of these acids present after LMS or xylanase treatments has also
been reported elsewhere (Aracri and Vidal 2011; Eugenio et al. 2010; Oksanen et al. 2002;
Valls and Roncero 2009; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012). The lowest b* value was found when
both xylanase and laccase were applied in sequence (XLEP), a result that is consistent with
other studies (Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012 and Valls et al. 2010), where a greater reduction
in the content of hexenuronic acids took place when xylanase was applied before LMS.
Comparing biobleached pulps (LEP, (X+L) EP, and XLEP) with their controls and a
conventional bleached pulp, more lightness and less color were observed. These results
indicate that an enzymatic pre-treatment enhances the subsequent bleaching process,
providing pulps with better optical properties (Eugenio et al. 2011; Martin-Sampedro et al.
2011a; Valls and Roncero 2009), as was evidenced by the brightness results. Contrarily, no
reduction in color (C*coordinate) has been reported when only laccase is used in the
bleaching sequence (Fillat and Roncero 2010 and Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012).
Furthermore, when both xylanase and laccase were used in our study, the optical properties
improved, as compared to the pulp pre-treated only with laccase (LEP). When both enzymes
were applied jointly in the same stage ((X+L) EP), the resulting pulp showed greater lightness
than the pulp obtained when enzymes were applied in sequence (XLEP), although brightness
values were similar in both cases. With respect to color properties, the application of the
enzymes in sequence showed lower C* value, which means that it was closer to the ideal
neutral white (value 0). Therefore, it can be concluded that the application of xylanase and
laccase in sequence brings about better optical properties, as it has been reported in
previous occasions (Oksanen et al. 1997; Surma-Ślusarska and Leks-Stępień 2001; Martin-
Sampedro et al. 2012). Irrespectively, more delignification (lower kappa number) takes place
when both enzymes are combined in a single step, as it has been shown above.
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obtained using Eucalyptus globulus Kraft pulp (Eugenio et al 2010, 2011) but resemble those
reported when using soda pulp from oil palm empty fruit bunches (Martin-Sampedro et al.
2012), which leads us to suggest that both the raw material and the pulping process can
influence the hydrogen peroxide consumption. Furthermore, the conventional bleaching
sequence provided pulps with lower brightness and higher kappa numbers, which could be
related with the lower hydrogen peroxide consumption.
Comparing biobleaching sequences with their respective controls without addition of
enzymes, an increase in hydrogen peroxide consumption was observed, except for the (X+L)
EP sequence. However, as occurred in the conventional bleaching sequence, control
sequences provided pulps with higher kappa numbers and lower brightness. The increase in
hydrogen peroxide consumption when a second enzymatic/control stage was added (XcLcEP
and XLEP sequences), without observing an increase in delignification, is also significant.
Further analysis would be needed to clarify this result, since it could be related to a higher
content of hexenuronic acids, which would increase the consumption of reagent in the
bleaching process, and also in the kappa number determination, leading to overestimation of
this parameter. But also, it could be caused by other factors, such as the residual lignin
structure or the content of hemicelluloses, among others.
Table 1. Hydrogen Peroxide Consumption (%) Measured in the Different Bleaching Effluents
after the LEP Sequence
Hydrogen peroxide
Bleaching sequence
consumption (%)
LcEP 64.8
LEP 65.9
(X+L) EP 63.4
XcLcEP 81.0
XLEP 89.2
EP 56.9
To sum up, the biobleaching sequence that showed lower hydrogen peroxide
consumption and provided pulps with lower kappa numbers was that in which xylanase and
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laccase were applied jointly in the same stage. Brightness was similar to that observed when
both enzymes were applied in sequence, and color properties were only slightly worse.
Handsheet Characterization
The influence of the different bleaching sequences in the mechanical properties of
the paper was evaluated by generating handsheets from all bleached pulps obtained, and
determining their tensile and tear indexes (Fig. 5).
The tensile and tear indexes observed were similar to those reported by other
authors with olive tree residue pulps. Thus, López et al. (2003) studied the hydrogen peroxide
bleaching of Kraft pulps obtained from olive tree residue and reported tensile indexes slightly
bigger (around 12.5 Nm/g), and tear indexes slightly smaller (around 0.55 Nm2/g) than those
observed in this study.
When LMS was applied, an increase in both the tensile and tear indexes was
observed, compared to controls and unbleached pulps. Other authors have also reported an
improvement of the mechanical properties of pulps treated with LMS, likely caused by the
increased flexibility of the enzyme-treated pulps as a result of delignification and
delamination of the cell wall (Herpoël et al. 2002; Moldes et al. 2010; You et al. 2008).
However, when xylanase was applied, mechanical properties, especially the tensile index,
were reduced in comparison to the LEP pulp. The tensile index is related to the linking
capacity between fibers, so this reduction could be due to hemicelluloses (xylans) being lost
during the xylanase treatment. Similar results have been reported elsewhere (Martin-
Sampedro et al. 2011b) using a hemicellulose extraction method prior to pulping. The tensile
index reduction observed when laccase and xylanase were applied in sequence, as compared
to their use jointly, can be a consequence of the partial inactivation of the xylanase observed
by Oksanen et al. (1997) when added in the same step as laccase.
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Fig. 5. Mechanical properties of handsheets from pulps obtained at the end of all the bleaching
sequences assayed: a) tensile index; and b) tear index
Although some variations in the tear index were found across the different bleaching
sequences, these were not as big as those observed in the tensile index. The tear index is
related to the degree of fiber degradation of the pulp, so this result is consistent with the
similar viscosity found for all pulps. Herpoël et al. (2002) have reported no significant
degradation of the cellulose matrix after the xylanase and laccase treatments, which is likely
a specific feature of xylanase and laccase.
Accelerated Ageing
Accelerated ageing of bleached pulps was conducted in order to evaluate the effect of
the enzymatic treatment on the stability of optical properties. Table 2 and Fig. 6, respectively
show the values of brightness and color coordinates before and after accelerated ageing.
As it can be observed in Table 2, after accelerated ageing, all bleached pulps exhibited
brightness reductions. These were greater in enzyme-treated pulps, compared to controls
and conventionally bleached pulps. Similar results have been observed else-where (Martin-
Sampedro et al. 2012), after accelerated ageing of pulp from oil palm empty fruit bunches.
However, when eucalypt bleached pulp was used, the optical properties of LMS bio-treated
pulps were more stable (i.e. less brightness reduction) during accelerated ageing, compared
to controls (Cadena et al. 2010; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2011a). These authors attributed the
smaller brightness reduction to a greater removal of hexenuronic acid in the enzymatic
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treatment. However, these researchers used eucalyptus Kraft pulp with a higher hexenuronic
acid content than olive soda pulp. This finding could be one of the reasons why the
enzymatic treatment did not increase the optical stability of these soda pulps during
accelerated ageing. Nevertheless, the hexenuronic acid content is not the only factor that
can determine the different responses to accelerated ageing, but also lignin or hemicellulosic
content (Vuorinen et al. 1999; Sevastyanova et al. 2005), which would explain the dissimilar
behavior of different raw materials. Although less stable, enzyme-treated olive tree residue
pulps showed higher final brightness than controls, even after accelerated ageing, with the
highest brightness values being observed in bleached pulps treated with xylanase and
laccase, either jointly or in sequence.
Figure 6a shows how the a* coordinate shifted to the right (from green to red) and
the b* coordinate increased (from blue to yellow) in all bleached pulps after accelerated
ageing. Similar results have been reported with different raw materials (Cadena et al. 2011;
Eugenio et al. 2011; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012). Figure 6b shows an increase in color (C*)
and a reduction in lightness (L*) in all pulps, after accelerated ageing, which is consistent with
previous reports (Eugenio et al. 2011; Martin-Sampedro et al. 2012). Also after ageing, when
both xylanase and laccase were applied, the color properties were better than with LEP,
achieving the lowest C* value with the sequential application of these enzymes.
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Fig. 6. This shows the influence of the accelerated ageing treatment in CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*C* color
coordinates of the bleached pulps. Black and grey symbols represent pulps before and after
accelerated ageing, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for funding
this study via Project CTQ 2009-11268, and FPI fellowship (BES2007 – 14528), and the Junta
de Andalucía via Project TEP-6261.
REFERENCES CITED
Aracri, E., and Vidal, T. (2011). “Xylanase- and laccase-aided hexenuronic acids and lignin
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Article submitted: Article submitted: November 4, 2011; Peer review completed: January 8,
2012; Revised version received and accepted: February 5, 2012; Published: February 8, 2012.
