Neutron Detectors

10/13/2010
1
General

2
General
Challenges
• Neutron Energy, Quality Factor and Detector
Response
Detector efficiency, as well as the neutron quality
factor (radiation weighting factor)
factor), vary
significantly with neutron energy.
Neutron fields typically include a wide range of
neutron energies.

3
General
Challenges
• Gamma Rays
Where there are neutrons, there are always
gamma rays.

Some neutron detectors can respond to gamma

rays if they are not set up properly (e.g., use too
high an operating voltage).

4
General
Challenges
• Pulsed Neutron Fields
Neutron fields around accelerators are usually
pulsed.

Pulsed neutrons can be impossible to measure

with some types of active detectors systems.

Passive monitors (e.g., dosimeters) are

commonly used to evaluate pulsed neutron fields.

5
General
Detector Response and Neutron Energy

• Unmodified neutron detectors (e.g., BF3 or He-3)

usually respond to slow or fast neutrons, but not
both.
• Slow neutron detectors are far more common.
• A slow neutron detector can be modified so that it
responds to both slow and fast neutrons.

• It can even be modified so that it only responds to

fast neutrons!
6
General
Detector Response and Neutron Energy
• Surrounding a slow neutron detector with an
appropriate thickness of a moderator (e.g.,
polyethylene) will slow some of the fast neutrons
down to energies
g that the detector can respond
p to.
• The moderator increases the detector response to
fast neutrons, but reduces the response to slow
neutrons.
• If the moderator is too thick, all of the neutrons will
be moderated and absorbed before they can
reach the detector. 7
General
Detector Response and Neutron Energy
• Since slow neutrons (<0.5 eV) cannot penetrate
cadmium, surrounding the moderator with
cadmium means that the detector will only
respond
p to fast neutrons!

8
General
Detector Response and Neutron Energy
Bare detector Moderator Cadmium

Responds Responds to Responds

only to slow fast and slow only to fast
neutrons neutrons neutrons 9
General
Detector Response and Neutron Energy

• The thickness of moderator that produces the

highest count rate depends on the neutron energy
spectrum.

• A detector with a thin moderator has a higher

detection efficiency for low energy neutrons.

• A detector with a thick moderator has a higher

detection efficiency for high energy neutrons.

10
Thermal

1.0 keV

0.01 MeV

0.1 MeV

1.0 MeV

10 MeV

Air Polyethylene moderator 11

 Detector Detector
Thermal Response

Thermal 2
1.0 keV 1.0 keV 3
0.01 MeV 0
0.1 MeV 0
1.0 MeV 0
0.01 MeV 10 MeV 0

0.1 MeV

1.0 MeV

10 MeV

Air Polyethylene moderator 12

 Detector Detector
Thermal Response

Thermal 0
1.0 keV 1.0 keV 2
0.01 MeV 3
0.1 MeV 1
1.0 MeV 0
0.01 MeV 10 MeV 0

0.1 MeV

1.0 MeV

10 MeV

Air Polyethylene moderator 13

 Detector Detector
Thermal Response

Thermal 0
1.0 keV 1.0 keV 0
0.01 MeV 2
0.1 MeV 3
1.0 MeV 1
0.01 MeV 10 MeV 0

0.1 MeV

1.0 MeV

10 MeV

Air Polyethylene moderator 14

Detector Types

15
Detector Types
General
There are many different types of neutron
detectors.
In part, this is because many of them have a very
specialized (i(i.e.,
e limited) application
application.

16
Detector Types
General
Neutron detectors are designed to measure one of
the following:
1. Fluence rate (e.g., n/cm2 s)
2. Dose equivalent rate (e.g., mrem/hr, mSv/hr)
3. Energy spectrum
4. Dose equivalent (e.g., mrem, mSv)

17
Detector Types
1. Detectors to Measure Fluence Rate
The following might read out in n/cm2/s
• Boron-lined proportional counters
• Fission counters
• S lf
Self-powereddd detectors
t t
• Compensated ion chambers
• Proton recoil scintillators
• Long counter
• Lithium iodide scintillators
• Lithium glass scintillators

18
Detector Types
2. Detectors to Measure Dose Equivalent Rate
The following might read out in mrem/hr or mSv/hr:

• Rem ball
• Snoopyy
• Leake detector
• Dineutron
• REMbrandt
• Tissue equivalent proportional counters

19
Detector Types
3. Detectors for Neutron Spectroscopy
These detector systems are used to measure the
energy of the neutrons:

• Bonner spheres
• ROSPEC
• Threshold activation foils
• Bubble detector spectrometer

20
Detector Types
4. Neutron Dosimeters
The following can be used to measure the dose to
personnel in mrem or mSv:
• TLDs
• Track Etch
• Neutron track emulsion
• Film
• Bubble/superheated drop dosimeters
• Proton recoil detectors
• Fission track dosimeters
• Electronic (diode) detectors
21
BF3 and He-3 Detectors

22
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
General
• Many of the detector types listed in the previous
section (Detector Types) employ:
1. BF3, or
2. He-3 tubes.

• BF3 and He-3 tubes operate in the proportional

counting mode.

23
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
1. Boron Trifluoride (BF3) Detectors

• A typical BF3 detector consists of a cylindrical

aluminum tube filled with a BF3 fill gas.

• The boron trifluoride:

- functions as a proportional fill gas
- undergoes an n-alpha interaction with thermal
neutrons: B-10 (n, α) Li-7
B-10 + n ÿ Li-7 + α
24
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
1. Boron Trifluoride (BF3) Detectors

A slow neutron
10
combines with the B-10 BF3
atom of a BF3 gas 10
BF3
molecule
molecule.
n
B-10

10
BF3
10
BF3
25
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
1. Boron Trifluoride (BF3) Detectors

The reaction results in a Li-7 α

atom and an alpha particle
heading off in opposite
directions.

As they travel through the

BF3 gas, they ionize it to
create ion pairs.
Li-7
26
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
2. He-3 Detectors

• He-3 detectors are more popular than BF3

detectors because the gas is less hazardous.
Among other things, this facilitates shipping.

• Unfortunately, the smaller pulses of the He-3

detectors make them poorer than BF3 detectors at
rejecting gamma rays.

• A typical He-3 detector consists of a cylindrical

aluminum tube filled with helium at a pressure of
several atmospheres.
27
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
2. He-3 Detectors
The helium gas accomplishes two things:

• it functions as the proportional fill gas.

• it undergoes an n p interaction with thermal

neutrons: He-3 (n, p) H-3

He-3 + n ÿ H-3 + p

28
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
2. He-3 Detectors

A slow neutron
3
combines with the He-3 He
atom. 3
He 3
He

n
3
He

3
He

3
He
29
BF3 and He-3 Detectors
2. He-3 Detectors

The reaction results in a H-3 p

atom and a proton heading
off in opposite directions.

As they travel through the

He-3 gas, they ionize it to
create ion pairs.

H-3
30
Neutron Dose Equivalent Rate
Measurements

31
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
General

• Several different detector types can be employed

to measure the neutron dose equivalent. This
presentation considers:
• Moderator
Moderator-type
type Rem detectors
- Single detector: Hankins-type
Anderson-Braun
Leake-type

- Dual detector: Dineutron

• Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters

- REM 500
32
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
General
• The dose equivalent (H) per neutron fluence
(i.e., rem per neutron) varies with the neutron
energy because both the absorbed dose (D) and
the quality factor/radiation weighting factor (Q,
wR) vary with the neutron energy.
H = D Q = D wR
• Due to a combination of factors, the dose
equivalent per unit fluence (e.g., rem or sievert
per neutron/cm2) as a function of neutron
energy shows the following relationship.
33
 Dose Equivalent per Unit Neutron Fluence (rem
per neutron) as a Function of Energy
ICRP 21 Recommended Curve
Unit Fluence
Relative H per U

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Neutron Energy (MeV) 34
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
General
• It turns out that it is possible to design a
moderated detector whose counting efficiency
(counts per neutron) varies with neutron energy
in the same way y that the dose equivalent
q p
per
unit neutron fluence varies with neutron energy.
• Such an instrument can be calibrated to read out
in units of dose equivalent (or rate).
• This requires a judicious choice of moderator
thickness, and possibly the incorporation of
neutron absorbers to “tweak” the response.
35
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
General