291
PUBLICACIÓN VI
ABSTRACT
Olive tree trimmings (OTT) were subjected to sequential stages of autohydrolysis (with
hot compressed water) and ethanol-water mixtures (organosolv pulping), to obtain three
separate streams containing hemicellulose-derived products (autohydrolysis liquors), lignin
fragments (pulping liquors), and autohydrolyzed, delignified solids (denoted ADOTT) mainly
made up of cellulose. Up to 42% of the polysaccharides contained in the raw material
(accounting for about 25% of the OTT dry mass) were recovered in autohydrolysis liquors as
valuable compounds, whereas ADOTT showed high susceptibility toward enzymatic hydrolysis
and allowed the formulation of media in which saccharification and ethanol fermentation were
carried out simultaneously at a high product yield. Ethanol conversions higher than 90% of the
theoretical value (calculated from the ADOTT content of cellulose) were achieved, whereas the
ethanol concentration of fermented media reached values up to 39 g/L.
INTRODUCTION
The world energy demand is increasing steadily: for example, the expected market
1
of oil-derived fuels is expected to increase by 50% in the next 15 years, owing to the
increases in both population and per capita consumption.2 In this context, using new
raw materials for manufacturing chemicals and fuels is a strategic goal. For this purpose,
lignocellulosic materials (LCM), a clean, renewable, cheap, and largely available source for
the production of both chemicals and second generation biofuels, are receiving more and
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more interest.3 Second generation biofuels are the only renewable alternative suitable
for replacing fossil fuels in a significant extent.4,5
LCM are mainly made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, with minor
amounts of other compounds (for example, extractives, ashes, and proteins). Processes
based on the separation of LCM fractions and the separate utilization of these for defined
purposes (following the biorefinery principles) provide an efficient utilization
framework.6,7
Some fractionation treatments are also suitable as pretreatments for the
manufacture of second generation bioethanol by methods based on polysaccharide
hydrolysis and the fermentation of the resulting sugars. In most cases, the hydrolysis step
is catalyzed by enzymes, whereas fermentation can be carried out either after or during
the enzymatic hydrolysis stage. The second approach is known as “simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation” (SSF).
In the context of this work, LCM pretreatment must cause chemical and/or
structural substrate modification resulting in an increased reactivity toward enzymatic
hydrolysis. Owing to its influence on process schemes and costs, it is a key step in bio-
refineries.8-10 An ideal pretreatment should meet a number of requirements,
including: (a) technological simplicity and economical operation, suitable for scaling up,
with limited requirements of energy, water, and chemicals, and resulting in limited
generation of wastes; (b) ability for achieving favorable fractionation and structural
effects while causing limited losses of polysaccharides; (c) production of a number of
added-value fractions (for example, from lignin and hemicelluloses); (d) generation of
limited amounts of degradation products (such as furans, organic acids, or phenolic
compounds); and (e) obtainment of solids rich in cellulose with high susceptibility toward
hydrolytic enzymes.9-14
The autohydrolysis reaction (in which an aqueous suspension of LCM is heated to
cause the hydrolytic breakdown of hemicelluloses and catalyzed by protons from the
dissociation of water and from organics generated from the substrate) may be considered
either as a fractionation treatment or as a pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis,
because hemicelluloses are solubilized selectively by hydrolysis, yielding spent solids
mainly composed of cellulose and acid-insoluble lignin.
When the LCM used as autohydrolysis feedstock contain xylan as the major
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Table 1. Composition of olive tree trimmings (data in weight percentages on dry basis. Results are
expressed as average values ± standard deviations, n = 4).
Content
Glucan
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Analysis of the Raw Material. OTT samples to be used for analytical purposes
were milled to pass a 0.5 mm screen, and then, they were assayed for extractives (TAPPI
T-264-cm-97 method), moisture (T-264-cm-97 method), and ashes (T 211 om-93 method).
Extractive-free OTT samples were subjected to quantitative acid hydrolysis (T-249-cm-85
method), and the liquid phase was analyzed by HPLC (Refractive Index detector, Aminex
HPX-87H column eluted with 0.01 M H2SO4, 0.6 mL/min flow rate) for glucose, xylose,
arabinose, and acetic acid. The solid residue from the T-249-cm-85 assay was considered
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as Klason lignin. Extractives were analyzed by HPLC (before and after acidic posthydrolysis
at 121 °C for 30 min in the presence of 4% w/w H2SO4) to assess the presence of
glucose and glucose-containing oligomers. The OTT compositional results are shown in
Table 1.
S o = log R o = log R o HEATING + R o COOLING = log ∫ exp ·dt + ∫ exp ·dt (1)
0 ω t MAX ω
where Ro is the severity factor (considering the heating and cooling stages),
tMAX (min) is the time needed to achieve the target temperature TA (°C), tF (min) is
the time needed for the whole heating-cooling period, and T (t) and T0 (t) represent
the temperature profiles of heating and cooling, respectively. Calculations were made
assuming the values reported for ω and TREF (14.75 and 100 °C, respectively). The values
considered for TA (196, 203, or 210 °C, corresponding to So values of 3.67, 3.88,
and 4.09, respectively) were chosen from the literature37 as the operational
conditions defining the optimum experimental domain, in which the recovery of
maximal amounts of hemicellulose-derived saccharides is expected. AOTT samples were
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subjected to chemical analysis using the same methods indicated for the raw material in
section 2.2. Samples of liquid phases were filtered through 0.45 μm membranes and used
for direct HPLC determination of glucose, xylose, arabinose, acetic acid,
hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural (F), formic acid, and levulinic acid, using the same
method cited in section 2.2. Samples of liquid phases were also subjected to
posthydrolysis (4% w/w sulfuric acid, 121 °C, 30 min), filtered through 0.45 μm
membranes, and analyzed by HPLC to assess the increases in the concentrations of mono-
saccharides and acetic acid caused by posthydrolysis, which measured the content of
oligomers and their degree of substitution by acetyl groups.9 The liquor content of
nonvolatile compounds (NVC, g nonvolatile compounds in liquid phase/100 g raw
material, on dry basis) was measured by oven-drying at 105 °C until constant weight.
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substrates for SSF experiments. Except for the type of substrate, SSF assays were
performed under fixed conditions to assess the comparative suitability of the various
ADOTT for ethanol manufacture. SSF assays were performed under the following
conditions: LSR = 8 g liquid/g ADOTT (oven-dry basis); enzyme to solid ratio = 10 FPU/g
(oven-dry basis); and β-glucosidase to cellulase activity ratio = 5 IU/FPU. The commercial
enzyme concentrates employed in this work (‘‘Celluclast 1.5 L’’ cellulases from
Trichoderma reesei and ‘‘Novozym’’ β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger) were kindly provided
by Novozymes (Madrid, Spain). The cellulase activity of ‘‘Celluclast 1.5 L’’ concentrates
was measured by the Filter Paper assay, and the activity was expressed in Filter Paper
Units (FPU).38 The β-glucosidase activity of ‘‘Novozym’’ concentrates was measured
in International Units (IU).39 The activities of ‘‘Celluclast 1.5 L’’ and ‘‘Novozym’’ were
70.1 FPU/Ml and 630 UI/mL, respectively. The SSF assays were carried out in 250 mL
Erlenmeyer flasks placed in orbital shakers at 120 rpm (pH = 5). Suspensions containing
water and ADOTT were autoclaved (121 °C, 15 min) separately from the nutrients and
thermostatted at 35 °C. The SSF experiments started with yeast inoculation and enzyme
addition. Preparing 100 mL of media required 10 mL of inocula (leading to an initial yeast
cell concentration about 1.0 g/L) and 10 mL of nutrient solution (containing 5 g
peptone/L, 3 g yeast extract/L, and 3 g malt extract/L). At given times, samples were
withdrawn from the media and centrifuged (5000 rpm, 5 min). Supernatants were
assayed for sugars, acetic acid, and ethanol by HPLC, using the method indicated in
section 2.2.
Fitting of Data. The experimental data were fitted to the proposed models using
commercial software (Microsoft Excel spreadsheet).
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Water
Buffer / Enzymes
Water Water/Ethanol Microorganism
SIMULTANEOUS
ORGANOSOLV
OTT AOTT ADOTT SACCHARIFICATION
AUTOHYDROLYSIS DELIGNIFICATION
Olive Tree & FERMENTATION
So: 3.67 – 4.09 Autohydrolyzed TD: 170 – 200 ºC Autohydrolyzed
Trimmings LSR = 8 g/g
Olive Tree CET: 30 - 60% ethanol Delignified ESR = 10 FPU/g
Trimmings Olive Tree
Trimmings
Figure 1. Conceptual flowchart of the biorefinery scheme considered in this work. (S0,
autohydrolysis severity (see eq 1); TD, delignification temperature; CET, ethanol concentration in
pulping liquor; LSR, liquid to solid ratio; and ESR, enzyme to substrate ratio.)
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Table 2. Operational conditions employed in the non isothermal autohydrolysis of OTT, and
experimental concerning fractionation and composition of solid and liquid phases (oligomers are
expressed as monomer equivalents)
VC (kg non volatile compounds/100 kg oven-dry OTT) 34.8 33.2 30.1
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Table 2 shows experimental results concerning the fractionation effects and the
compositions of solid and liquid phases from autohydrolysis performed under selected,
non isothermal conditions (corresponding to So of 3.67, 3.88 and 4.09). According to
reported results,33 this operational domain is expected to include the conditions leading
to optimal recovery of soluble saccharides derived from hemicelluloses.
The autohydrolysis solid yield (YA) varied in the range 52.1 - 56.9 g AOTT/100 g raw
material, on oven-dry basis. These values are close to weight percent of the raw material
corresponding to the joint contributions of cellulose and lignin (53.7 wt %), suggesting
that both fractions were not significantly affected by treatments. This idea was confirmed
by the compositional AOTT data: about 90 wt % of samples corresponded to cellulose and
lignin, and the combined amounts of these fractions matched the ones contained in raw
material. The rest of AOTT corresponded to the contribution of residual hemicelluloses
(3.4–6.6 g /100 g OTT) and to other compounds, which are of minor importance for the
purposes of this study.
Regarding the liquid phase composition, three different types of compounds were
quantified: hemicellulosic oligomers, monosaccharides and sugar-decomposition
products (furans). Oligomers were the most abundant solutes, reaching a maximum
concentration of 27.8 g/L (which corresponded to more than 20 g oligomers/100 g oven-
dry OTT) in the experiment performed at the lowest So (3.67). Oligomers were made up of
glucooligomers (mainly coming from the extractive fraction, which contained soluble
glucan) and hemicellulose-derived oligomers (which presented a fairly constant xylose:
acetyl groups molar ratio of 2:1, together with limited amounts of arabinosyl
substituents). The concentrations of monosaccharides (mainly xylose and glucose) varied
from 4.74 g/L (in the experiment performed at So = 3.67) up to 6.96 g/L (in the assay
carried out at So = 4.09). The concentrations of acetic acid (generated by cleavage of
acetyl groups in hemicelluloses) increased with severity from 0.62 up to 2.33 g/L. Sugar
dehydration products (furfural generated from xylose and arabinose, and
hydroxymethylfurfural produced from hexoses) showed similar variation patterns,
reaching concentrations in the ranges 0.11 - 1.51 and 0.08 - 0.46 g/L, respectively. Other
organic acids detected in the medium include formic acid (which reached concentrations
in the range 0.50 - 0.91 g/L) and levulinic acid (with concentrations below 0.1 g/L).
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X j − X me
xi = 2 · (2)
X max − X min
where the subscript i refers to the independent variable considered (x1 for So, x2 for TD
and x3 for CET), j to the experiment considered, me to the mean value of the variation
range, min to the minimum value considered and max to the maximum value of the
considered variable.
The experimental data determined for YT (or y1) varied in the range 38.7 - 49.7 kg
ADOTT/100 kg raw material, on dry basis. According to the values calculated for the
regression coefficients it can be inferred that the major variations of YT were caused by So
and CET. Figure 2 shows the response surface calculated from the empirical model, which
predicted higher YT for experiments performed at lower CET, with a minimum value at So =
3.9
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Table 3. Operational conditions considered (expressed in terms of dimensional and dimensionless independent variables) and experimental results obtained
for dependent (So: severity, TD: delignification temperature, CET: ethanol concentration in pulping liquor).
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Table 4. Values calculated for the regression coefficients, and statistical parameters measuring the correlation and significance of the models.
Parameter YT (y1) Cellulose (y2) Xylan (y3) Arabinan (y4) Acetyl groups (y5) Klason lignin (y6) EMAX (y7)
Significance level > 96% > 93% > 99% > 98% > 93% > 94% > 99%
*** Coefficients significant at the 99% confidence level; ** Coefficients significant at the 90% confidence level; * Coefficients significant at the 80% confidence level
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50
48
OT T
46
Y T, g ADOT T/100 g
TD = 170 ºC
44 TD = 185 ºC
TD = 200 ºC
42
40 30
35
40
38
3.75
45 ,%
3.80 T
50 CE
3.85
3.90 55
3.95
4.00
So 4.05 60
Figure 2. Calculated dependence of YT (total solid yield, g ADOTT/100 g OTT, oven-dry basis) on S0
(severity, dimensionless, see eq 1) and CET (ethanol concentration in pulping liquor/100 g liquor)
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13.4 %), whereas arabinan was almost totally removed , with recoveries in the range 0.0 –
2.9 g arabinan in ADOTT/100 g arabinan in OTT (average value, 0.7 %). Acetyl groups were
also split off from saccharides (with recoveries in the range 3.7–18.8 g acetyl groups in
ADOTT/100 g acetyl groups in OTT; and an average recovery of 10.2 %). As a general
trend, the recoveries of hemicellulose-derived compounds decreased when So increased,
whereas the rest of independent variables were slightly influential. This behaviour is
consistent with the well known ability of autohydrolysis treatments for solubilizing
hemicelluloses, as the AOTT content of this polymer was low. Under these conditions, the
delignification effects (measured by TD and CET) were limited.
The recovery of Klason lignin in ADOTT varied in the range 35.7 – 64.7 %, and
decreased when TD and/or CET increased; whereas the effects associated to variable So
were of limited importance.
100
98
very, %
96
94
co
CET = 30 %
Cellulose re
92 CET = 45 %
90 CET = 60 %
88
86
200
84 195
3.75 190
3.80 185 C
3.85 ,º
3.90 180 TD
3.95 175
S 4.00
o 4.05 170
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40
Ethanol concentration (g/L)
30 Exp 1
Exp 2
20 Exp 3
Exp 4
10 Exp 5
0
40 0 30 60 90 120
Ethanol concentration (g/L)
30 Exp 6
Exp 7
20 Exp 8
Exp 9
10 Exp 10
0
40 0 30 60 90 120
Ethanol concentration (g/L)
30 Exp 11
Exp 12
20 Exp 13
Exp 14
10 Exp 15-17
0
0 30 60 90 120
t (h)
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Even if the main objective of this work was to provide an overview on the
suitability of autohydrolysis-pulping processes for bioethanol production (and not to
reach maximum ethanol concentrations), it can be highlighted that EMAX reached 38.7 g
ethanol/L in experiment 11 (carried out at So = 3.88, TD = 200 °C and CET = 45 % w/w),
which compares favourably with literature reported for ethanol production from this
feedstock, and is close to the threshold reported for economic feasibility.40 Figure 5
shows the response surface calculated for EMAX as a function of TD and So. EMAX increased
with the variables defining the intensity of treatments, whereas the effects caused by CET
were of limited importance.
The dependence of EMAX on TD and So can be justified on the basis of the following
ideas: a) the higher structural alteration caused by harsher treatments, which is expected
to increase the kinetics and yields of the enzymatic hydrolysis; b) the increased cellulose
content of samples treated and high TD and/or S0, and c) the fact that enhanced
delignification observed under harsh conditions results in the limitation of the barrier
effects caused by lignin in the enzymatic hydrolysis of treated solids. An additional benefit
of enhanced delignification lies in that higher cellulose contents of SSF substrates
increase the potential ethanol concentration for fixed operational conditions.
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38
36
34
ol/L
32
E MAX, g ethan
30
28
26
24
22
20
195
190 4.05
4.00
185 3.95
T 180 3.90
D, 3.85
ºC 175 3.80
3.75 So
170 3.70
E MAX
EC = 100· (4)
Cel ADOTT 92 ρ
· ·
100 162 LSR + 1 − KL ADOTT / 100
where EMAX is the maximum ethanol concentration achieved in the experiment ((or
variable y7 in Table 3), CelADOTT is the cellulose content of ADOTT (expressed as g
cellulose/100 g oven-dry ADOTT), 92/162 is the stoichiometric factor for ethanol
production from cellulose (g ethanol/g cellulose), ρ is the density of liquors (average
value, 1005 g/L), LSR is the liquid-to-solid ratio (fixed in 8 g/g) and KLADOTT is the Klason
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where CelRM and KLRM give the raw material content of cellulose and Klason lignin.