• The two most widely used moderated neutron

rem meters are the:

• Hankins Rem Ball

• Andersson-Braun rem meter (“snoopy”)

• Even though they operate in the pulse mode,
they can be used to measure dose equivalent
rates in the pulsed fields around accelerators
because the neutron moderation broadens the
duration of the pulses.
36
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Hankins Rem Ball

• Hankins’ original design consisted of a

cadmium loaded 9 inch polyethylene moderator
housing a small BF3 detector. Its response
((counts p
per neutron)) as a function of neutron
energy approximated the neutron fluence to
dose equivalent conversion factors.

• Such an instrument could be calibrated to

indicate neutron dose equivalent without the
need to determine the neutron spectrum.
37
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Hankins Rem Ball

• The cadmium loading consisted of a 0.0028

cm thick cadmium foil covering a 6 cm inner
polyethylene sphere.

• Current versions of the Hankins design:

• Ludlum Model 12-4

• Eberline NRD detectors

38
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Ludlum Model 12-4 Neutron Counter
• Detector: BF3 or He-3 surrounded by 9 inch (22.9 cm)
cadmium loaded polyethylene sphere.
• Weight: 21 lbs.
• Readout: mrem/hr
• Dose rate: 0-10,000 mrem/h
0-100 mSv/hr
• Sensitivity: ca. 30 cpm per mrem/hr.
ca. 50 cps per mSv/hr.
• Gamma response: <10 cpm at 10 R/hr.
<10 cpm at 0.1 Sv/hr
• Temperature range: -20 to +50°C.
• Battery life: 600 hours.

39
 Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eberline E-600/NRD
• Detector: BF3 or He-3 surrounded by 9 inch (22.9 cm)
cadmium loaded polyethylene sphere.
• Weight: 18 lbs.
• Energy range: 0.025 eV-10 MeV
• Readout: mrem/hr,
mrem/hr mrem
• Dose rate: 0-10,000 mrem/h
0-100 mSv/hr
• Sensitivity: ca. 45 cpm per mrem/hr.
ca. 75 cps per mSv/hr.
• Gamma response: rejection up to 500
R/hr.
• Temperature range: -20 to +50°C.
40
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Hankins “Rem Ball”

Ludlum 12-4
Neutron Counter

41
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Hankins “Rem Ball”

Meter electronics

Cadmium cap

Outer polyethylene
spherical moderator

Cadmium foil
surrounding inner
spherical moderator
(6 cm diameter) and
detector
42
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
“Snoopy” Andersson-Braun “Rem Meter”

• In 1963, Andersson and Braun designed a

neutron rem meter with a cylindrical polyethylene
moderator - 21.6 cm diameter by 24.4 cm long
(Model NRC III). These devices employ a
cylindrical BF3 or He-3 tube.

• To reduce the instrument’s over-response to low

energy neutrons, they incorporated a borated
plastic sleeve (7.6 cm diameter) around the
detector tube and inner moderator.

43
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Andersson-Braun “Rem Meter”

• Current versions of the Andersson-Braun

“snoopy” design:

• Alnor
Al (Studsvik)
(St d ik) 2202

• NE Technology NM1, NM2

• Eurisys Mesures NG2A

44
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eurisys Mesures/Canberra/APTEC/NRC NG-2A
• Neutron Detector: BF3 or He-3 detector with cylindrical
polyethylene moderator.
• Gamma detector: GM
• Weight: 25 lbs
• Readout: mrem/hr, mrem, Sv/hr, Sv, uR, uR/hr
• Dose
D rate:
t 10 urem – 10 rem/h /h (0
(0.1
1 uSv/hr
S /h – 0.1
0 1 Sv/hr)
S /h )
• Energy Range: 0.025 ev to 15 MeV (neutrons)
• Sensitivity: ca. 6000 counts per mrem (600 counts/uSv)
• Gamma response: no response up to 500 R/hr (5 Sv/hr)
• Temperature range: -20 to +50°C
• Battery life: 40 hours
• GM detector gamma response: 0.1 uR/hr – 10 R/hr
1 nSv/hr – 0.1 Sv/hr
45
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Andersson-Braun Rem Meter