This operational procedure allowed the calculation of the surface response plotted
in Figure 6, which shows the calculated dependence of EC on TD and So. The variation
pattern presented features similar to the ones already described for EMAX, whereas the
results confirmed that EC > 90% could be obtained operating at TD ≥ 182 ºC and CET = 30
%. These results compare well with literature, and confirmed the efficiency of the scheme
autohydrolysis-organosolv pulping for the development of second-generation ethanol
biorefineries.
Most experiments led to EC > 80%, whereas remarkably high values where
obtained under the following conditions: experiment 14 (carried out at So = 3.88, TD = 185
ºC and CET = 30 % w/w), EC = 92.4; experiment 2 (carried out at So = 4.09, TD = 200 ºC and
CET = 30 % w/w), EC = 91.2 %; and experiment 11 (carried out at So = 3.88, TD = 200 ºC and
CET = 45 % w/w), EC = 90.6 %.
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Requejo et al, Energy Fuels 2011, 25, 4803–
4803–4810
l ethanol
90
0 g potentia
80
o l/10
70
E C, g et h an
60
195
190 4.05
T 4.00
D, ºC 185 3.90
3.95
180 3.85
175 3.80
3.75 So
170 3.70
CONCLUSIONS
The autohydrolysis-ethanol pulping approach resulted in the selective
fractionation of hemicelluloses, lignin and cellulose in three separate streams. Up to 42%
of the polysaccharides contained in the raw material (accounting for about 25% of the
OTT dry mass) were recovered in autohydrolysis liquors as valuable compounds. The
pulping stage, carried out with ethanol-water mixtures, resulted in partial delignification;
and the solid phases subjected to sequential steps of autohydrolysis and pulping (ADOTT)
showed high susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis. SSF media from ADOTT enabled
the production of ethanol at high yield. Remarkable ethanol conversions (higher than 90%
of the theoretical maximum) were achieved at concentrations in the vicinity of 40 g/L.
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These data confirm the potential of the approach considered in this work for the
development of biorefineries having second-generation ethanol as one of the target
products.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to ‘Xunta de Galicia’ for financial support of this work, in
the framework of the Research Project reference 08REM002383PR.
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319
PUBLICACIÓN VII
1
Requejo, A., 2Peleteiro, S., 2Garrote, G., 1Rodríguez, A., 1*Jiménez, L.
1
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Córdoba, Spain.
2
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Vigo, Spain.
*Corresponding author: Luis Jiménez Alcaide, Chemical Engineering Department. Campus of Rabanales,
University of Córdoba. Córdoba. Spain. Phone: +34 957 218658 Fax+34 957 218625 e-mail: iq1jiall@[Link]
ABSTRACT
Biorefinery developed involve separation of olive pruning into two parts: main
(OPM) (stems >1cm diameter), and residual (OPR) (stems < 1cm diameter, and leaves).
OPM was submitted to hydrothermal treatment, separating: a liquid fraction (HL), rich in
products of hemicelluloses decomposition, and other solid (HS), rich in cellulose and
lignin. HS is subject to pulping, resulting: a liquid fraction (HPL), rich in lignin, and other
solid (HPS), rich in cellulose. Up to 42% of the polysaccharides from OPM were recovered
in HL as valuable compounds. HPS can be used for the bioethanol production by
saccharification and fermentation, reaching a bioethanol conversion of 90.6% of the
theoretical value. In addition, HPS obtained paper with lower strength properties than
those of paper obtained from OPM pulp directly. OPR provided 18.70 MkJ/t heating
values, 1094-2234 ºC flame temperature, and 45-53 ºC dew point temperature, with a
cost of unit the heat (3.20 €/MKJ) much lower than fossil fuels fluids.
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KEYWORDS
Olive pruning; hydrothermal treatment; organosolv pulping; paper; bioethanol;
combustion
INTRODUCION
There is currently much interest in the use of all the constituents of all parts of
lignocellulosic materials. This is due to the need of obtaining more chemicals and energy;
as an example is enough to consider that the market for petroleum fuels will increase by
50 % in the next 15 years (Vancov and McIntosh, 2011; David and Ragauskas, 2010). In
this context, the use of new vegetables raw, which are a renewable, clean, inexpensive
and high availability, for the manufacture of chemicals and fuels is a strategic objective
today. These raw materials will be an alternative and will replace petroleum (Hoekman et
al., 2011; Lynd et al., 2009; Wang and Cheng, 2011).
Vegetable raw are usually composed of various fractions (logs, stems, bark,
leaves...) containing different proportions of the main components: cellulose,
hemicellulose, lignin and extractives. Moreover, these raw materials give rise to residues
of the activities that are used: agricultural, agro-industrial and forestry, mainly. In
summary, it can be seen that vegetables provide different fractions, in which the main
components are presented in different amounts. Therefore, for the full utilization of a
lignocellulosic material (original vegetal or residue) has to proceed to a separation of
different fractions or parts, and apply to each of these parts processes that make better
use its various components. Thus, a hydrothermal process (treatment with water at high
temperature) applied to rich holocellulose fractions, causes decomposition of the
hemicelluloses, leading to a liquid fraction (HL) in which there are several products
(oligosaccharides, monosaccharides, organic acids and dehydration products of sugars)
that can be used in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. (Parajó et al., 2004;
Moure et al., 2006). The solid fraction (HS) resulting from hydrothermal treatment (rich in
cellulose and lignin) can be treated with an organic solvent; in this way gets a pulp (HPS),
rich in cellulose, and a liquid (HPL), rich in lignin solubilized. The HPS can be used for
paper production (Jiménez et al., 2006; Caparrós et al., 2008; Rodríguez et al., 2009;
Sánchez et al., 2011) or undergo hydrolysis processes (acid or enzymatic) of cellulose to
make sugars, which can be fermented to bioethanol (Garrote et al., 2001; Qing and
Wyman, 2011). Finally, from the HPL can be separated lignin, which can be obtained
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several high-value products (Rodríguez et al., 2010). The hydrothermal treatment is not
only interesting for the separation of decomposition products of hemicelluloses but also
because chemical and/or structurally modifications in raw materials, increasing its
reactivity in other post process, such as enzymatic hydrolysis o cellulose to obtain
fermentable sugars for bioethanol, or pulp production by organosolv processes, with the
separation of sulfur-free lignin in pulping liquors residual (Garrote et al., 2001; Parajó et
al., 2004; Caparrós et a., 2008; Rodríguez et al., 2009 and 2010).
On the other hand, others fractions less noble can be used, for example, as fuel
directly to produce energy by combustion (Arvelakis and Koukios, 2002; Ozturk and
Bascetinlik, 2006; Overend and Wright, 2008).
Due to the large increase in demand for products derived from wood vegetables
(paper, biofuels, cellulose derivatives, etc.), shortage of these raw materials is a patent
fact, so has to resort to new alternative raw materials, such as the olive pruning (OP),
which every one or two years are obtained from the olive harvest.
These OP are very abundant in countries like Spain, where domestic production is
more than 7 million tons per year. Currently, this agricultural residue has no application,
but must be removed by combustion in the field of culture itself, resulting in costs arising
from handling and controlled burning, and produce air pollution and the risk of causing
fires destroy olives. The OP can be divided into two fractions: a main (OPM) formed by
the trunks of more than 1 cm in diameter (rich in cellulose and lignin), and a residual or
secondary (OPR) made up of young stems (with diameter less than 1 cm) and leaves.
In this work, the OPM was subjected to hydrothermal process to obtain a liquid
fraction (HL), rich in products of the decomposition of hemicelluloses, and a solid fraction
(HS), rich in cellulose and lignin. The HS fraction was subjected to ethanol pulping to
obtain a liquid fraction (HPL), which contains soluble lignin, and a solid fraction (HPS), rich
in cellulose, which can be used for the production paper or turned into bioethanol
through a simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation process. OPR was studied for the
combustion process, determining parameters such as heat values, flame temperature and
dew point of the resulting combustion gases.