EURISYS MESURES “Snoopy” NG-2A 46

 BF3 or He-3 Tube

Perforated borated plastic Polyethylene

sleeve 47
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Andersson-Braun Rem Meter

BF3 detector
tube

Inner polyethylene End section of perforated

48
moderator borated plastic sleeve
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Andersson-Braun Rem Meter

49
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Leake Rem Meter

• In 1966 Leake described a rem meter that had

some of the features of both the Andersson-
Braun detector and the Hankins detector.

• The original version employed a 20.8 cm

diameter spherical polyethylene moderator and
a lithium iodide scintillator.

50
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Leake Rem Meter

• Later versions replaced the lithium iodide

detector with a spherical He-3 detector.

• The detector is surrounded by an inner (5.5 cm

diameter) and outer (20.8 cm diameter)
spherical polyethylene moderator. A 1 mm thick
cadmium shell perforated with holes is located
between the inner and outer moderators.

51
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Leake Rem Meter
Perforated
20.8 cm cadmium layer
polyethylene
sphere
Spherical
He-3 tube

Connector

52
Polyethylene
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Leake Rem Meter

Polyethylene moderator Spherical He-3 Detector

53
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Leake Rem Meter
• Current versions of the Leake-type neutron rem
detector:

• Berthold LB 6411

54
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Berthold LB 6411 Leake-type Meter

• Detector: cylindrical He-3, with

25 cm spherical polyethylene
moderator and perforated
cadmium moderator.
• Energy range: 50 keV – 10
MeV (±30%).
• Sensitivity: 3 counts/nSv
44 cpm per uSv/hr.
• Designed to measure H*(10) as recommended in ICRP 60.
• Lower over-response than standard Leake detector to
intermediate energy neutrons, with increased sensitivity.
55
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Problems with Typical Instruments

• The instrument’s accuracy depends on the

neutron spectrum.

• The manufacturer’s specifications for accuracy

are not always accurate.

• They can be very heavy, awkward and even

dangerous to carry in areas where movement is
limited, e.g., on ladders.

56
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Problems with Typical Instruments

• In fields dominated by scattered neutrons, a

significant component of the dose might be due to
intermediate energy neutrons (10 to 100 keV)
where many of these detectors over
over-respond.
respond.

• Maximum over-response can be expected at 10

keV. Over-responses seen by a factor of 3 for 20
to 30 keV neutrons.

• Significant under-respond to neutrons above 6

MeV (e.g., by a factor of 2 for 10 MeV neutrons).
57
 Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Relative Fluence Response
e per Unit Fluence

ICRP 21 Recommended Curve

0.4
Relative Response

0.2 Remball or
”Snoopy” response

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Neutron Energy (MeV) 58
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Problems with Typical Instruments

Newer versions of these rem-meters (WENDI and

LINUS) have largely eliminated the over-response
at the lower energies and the under-response at the
hi h energies.
higher i

The latter was accomplished by adding a heavy

metal (lead or tungsten) to the detector moderator.
The high energy neutrons interact with the metal by
(n,2n) and (n, 3n) reactions to produce lower energy
neutrons that are detected with greater efficiency.
59
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Problems with Typical Instruments

Prescila is a neutron scintillator rem-meter

developed at Los Alamos and commercialized by
Ludlum. It has better energy response (up to 20
M V) th
MeV) than ththe standard
t d d Andersson-Braun
A d B and
d
Hankins design and is much lighter.

Its gamma rejection is not as good as that of a gas

detector. In addition, it can have problems
evaluating pulsed neutron fields.

60
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Angular Dependence Problems with “Snoopy”

• Highest reading when irradiated from the side of

the cylinder.

• Angular response is not as good as with spherical

detectors (moderator-type or TEPC). In the worst
case, an under-response of 35% was noted for 1
MeV neutrons.

61
 Angular Response of a “Snoopy”
Andersson-Braun Meter
e per Unit Fluence

1.0 15.5 MeV

110 keV
Relative Response

1 MeV
0.5

0
90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Orientation 62
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Angular Independence:

Good
Andersson-Braun

Hankins
Better

Best Leake

63
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eurisys Dineutron Meter

• The neutron energy spectrum is characterized by

analyzing the ratio of the counts obtained with
moderators of varying thickness.

• Once the spectrum has been characterized, an

effective quality factor (radiation weighting factor)
can be determined. The measured absorbed
dose (D) can then be converted into the dose
equivalent (H).

64
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eurisys Dineutron Meter
• Detector: Two He-3 detectors. One is surrounded by a
spherical 2.5 inch diameter polyethylene moderator. The
other is surrounded by a 4.2 inch diameter spherical
moderator.
• Weight: 3.5 kg.
• Energy range: 0.025 eV – 15 MeV (±30%)
• Readout, Sv, Gy, rem, rad, also quality factor
• Dose rate: 0.01 - 9999 mrem/h
0.1 uSv/hr - 99.99 mSv/hr
• Dose: 0.0001 - 9999 mrem
1 nSv – 99.99 mSv
• Temperature range: -10 to +55°C
• Battery life: 25 hours
65
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eurisys Dineutron Meter
• The calculation of dose
equivalent involves the ratio of
the count rates in the two
detectors.
• The ratio is referred to as the
spectral index (I):

Where C1 is the count rate from the smaller chamber

C2 is the count rate from the larger chamber
66
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Eurisys Dineutron Meter
• The dose equivalent (H) is calculated as follows:

• The constant Kh is a function of the spectral index:

• The constants a and b were determined

empirically by measuring the spectral index and
the dose equivalent in neutron fields at nuclear
power plants. 67
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500

68
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• Detector: Rossi-type spherical tissue equivalent
proportional counter (TEPC), 2.25 inch inner
diameter – it mimics a 2 um sphere of tissue.
For details about TEPCs
TEPCs, see Appendix.
Appendix
• Wall: A 150 TE plastic, 1.2 mm thick
• Housing: aluminum can, 0.065 inch thick
• Fill gas: propane
• Internal 0.3 uCi Cm-244 alpha source (license
required) 69
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• Dose rate: 0.1 mrem/hr to 100 rem/hr
1 uSv/hr to 1 Sv/hr
• Response: ca. 480 counts per mrem
48 counts per uSv
• E
Energy response: 70 kkeV
V tto 20 MeV
M V
• Angular dependence: ± 10% through 270
degrees
• Battery life: ca. 100 hrs.
• Weight: 5 lbs, 2 oz (without batteries)
• Temperature response: ± 10% 15 to 45 °C
± 20% -15 to 50 °C 70
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• After a count has been performed, the pulse
height distribution (a spectrum) is determined.
• Pulse height is related to the “lineal energy” (the
energy deposited by a single particle in a
specified volume divided by the average chord
length of the particles through that volume).
• Lineal energy is related to the quality factor.
• The larger the pulse, the larger the lineal energy,
the greater the quality factor and the higher the
channel number into which the pulse is sorted. 71
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• Employs 256 PHA. Pulses in channels 1-4 are
assumed to be due to photons or noise.

• Pulses from an internal Cm-244 alpha source

are set in channel 90 to calibrate the ssystem
stem
with lineal energy of 90 keV/um.

• 10 keV – 1 MeV neutrons have maximum lineal

energy around 85 – 90 keV/um. Above 1 MeV
the lineal energy decreases.