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METHODS
Raw material and analysis methods
Olea europaea pruning (OP) was collected in Córdoba (South of Spain). OP air-
dried was separated into two fractions: (a) main fraction (OPM), consists of stems above
1 cm diameter, (b) residual fraction (OPR), consisting of leaves and stems with diameter
less than 1 cm. OPM and OPR samples to be used for analytical purposes were milled to
pass a 0.5 mm screen, and then, they were assayed for ethanol-benzene extractives,
moisture and ashes (T-264-cm-97, T 211 om-93, and T-264-cm-97 methods, respectively
(TAPPI Standards, 2002)). Extractive-free OPM and OPR samples were subjected to
quantitative acid hydrolysis (T-249-cm-85 method (TAPPI Standards, 2002)), and the
liquid fraction was analyzed by HPLC (Refractive Index Detector, Aminex HPX-87H column
eluted with 0.01 M H2SO4, 0.6 mL/min flow rate) for glucan, xylan and arabinan and
acety groups. The solid residue from the T-249-cm-85 assay was considered as Klason
lignin. Extractives were analyzed by HPLC (before and after acidic posthydrolysis at 121 °C
for 30 min in the presence of 4% w/w H2SO4) to assess the presence of glucose and
glucose-containing oligomers (Refractive Index Detector, Aminex HPX-87H column eluted
with 0.01 M H2SO4, 0.6 mL/min flow rate). Elemental analysis was made using the Dumas
method with a Eurovector “EA 3000” in the Spectroscopy Unit at the NIR/MIR Central
Service for Research Support of the University of Córdoba (Spain).
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posthydrolysis, filtered through 0.45 μm membranes, and analyzed by HPLC to assess the
increases in the concentrations of monosaccharides and acetic acid caused by
posthydrolysis, which measured the content of oligomers and their degree of substitution
by acetyl groups (Mosier et al., 2005).
Pulping process of HS
HS samples were pulped with ethanol-water in the Parr reactor cited in the
previous section, using a liquid to solid ratio = 8 kg liquid/kg HS (on dry basis, considering
the HS moisture as water) for 60 min. Time zero was taken when the system reached the
preset temperature. At the end of treatments, the media were cooled, and the solid
hydrothermal-pulped (HPS) were recovered by filtration and washed (first with ethanol-
water and then with distilled water). HPS samples were subjected to chemical analysis
using the same methods indicated for the raw material.
The SSF assays were carried out in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks placed in orbital
shakers at 120 rpm (pH = 5). Suspensions containing water and HPS were autoclaved (121
°C, 15 min) separately from the nutrients and thermostatted at 35 °C. The SSF
experiments started with yeast inoculation and enzyme addition. SSF assays were
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performed under the following conditions: Liquid/Solid ratio = 8 g liquid/g HPS (oven-dry
basis); enzyme to solid ratio = 10 FPU/g (oven-dry basis); and β-glucosidase to cellulase
activity ratio = 5 IU/FPU. Preparing 100 mL of media required 10 mL of inocula (leading to
an initial yeast cell concentration about 1.0 g/L) and 10 mL of nutrient solution
(containing 5 g peptone/L, 3 g yeast extract/L, and 3 g malt extract/L). At given times,
samples were withdrawn from the media and centrifuged (5000 rpm, 5 min).
Supernatants were assayed for bioethanol by HPLC (Refractive Index Detector, Aminex
HPX-87H column eluted with 0.01 M H2SO4, 0.6 mL/min flow rate).
Heating values
The calorific values were determined according to EN/TS 14918:2005 (E) solid
biofuels method, and UNE 164001 EX standards (UNE Standards, 1990) by using a Parr
6200 Isoperibol Calorimeter.
Experimental design
To quantitate the effects of variables in the hydrothermal-pulping and SSF
processes, a 2n factorial design was used, consisting of a central experiment (in the centre
of a cube) and several additional points (additional experiments lying at the cube vertices
and side centers) (Montgomery, 1991).
Experimental data were fitted to the following second-order polynomial, for three
independent variables:
ଶ
Yୣ = a + aଵ Xୌ + aଶ X + aଷ Xେ + aଵଶ Xୌ X + aଵଷ Xୌ Xେ + aଶଷ X Xେ + aଵଵ Xୌ +
ଶ ଶ
aଶଶ X + aଷଷ Xେ (1)
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where Ye denotes the response variables [viz. total solid yield –YT-, cellulose content in
HPS –CE-, lignin content in HPS –LI-, and maximum bioethanol concentration in SSF
process –BCmax-]; XHT, XPT and XEC are the normalized values of the operational variables
(temperature in hydrothermal process –HT-, temperature in pulping process –PT- and
ethanol concentration in pulping process –EC-, respectively); and a0 to a33 are constants.
ഥሻ
ଶሺଡ଼ିଡ଼
X୬ = (2)
ଡ଼ౣ౮ ିଡ଼ౣ
where Xn is the normalized value of HT, PT and EC; X is the actual experimental value of
the variable concerned; X is the mean of Xmax and Xmin; and Xmax and Xmin are the
maximum and minimum value, respectively, of such a variable.
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The OPM and OPR compositional results are shown in Table 1. The composition of
the OPM (more rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin that the OPR) warrants to be
used for obtaining products of the decomposition of hemicelluloses (by hydrothermal
process) and pulp for paper (by pulping process), or bioethanol (by hydrolysis and
fermentation processes applied to the pulp).
Hydrothermal process
OPM subjected to hydrothermal process under three different non-isothermal
conditions: heating a mixture OPM-water temperatures reaching 196 °C, 203 °C and 210
°C. The heating rate was 5 °C/min. The choice of the above conditions was based on
previous data that confirm an adequate recovery of sugars derived from hemicelluloses
(Requejo et al., 2011a; 2011b).
Table 2 shows the experimental results concerning to the compositions of HL and
HS fractions based on the temperatures considered in the hydrothermal process. The
data shown are the average values of three determinations made for each experiment,
being the deviations values for each experiment less than 5% of the average.
The solid yield of hydrothermal process varied in the range 52.1-56.9 g HS/100 g
raw material (OPM), on an oven-dry basis. These values are close to the weight percent of
the raw material corresponding to the joint contributions of cellulose and lignin (53.7 wt
%, table 1), suggesting that both fractions were not significantly affected by the
treatments. This idea was confirmed by the HS fraction compositional data: about 90 wt
% of samples corresponded to cellulose and lignin, and the combined amounts of these
fractions matched the ones contained in raw material. The rest of HS fraction
corresponded to the contribution of residual hemicelluloses (3.44-6.61 g/100 g OPM) and
to other compounds, which are of minor importance for the purposes of this study.
Regarding the liquid fraction (HL) composition, four different types of compounds
were quantified: hemicellulosic oligomers, monosaccharides, organic acids and sugar-
decomposition products. Oligomers were the most abundant solutes, reaching a
maximum concentration of 27.76 g/L (which corresponded to more than 22 g
oligomers/100 g oven-dry OPM) in the experiment performed at the lowest temperature
(196 °C). Oligomers were made up of glucooligomers (mainly coming from the extractive
fraction, which contained soluble glucan) and hemicellulose-derived oligomers (xylo- and
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Table 1.
Composition of olive pruning (Weight percentages on dry basis)
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Table 2.
Composition of resulting fractions from hydrothermal process
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The data shown are the average values of three determinations made for each experiment, being the
deviations values for each experiment less than 5% of the average
Pulping process
It has been found many works studying the influence of operation variables in
pulping process of different raw materials with ethanol (Tjeerdsma et al., 1994; Gilarranz
et al., 1998; Díaz et al., 2004; Jiménez et al., 2004; López et al., 2006; Caparrós et al.,
2008), but none has been studied the pulping of a lignocellulosic material previously
subject to a hydrothermal process.
In the study of HS fraction pulping followed a factorial design of experiments that
considers three variables (temperature reached in the hydrothermal process -HT-,
temperature reached and maintained for 60 minutes in the pulping process -PT- and
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ethanol concentration used in pulping - EC-). HT takes the values of 196, 203 and 210 °C;
PT 170, 185 and 200 °C; and EC 30, 45 and 60 g ethanol/100 g of solution.
Table 3 shows the experimental conditions corresponding to the various
experiments performed, as well the results achieved for the following set of experimental
variables: total solid yield after hydrothermal and pulping processes (YT, g HPS/100 g raw
material (OPM), oven-dry basis); cellulose content in HPS (CE, g cellulose/100 g oven-dray
OPM); and lignin content in HPS (LI, g lignin/100 g oven-dry OPM. The data shown are the
average values of three determinations made for each experiment, being the deviations
values for each experiment less than 6% of the average.
Applied the experimental data of yield (YT) and concentrations of cellulose (CE)
and lignin (LI) (Table 3) to equation 2, we obtain the equations:
where XHT, XPT and XEC are the normalized values of the independent variable
considered, for TH, TP, and EC respectively.
The good values of statistical parameters (R2, F Snedecor, p and t Student) and
small errors in the estimates of the dependent variables (<8% for yield, <7% for cellulose,
and <12% for lignin) confirm the good fit of the experimental data to second-degree
polynomial models tested.