72
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• Equation used to calculate dose equivalent (H):

Where K is the calibration factor

TC is a time constant (depends on
mode of operation, e.g.,1 for 10
second integration step)
Q, the quality factor, is a function of
the channel number
73
Dose Equivalent Rate Measurements
Far West Technology REM 500
• Examples of quality factors employed by the
REM 500 to calculate dose equivalent (H):
Ch.# Q Ch.# Q Ch.# Q
1 0.4 70 15.3 140 23.1
10 3.2 80 17.0 150 23.8
20 5.7 90 18.3 160 24.3
30 7.8 100 19.6 170 24.6
40 9.9 110 20.7 180 24.8
50 11.8 120 21.5 190 24.8
60 13.6 130 22.4 >190 24.8 74
Neutron Energy Spectrum
Measurements

75
Energy Spectrum Measurements
General

• Determining the energy spectrum of the neutrons

is important because the response of neutron
survey instruments and dosimeters varies with the
neutron energy.
gy

• Almost all neutron spectroscopy systems involve

the use of multiple detectors. The different
detectors respond differently with neutron energy.

• The most common method is the use of Bonner

Spheres
76
Energy Spectrum Measurements
Bonner Spheres

• A Bonner Sphere system consists of a LiI, He-3 or

BF3 detector in conjunction with a set of
polyethylene spherical moderators.

• A typical set consists of 6 to 8 polyethylene

spheres of different sizes. In some sets, one
sphere (3”) is covered with cadmium.

Typical sizes: 2", 3", 5", 8", 10" and 12"

77
Energy Spectrum Measurements
Bonner Spheres

• A count is performed with each of the spheres

around the detector.

• The higher
g the neutron energy
gy ((the faster),
), the
larger the sphere must be for the neutrons to be
slowed down and detected.

• Larger spheres reduce the detector’s response

to low energy (slow) neutrons because the latter
will be absorbed by the hydrogen in the sphere
before reaching the detector.
78
Example of Detector Response to Different Energy
Neutrons with Large and Small Spheres

1000 counts 100 counts

100 counts 1000 counts

SLOW NEUTRONS FAST NEUTRONS

79
Energy Spectrum Measurements
Bonner Spheres

• The ratio of the counts obtained with the various

sized Bonner Spheres carries the information
about the energy of the neutrons.

• Computer Codes such as “BON” must be used

to fully interpret the results and determine the
neutron spectrum. This is sometimes referred to
as deconvoluting the spectrum.

80
Energy Spectrum Measurements

Bonner Spheres

Lithium iodide (LiI)

scintillator detector.

81
Energy Spectrum Measurements
Activation Foils

• Threshold activation foils can be used to obtain

general information about the neutron spectrum.
This approach takes advantage of the fact that
there can be an effective threshold,, (i.e.,
( ,a
minimum energy) for a given neutron interaction
to occur.

• After a set of different activation foils has been

exposed to neutrons, they are analyzed for the
activation products indicated in the following table.
82
Energy Spectrum Measurements
Example Activation Foils

Effective Threshold Target Reaction

(MeV) Material
0.5 Indium In-115 (n, n’) In-115
2.0 Zinc Zn-64(n,p) Cu-64
3.8 Aluminum Al-27(n,p)Mg-27
4.9 Aluminum Al-27(n, alpha)Na-24
6.0 Magnesium Mg-24(n,p)Na-24
8.6 Gold Au-197(n,2n)Au-196

83
Energy Spectrum Measurements
ROSPEC Rotating Neutron Spectrometer

• Uses four spherical proportional counters: three

2" chambers filled with hydrogen at 3/4, 4 and 10
atmospheres, and one 6" diameter chamber filled
with argon
argon-methane
methane at 5 atmospheres.
atmospheres

• The useful energy range (50 keV to 4.5 MeV) is

typical of the degraded spectra encountered at
nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities.

• The detectors are rotated about a common axis in

order to “average out” the field.
84
Energy Spectrum Measurements
ROSPEC Rotating Neutron Spectrometer

• Pulse height analysis is

performed on the signals
from all four detectors and
the data is unfolded byy the
ROSPEC software to
produce a neutron spectrum.

• The software also calculates

the dose rate, KERMA, dose
equivalent and ambient dose
equivalent (H*(10)).
85
Neutron Dose Equivalent
Measurements
(dosimeters)

86
Dose Equivalent Measurements
General

• Most dosimeters are of the albedo type - they rely

on the body to moderate and reflect neutrons.

• An albedo dosimeter should be worn close to the

body. Wearing albedo dosimeters over loose
clothing so that the body-dosimeter separation is
too great is a common problem.