From Equation 3 it can be calculated the maximum yield (desirable for better
utilization of raw material (OPM)): 49.1kg of HPS/100 kg OPM, for when pulping process
variables (temperature and ethanol concentration) remained with low values, but with a
high temperature during the hydrothermal pretreatment performed. By contrast, the
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yield is minimal when using high values of temperature and ethanol concentration during
pulping, and a medium-high temperature (205 °C) for the hydrothermal pretreatment
To obtain maximum values of cellulose and minimum values of lignin in the HPS
(which is desirable if this fraction is used in the production of bioethanol, or in the
production of paper), it has to operate (as can be seen to applying equations 4 and 5)
with high values of the variables in the pulping process, and a temperature low during the
hydrothermal process; under these operating conditions, the maximum cellulose/lignin
ratio is 2.49.
Table 3.
Operational conditions and experimental values of dependent variables
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determinations made for each experiment, being the deviations values for each
experiment less than 7% of the average. These data are comparable with the literature
reported for bioethanol production from this feedstock and is close to the threshold
reported for economic feasibility (Zhang and Lynd, 2010). Fitting these data to Eq. 2 yields
the equation:
(7)
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This equation reproduces the experimental results of BCC with errors less than 8%,
providing the maximum value of 90.6 g bioethanol/100 g potential bioethanol. This value
corresponds to the liquid fraction obtained after SSF applied to a HPS sample obtained
with elevated temperatures in the hydrothermal and pulping processes, and a low
ethanol concentration in the pulping process. These results compare well with the
literature and confirmed the efficiency of the scheme hydrothermal-organosolv pulping
for the development of second generation bioethanol biorefineries (Garrote et al., 2001;
Zhang et al., 2010; Rodríguez et al., 2010).
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Table 4.
Properties of paper sheets
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Properties Pulp of HS Pulp of OP
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tensile index, Nm/g 14.76 23.30
Stretch, % 0.47 2.18
Burst index, kN/g 2.30 4.99
Tear index, mNm2/g 0.61 1.50
Brightness, % 38.21 38.42
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The data shown are the average values of ten determinations made for each experiment, being the deviations
values for each experiment less than 8% of the average
As noted, the paper sheets obtained from pulp of the material submitted to the
hydrothermal process have values of lower strength properties than those for the paper
sheets obtained from the pulping of the original material without thermal pretreatment.
This can be explained by the damage that has caused hydrothermal treatment of cellulose
fibers. The results do not coincide completely with those reported by other authors
(Jiménez et al., 2006; Caparrós et al., 2008; Rodríguez et al., 2009; Sánchez et al., 2011).
Jiménez et al. (2006) compared the characteristics of soda pulp and paper sheets
obtained from vine shoots, and the obtained when the raw material is subjected to a
hydrothermal pretreatment and pulping process posterior; they find that the pulp with a
hydrothermal pretreatment has lower values of tear index, and higher values of other
properties (breaking length, stretch index and burst index) that the pulp obtained directly
from the raw material. For sunflower stalks, Caparrós et al. (2008) find that when
comparing ethanol pulps obtained with a hydrothermal pretreatment, and soda pulps
without hydrothermal pretreatment (obtained by various authors), the values of tear
index and burst index are lower for the case of using a hydrothermal pretreatment, and
the values of breaking length and stretch index were similar; the discrepancies found
regarding the case of vine shoots pulp may be due to the pulping was made with different
chemical reagent. Rodriguez et al., (2009) studied the diethanolamine pulping of rice
straw (with and without hydrothermal pretreatment), finding that the pulp with
hydrothermal pretreatment had better values for the strength properties (breaking
length, stretch index, burst index and tear index), and similar values of brightness, that
the pulp without hydrothermal treatment. However when compared pulps with
hydrothermal treatment and diethanolamine pulping, with those obtained only with
soda, the strength properties of the latter were superior, in general, which consistent
337
Requejo et al, BITE 111 (2012), 301-
301-307
with the results obtained for sunflower stalks (Caparrós et al., 2008).
Finally, Sanchez et al., (2011) compared Hesperaole funifera pulps obtained with
soda and with diethanolamine (without hydrothermal pretreatment) with the
corresponding previously been subjected to hydrothermal treatment with and without
acid catalyst. The strength properties (except tear index) of the pulps obtained after a
previous hydrothermal treatment, with and without catalyst, were lower than the values
found for pulp obtained from the original raw material. Finally, the maximum brightness
corresponded to the diethanolamine pulp of the raw material, and the minimum to soda–
anthraquinone pulp of the raw material and the diethanolamine pulps of the solid
fraction hydrothermal treatment with and without catalyst. From all the checks indicated
that there is some disagreement about the goodness of pulps: for some raw materials
were better the pulps without hydrothermal pretreatment, and other ones obtained
directly from the original raw material.
In any case it should be noted that the strength properties of paper sheets from
olive pruning pulp are poor when compared with the corresponding from eucalyptus
pulp, so olive pruning pulp may be used only for certain applications paper, cardboard or
as a filler in the case of recycled paper.
Combustion process
Due to the poor content of cellulose and hemicellulose of the OPR (compared to
the OPM, Table 1), an alternative use of this residual fraction may be to use as a fuel for
heat production.
Table 5 presents the experimental results of the heating values of the two factions of the
olive pruning: OPM and OPR. The data shown are the average values of five
determinations made for each experiment, being the deviations values for each
experiment less than 5% of the average. These values are of the same magnitude as those
found in the literature (Jiménez and González, 1991) for different lignocellulosic materials
(wheat straw, sunflower stalks, vine shoots, cotton stalks, olive stones, olive marc, holm
oak residues and eucalyptus residues). Using the elemental analysis of the olive pruning
(Table 1) and following the estimation techniques described in the literature (Jiménez et
al. 1991) are determined the values of flame temperature (1094-2234 °C) and dew point
temperature (45-53 °C), for different values of excess air used in combustion (10 to 50%).
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Scientific Publications
The values of the flame temperature and dew point are of the same magnitude as those
of other lignocellulosic materials (wheat straw, sunflower stalks, vine shoots and cotton
stalks) (Jiménez et al., 1991). The high values of flame temperature, for the olive pruning
considered, demonstrate the possibility of using these materials in the production of
steam. The dew point is low for combustion gases, thus avoiding condensation in
chimneys and flue pipes, preventing corrosion that could cause the condensation;
anyway, in the event of such condensation, the phenomenon not been very serious given
the small sulfur content of the material considered. This is an additional advantage that
makes these fuels clean.
Table 5.
Comparison of heating values and energy costs obtained by combustion of various fuels
Fuel Heating values, *MkJ/t Cost of fuel, €/t Cost of the unit of heat, €/MkJ
Table 5 compares the heating values, cost of the fuel, and cost of the heat unit
obtained by combustion of the different fuels. As it can be seen, the €/MkJ of energy
obtained by combustion of olive pruning is cheaper than that obtained than the one
obtained from mineral coal and even much cheaper than the one obtained from fossil
fuel fluids. Moreover, some advantages of studied lignocellulosic residues have been
noted: they are renewable and release very small amounts of sulfur dioxide in
combustion gases and smaller amounts of ash than the solid fossil fuel, so, at worst, they
are good competitors with fossil fuels.
CONCLUSIONS
A good use of the main fraction of olive pruning (stems>1 cm diameter) consists in
339
Requejo et al, BITE 111 (2012), 301-
301-307
applying a hydrothermal treatment for sugars and other products (up to 42%
polysaccharides is recovered); later, a pulping process is applied to resulting solid fraction
to obtain pulp for papermaking; alternatively to the pulp a saccharification-fermentation
process can be applied to obtain bioethanol (up to 90.6% theoretical conversion). On the
other hand, residual fraction of olive pruning (leaves and stems<1cm diameter) provides
18.70 MkJ/t heating values, 1094-2234°C flame temperature, and 45-53°C dew point
temperature, with a heat unit cost (3.20€/MKJ) much lower than fossil fuels fluids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to Ecopapel, S.L. (Écija, Sevilla, Spain) and ENCE (Huelva,
Spain) for their support, to Spain’s DGICyT for funding this research within the framework
of the Projects CTQ 2010-19844-C02-01, TEP-6261 and TRA-2009-0064.
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343
CONCLUSIONES-CONCLUSIONS
Conclusiones
La longitud (0,71mm), anchura (13,61 µm) y espesor de la pared celular (3,75 µm)
de las fibras de celulosa de las podas de olivo se sitúan en los valores medios de
correspondientes a las maderas frondosas (0,75-1,5 mm; 10-20 µm y 3,2-7,3 µm,
respectivamente).