• When used as area or environmental dosimeters,

they must be placed against a thick slab of
hydrogenous material e.g., 8" x 8" x 4" lucite.
87
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Types of Neutron Dosimeters

• Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD)

• Track etch
• Nuclear Track Emulsions (NTA)
• Film
• Bubble dosimeters (superheated drop)
• Proton recoil detectors
• Fission track detectors
• Electronic (diode) detectors

88
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters

• In the Panasonic badge employed at many

nuclear power plants, the response of a calcium
sulfate element (responds only to gamma rays) is
subtracted from the response
p of a lithium borate
element (responds to neutrons and gamma rays).

• The difference in their response is multiplied by a

factor that accounts for the effect of the facility’s
neutron spectrum on the dosimeter response.

89
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters

• In the Harshaw badge, the TLD-700 element

(enriched in Li-7) only responds to gamma rays.
The TLD-600 element (enriched in Li-6) responds
to both ggammas and neutrons. The response
p of
the former is subtracted from the response of the
latter to determine a net response to neutrons.

• The difference in their response is multiplied by a

factor that accounts for the effect of the facility’s
neutron spectrum on the dosimeter response.
90
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Track Etch
• The dosimetry method employed by Landauer.
• The dosimeter consists of CR-39 plastic (poly-allyl
diglycol carbonate) in contact with a “radiator.”
• Neutrons interacting in the radiator produce
particles that create damage tracks in the CR-39.
• Following a neutron exposure, the CR-39 is
etched in sodium hydroxide for 15 hours to make
the damage tracks visible under microscope.
• The number of damage tracks produced by the
neutrons in the CR-39 is related to the dose. 91
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Track Etch

Radiator
CR-39

Arrangement of radiator and Cr-39. Appearance of damage tracks in the

Cr-39 as seen under a microscope.

• For fast neutron dosimetry, the radiator is polyethylene. The

recoil protons from the radiator produce the damage tracks
in the CR-39.
• For slow neutron dosimetry, the radiator employs boron
loaded Teflon. The alphas produced by interactions with
boron produce the damage tracks in the CR-39. 92
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Track Etch

Fast neutrons Slow neutrons

Boron L
B Loaded
d d
Radiator
Radiator

CR-39 p+ CR-39 "+

p+ "+

93
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Nuclear Track Emulsions

• Not used nearly as much today as in the past.

•The most common nuclear track emulsion (NTA)

film is Kodak Type
yp A film.

• Neutrons strike the hydrogen nuclei in the NTA film

emulsion. The recoil protons (nuclei) travel
through the emulsion transferring energy to the
silver bromide crystals.

94
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Nuclear Track Emulsions

• When the film is processed, the image of the recoil

tracks become visible under a microscope. The
number of tracks per unit area of film is
determined and related to the dose equivalent.
q

• Relatively insensitive to neutrons below 0.5 MeV

• They tend to over respond to neutrons above 3.5

MeV, e.g., the over response to 14 MeV neutrons
can be as much as 100%!
95
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Film

• Landauer manufactures a film dosimeter to

measure the dose due to thermal neutrons. The
film is partially covered with a cadmium filter. The
capture
p of thermal neutrons by y the cadmium
results in the emission of prompt gamma rays that
expose the film. Uncovered portions of the film are
used to correct for the gamma background. A
specific application of this dosimeter might be to
measure personnel exposures in the vicinity of a
graphite moderated neutron source.
96
 Dose Equivalent Measurements
Film
n

Cadmium Capture
gamma
Responds to gamma Responds only to
Film rays and neutrons gamma rays

Landauer Neutron Film Dosimeter

97
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Bubble Dosimeters/Superheated Drop Detectors
• Not widely used, in part due to limited shelf life

• Bubble dosimeters consist of a few mls of an inert

gelatinous substance inside a plastic/glass vial.

• Thousands of tiny droplets of an organic liquid

(e.g., Freon) are suspended in the gelatinous
matrix. The pressure inside the vial is kept above
the vaporization point of the fluid.