La densidad básica de la materia prima es de 616 kg/m3, mayor que para otras
especies vegetales como Eucaliptus urograndis (499 kg/m3). El mayor valor de densidad
básica presentado por las podas de olivo da lugar a una pérdida de rendimiento y de
viscosidad de las pasta.
347
Conclusions
3. Proceso de combustión
La fracción residual de las podas de olivo (hojas y tallos con diámetro menor de 1
cm) no es adecuada para la producción de pasta de celulosa y/o azúcares, pero resulta
interesante su uso como combustible para producir calor mediante el proceso de
combustión.
Dadas las ventajas del uso de esta materia prima como combustible (carácter
renovable y bajos contenidos de azufre y de cenizas), hace de estos residuos
lignocelulósicos unos buenos competidores de los combustibles fósiles, siendo el precio
del kJ obtenido por combustión de la fracción residual de las podas de olivo (3,20 €/MkJ)
menor que el obtenido del carbón mineral y mucho menor que el procedente de los
combustibles fósiles líquidos.
348
Conclusiones
4. Tratamientos hidrotérmicos
Estos licores de los tratamientos hidrotérmicos pueden ser usados para diferentes
propósitos, incluyendo la producción de bioetanol mediante fermentación usando los
microorganismos adecuados.
349
Conclusions
5. Pasteados
350
Conclusiones
celulosa y papel.
La fracción principal de las podas de olivo fue sometida a un pasteado con mezclas
de etanol-agua, con una relación líquido/sólido de 8:1 g/g, concentraciones de etanol
entre 60 y 80% (w/w), temperaturas de operación en el intervalo de 175-195 °C y tiempos
de operación entre 40 y 120 minutos. Bajo los intervalos de estas condiciones, el
rendimiento y el contenido en lignina de las pastas disminuyen al incrementar los valores
de las variables de operación, mientras que los contenidos de holocelulosa y α-celulosa
aumentan. Las propiedades de resistencia de las hojas de papel formadas muestran que
los mayores valores corresponden a las pastas obtenidas bajo valores medios de las
condiciones de operación; este hecho puedo ser debido a que una elevada temperatura
(195 °C) durante un largo tiempo (120 minutos) degrada las fibras de celulosa. La blancura
disminuye al incrementar los valores de las variables de operación.
351
Conclusions
resultantes tienen unas buenas características para ser sometidas a ensayos de hidrólisis
enzimática, con vistas a la producción de bioetanol, mediante fermentación de los
azúcares producidos en la citada hidrólisis.
352
Conclusiones
Las pastas blanqueadas con las secuencias ECF y TCF fueron sometidas a un
estudio de refinado, para evaluar las propiedades físico-mecánicas y ópticas de las hojas
de papel formadas. En la pasta blanqueada con la secuencia ECF, el estudio de la curva de
refinado fue realizado a sucesivas crecientes revoluciones del refinador, observándose
una mejoría de las propiedades de las pastas al incrementa el refinado, hasta alcanzar
valores máximos, y después, al continuar refinando, los valores de las citadas propiedades
comienzan a disminuir. Las pastas blanqueadas con esta secuencia mostraron buenas
cualidades para el refinado, mejorando sus propiedades hasta que el refinado alcanzó las
2.000 revoluciones. Sin embargo, las pastas blanqueadas con la secuencia TCF no
permitieron una elevada intensidad de refinado, ya que durante el blanqueo se produce
una elevada degradación de sus fibras, como muestra el valor de la viscosidad (6,25
mPa·s); por esta razón, la curva de refinado estudiada fue realizada entre 0 y 200
revoluciones, situándose los mejores valores de sus propiedades físico-mecánicas de las
pastas refinadas en torno a las 150 revoluciones de refinado.
353
Conclusions
7. Producción de bioetanol.
355
Conclusions
Throughout this report several methodologies have been presented that allow a full use
of an abundant agricultural residue in the Mediterranean region of the European Union:
the olive tree pruning. The experimental work conducted to this end has produced the
following advances and innovations:
The analysis of the fibers yielded a length of 0.71 mm, a width of 13.61 mm and
cell wall thickness values of 3.75 µm. These olive tree pruning data are within the average
values of the hardwoods (0.75-1.5 mm, 10-20 µm and 3.2-7.3 µm, respectively).
The number per gram of fibrous material (41.97 million), coarseness (5.30 mg/100
m) and the fine content (13.31%) are indicative of the physical-mechanical and optical
properties of paper sheets formed.
The basic density of the raw material is of 616 kg/m3, greater than other plant
species such as E. urograndis (499 kg/m3). The highest value of basic density presented by
olive tree pruning results in a loss of yield and viscosity of the pulp.
The composition of olive tree pruning (29.0% of glucan, 16.6% of xylan, 2.01% of
araban, 2.78% of acetyl groups, 24.7% of Klason lignin, 13.2% of extractives and 1.5% of
ash) is within the range of values for other agricultural residues, so it can be argued that
this raw material, like other agricultural waste is an alternative source to obtain cellulose
pulp.
Its use is of great interest in the pulp industry since its cultivation is predominant
in Mediterranean climates, where there is a lack of water resources, favouring the use of
olive tree pruning in the paper industry.
356
Conclusiones
3. Combustion process.
The residual fraction from olive tree pruning (leaves and stems with a diameter
less than 1 cm) is not suitable for the production of pulp and/or sugars, but it is
interesting to use as fuel to produce heat by the combustion process.
The heating value was found to be 18699 kJ/kg; this value is similar to other
agricultural and food waste. The flame temperature range is between 1207 and 2234 °C,
for various heat losses (10-50%) and different percentages of excess air used in
combustion (10-50%); these temperature values demonstrate the possibility of using
these materials in the production of steam. Finally, the dew point temperature of the
combustion gases varies between 45 and 53°C, low enough to prevent condensation of
steam in chimneys and flue pipes; but, in the event of such condensation, corrosion is not
very serious due to the low sulfur content of the olive tree pruning.
Given the advantages of using this raw material as fuel (renewable and low
contents of sulfur and ash) makes it a good competitor for fossil fuels. The price of kJ
obtained by the combustion of the residual fraction of olive tree pruning (3.20 €/MkJ) is
cheaper than that obtained from mineral coal and even much cheaper than the one
obtained from fossil fuel fluids.
4. Hydrothermal treatments.
The hydrothermal treatments of the main fraction of the olive tree pruning (wood
trunks and stems with diameter higher than 1 cm) under intermediate operating
conditions (between 175 °C and 215 °C) are interesting for the recovery of valuable
products (hemicellulosic derived) present in the liquid fraction obtained, achieving a yield
of 29.5 g of saccharides/100 g of dry raw material.
357
Conclusions
The concentrations of the major soluble components increase with the severity
factor (S0) reaching a maximum; in this case of 8 g/L for the oligosaccharides, 16 g/L for
xylo-oligomers, 1.45 to 0.16 g/L for arabinosil units of the oligosaccharides and 3.02 g/L
for the acetyl groups in oligosaccharides, and then these values decrease with S0, due to
the higher effect of the decomposition reactions of the hemicelluloses.
These liquors from the hydrothermal treatments can be used for different
purposes, including the production of bioethanol by fermentation using suitable
microorganisms.
Regarding the composition of the solid fraction of the hydrothermal treatment, all
the glucan contained in autohydrolyzed solids corresponds to cellulose because the non-
structural glucan was extracted in the autohydrolysis stage. Moreover, the yield
decreases with the severity factor, while the cellulose and lignin content increases.
The maximum concentrations of glucose, xylose, arabinose and acetic acid were
carried out under the following operating conditions (150 °C, 0 min, LSR: 6:1, and sulfuric
acid concentration of 0.1%) obtaining good values for the glucose and arabinose content
(5.33% and 2.76%, respectively) and an acceptable yield of the solid fraction (57.96%)
while saving 2.1% energy, 80% sulfuric acid required and more than 10% of the capital
facilities with respect to operating with the highest values of operating variables.
358
Conclusiones
5. Pulping processes.
In this study, the Kraft cooking of the main fraction of olive tree pruning was
performed so that the resulting pulps present a Kappa number about 17, carrying out the
operation under the following values of independent variables: 30% sulfidity, LSR equal to
4/1 g/g, 70 minutes to reach the maximum temperature of 165 °C, 60 minutes at the
maximum temperature and an active alkali concentration of 20%.
The pulp obtained has a Kappa number of 17.5, a viscosity of 31.5 mPa·s, an ISO
brightness of 33.0% and a content of hexenuronic acids of 48.8 mmol/kg. The values of
the physical-mechanical properties of the pulp obtained were similar to those of other
agricultural residues pulps (wheat straw, vine shoots, rice straw, sunflower stalks, etc),
and they have good qualities for the pulp and paper industry.
The main fraction of the olive tree pruning was subjected to a pulping with
ethanol-water mixtures with a liquid/solid ratio of 8:1 g/g, ethanol concentrations
between 60 and 80%w/w), operating temperatures in the range of 175-195 °C and
operating times between 40 and 120 minutes. Under these conditions, the yield and the
lignin content of pulps decrease with increasing values of operating variables, whereas
the holocellulose and α-cellulose content increases.
The strength properties of paper sheets formed show that the highest values
correspond to pulps obtained under medium values of operating conditions, a fact that
can be due to a high temperature (195 °C) for a long time (120 minutes) which degrades
the cellulose fibers. The brightness decreases with increasing values of the variables
under operating conditions.
The ethanol pulp obtained under average value operating conditions presents a
yield of 46.30% and holocellulose, α-cellulose and lignin content of 77.17%, 62.49% and
359
Conclusions
21.73%, respectively. The paper sheets have a breaking length of 1168 mm, a burst index
of 0.44 kN/g, a tear index of 2.25 mN·m2/g and an ISO brightness of 43-66%.
Hydrothermal treatment solid fractions of the main fraction of the olive tree
pruning were obtained at 196, 203 and 210°C, then were subjected to a delignification
with ethanol-water mixtures using a LSR equal to 8 g/g for one hour.
Using a factorial design of experiments, the severity factor was varied in the range
3-67 to 4.09, the delignification temperature between 170 and 200°C and the ethanol
concentration between 30 and 60 g ethanol/100 g dissolution. The influence of the
operating variables of pulping on the yield of the resultant solid fraction (cellulose pulp)
as well as on its composition was studied. The resulting pulps have good characteristics to
be subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis assays in order to produce ethanol by the
fermentation of sugars produced in the hydrolysis.
Kraft pulp of the main fraction of the olive tree pruning was bleached with the
sequence OD(EP)D(EP)D (Oxygen-Chlorine dioxide-Alkaline extraction and Hydrogen
peroxide-Chlorine dioxide-Alkaline extraction and Hydrogen peroxide-Chlorine dioxide).
After bleaching, the yield, Kappa number and viscosity of the pulps as well as the physical-
mechanical and optical properties of the paper sheets formed were evaluated, achieving
a high degree of brightness of 88.9% ISO a Kappa number below one (0.66), a brightness
reversion of 2.5%, a suitable viscosity value (13.24 mPa·s) and a hexenuronic acid content
of 3.25 mmol/kg, although the chemical charge was very high (24.78 kg/kg of dry pulp).
360
Conclusiones
Kraft pulp of the main fraction of the olive tree pruning was used. The TCF
bleaching sequence was carried out OZQPOZQPO (oxygen-ozone-chelate-hydrogen
peroxide and oxygen-ozone-chelate-hydrogen peroxide and oxygen) reaching a
brightness equal to 90.9% ISO, a Kappa number of 1.33, a brightness reversion equal to
1.3% and hexenuronic acid content of 3.55 mmol/kg, although the use of ozone in the
bleaching sequence resulted in a low viscosity value (6.25 mPa·s) due to the degradation
of cellulose by the low selectivity of ozone into the lignin.
The pulps bleached with ECF and TCF sequences were subjected to a refining study
to evaluate the physical-mechanical and optical properties of paper sheets formed. In the
bleached pulp with ECF sequence, the study of the refining curve was carried out with
increased successive revolutions of the refiner, showing an improvement of the
properties of the refined pulps with the increase in the beating, reaching maximum
values, and then to continue beating, the property values begin to decrease. Bleached
pulps with this sequence showed good qualities for refining, improving their properties
until the refined reached 2000 revolutions.
However, the pulp bleached with TCF sequence did not allow a high intensity
refining, thus during bleaching a high degradation of their fibers occurs, as shown in the
viscosity value (6.25 mPa·s).For this reason, the refined curve study was performed
between 0 and 2000 revolutions reaching the best values of physical-mechanical
properties of the pulps refined over 150 revolutions in the beating.
A pulp from soda pulping of the main fraction of the olive tree pruning was used
in this study (175°C, 15% NaOH, 1% AQ, 120 min, and LSR: 8 g/g). The unbleached pulp
was subjected to different enzymatic pre-treatments: with laccase and laccase plus
361
Conclusions
xylanase; in the latter, a test was performed by adding both enzymes together in a single
step, and another test was performed by adding both enzymes jointly.
After these enzymatic pre-treatments, the resulting pulps were bleached with a
TCF sequence (with an alkaline extraction step and another with hydrogen peroxide). The
results show that the application of all these pre-treatments improves the bleachability of
pulps. In the pre-treatments that use xylanase, the laccase effect is simulated,
presumably by the removal of some xylans of fiber surface which facilitates the access to
the laccase.
When both enzymes are applied in the same stage an increased delignification,
similar brightness and lower consumption of hydrogen peroxide take place, compared
with a sequential application of enzymes. The color coordinates were improved when a
pre-treatment with laccase-mediator was used, and even more, when the xylanase was
applied in the pre-treatment, either simultaneously or sequentially.
Similar mechanical property values were found for all bleached pulps, although a
decrease in tensile index was observed when the xylanase was applied in the pre-
treatment, probably caused by the removal of hemicelluloses.
Lastly, the accelerated aging causes a decrease in the brightness and an increase
in the color coordinates for all pulps. A low stability was found in biobleaching pulps
compared to the chemically bleached pulps, although the best optical properties were
observed in pulps treated with both enzymes, xylanase and laccase, even after aging.
7. Bioethanol production.
In a first study, a simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation (SSF) was carried out
in of the solid fraction of the hydrothermal treatment of the main fraction of olive tree to
assess their potential for bioethanol production.
The experiments were carried out with an enzyme load equal to 10 FPU/g of dry
substrate, a severity factor in the range of 3.86 to 4.23 and a LSR in the range 4-12 g
substrate/g liquor. Operating at a LSR equal to 8 g/g, the highest concentration of ethanol
362
Conclusiones
363
PRODUCCIÓN CIENTÍFICA
Producci n Cient fica
ARTÍCULOS CIENTÍFICOS
Alejandro Rodríguez, Ana Moral, Rafael Sánchez, Ana Requejo and Luis
Jiménez.
Bioresource Technology, 100 (2009), 4863-4866.
Índice de Impacto: 4.253 (Primera posición de 11 revistas en el área de
Agricultural Engineering según el Journal Citation Report de 2009).
3. Feasibility of rice straw as a raw material for the production of soda cellulose
pulp.
367
Scientific Production
368
Producci n Cient fica
Ana Requejo, Susana Peleteiro, Alejandro Rodríguez, Gil Garrote and Juan
Carlos Parajó.
Energy & Fuels, 25 (2011), 4803–4810.
Índice de Impacto: 2.444 (Primera posición de 6.75 revistas en el área de
Chemical Engineering según el Journal Citation Report de 2010).
11. Total use of olive tree prunings by means of hydrothermal and combustion
processes.
Ana Requejo, Manuel Javier Feria Infante, Fátima Vargas and Alejandro
Rodríguez.
BioResources, 7 (1) (2012), 118-134.
Índice de Impacto: 1.418 (Primera posición de 11.5 revistas en el área de
Material Science, Paper & Wood según el Journal Citation Report de 2010).
12. Improvement of TCF bleaching of olive tree pruning residue pulp by addition of
a laccase and/or xylanase pre-treatment.
369
Scientific Production
14. TCF bleaching sequence in Kraft pulping of olive tree pruning residues.
370
Producci n Cient fica
COMUNICACIONES A CONGRESOS
371
Scientific Production
372
Producci n Cient fica
11. International Symposium on Paradigms for the Pulp and Paper Industry in the
XXI century: Opportunities for a Sustainable Future (Sevilla, España; Junio,
2011).
12. International Symposium on Paradigms for the Pulp and Paper Industry in the
XXI century: Opportunities for a Sustainable Future (Sevilla, España; Junio,
2011).
373
Scientific Production
13. International Symposium on Paradigms for the Pulp and Paper Industry in the
XXI century: Opportunities for a Sustainable Future (Sevilla, España; Junio,
2011).
- Organosolv formic acid pulping of empty fruit bunches (EFB) from palm oil
industry.
- A. Ferrer, F. Vargas, A. Requejo, L. Jiménez, A. Rodríguez
- Comunicación en forma de póster.
374