98
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Bubble Dosimeters/Superheated Drop Detectors

• High energy neutrons scatter off hydrogen nuclei

to produce recoil protons which transfer their
energy to the liquid droplets.

• To increase the system’s sensitivity for low energy

neutrons, an element (often chlorine) is added
that produces a charged particle when it interacts
with these low energy neutrons, e.g.,

Slow neutron + Cl-35 → p + S-35

99
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Bubble Dosimeters/Superheated Drop Detectors

• When energy is transferred to the liquid droplets,

the latter are converted into a gas. This results in
the formation of tiny (ca. 1 mm) bubbles in the
matrix.

• The number of bubbles, which can be determined

manually or with an automated counter, is related
to the absorbed dose. Various sensitivities are
available ranging from about 0.5 to 25 bubbles per
mrem (50 to 2500 bubbles per mSv)
100
Dose Equivalent Measurements
Bubble Dosimeters/Superheated Drop Detectors

101
Using the Bonner Sphere 9” to 3”
Count Ratio to Correct
Dosimeter Response

102
Using the Bonner Sphere 9” to 3” Ratio to
Correct Dosimeter Response
• The response of many neutron dosimeters
decreases as the energy of the neutrons
increases.

• Some time ago, Dale Hankins suggested a

relatively simple method to correct for the
dependence of the dosimeter response on energy
that involves performing counts with a 9 inch and
3 inch cadmium covered Bonner sphere.

103
Using the Bonner Sphere 9” to 3” Ratio to
Correct Dosimeter Response
• The ratio of the counts performed with the 9 inch and 3
inch spheres increases with neutron energy:

Ratio

Energy 104
Using the Bonner Sphere 9” to 3” Ratio to
Correct Dosimeter Response

• On log log paper,

the dosimeter
response
p p
plotted
against the 9 to 3
ratio typically
forms a straight
line

105
 Appendix
Tissue Equivalent Proportional
Counters (TEPC)

106
Proportional Counter vs Ion Chamber

• A proportional counter is essentially the same as

an ionization chamber except that the pulses are
larger.

• In a
an ionization
o at o cchamber,
a be , oone
eeelectron
ect o reaches
eac es
the anode for every primary ion pair produced in
the gas. In a proportional counter, 100 to 1000
electrons reach the anode for every primary ion
pair produced in the gas.

107
Proportional Counter vs Ion Chamber

• The pulses in an ionization chamber are usually

too small to be counted. As such, an ion
chamber almost always operates in the current
mode, i.e., it measures the current from the
chamber.
c a be

• A proportional counter typically operates in the

pulse mode, i.e., it counts the number of pulses.

• It is also common to measure the size of the

individual pulses.
108
Proportional Counter vs Ion Chamber

• By measuring the size of the pulses, the energy

deposited in the detector gas by individual
events (gamma ray or neutron interactions) can
be determined. This is not possible with an ion
chamber.
c a be

• The larger size of neutron pulses allows them to

be distinguished from the smaller pulses
produced by gamma rays. This is not possible
with an ion chamber.

109
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
General

• TEPCs have been used for many years in

microdosimetry wherein the dose or dose
equivalent to small volumes of tissue (e.g., 1 um)
is measured.

• TEPC use in routine radiation protection is a

more recent development.

• A big advantage is that a TEPC can separate the

dose due to gamma rays and neutrons by pulse
height discrimination in mixed fields.
110
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
General

• However, pulse height discrimination for

neutrons below 100 keV is not very satisfactory.

• The main reason is that the range of low energy

recoil protons (hydrogen nuclei) in the detector
wall is short.

111
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
Typical Construction - Rossi Chamber

• The Rossi Chamber is a spherical chamber

employing tissue equivalent walls and a tissue
equivalent fill gas. It operates as a proportional
counter
counter.

• The sphere’s response is more or less

independent of the direction from which the
radiation comes (i.e., angularly independent).

• Using a wire running along the diameter of the

sphere complicates this.
112
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
Typical Construction - Rossi Chamber

• The electric field can become distorted towards

the ends of the anode where it gets close to the
spherical detector wall (the cathode). Because of
this distorted field,, gas
g multiplication
p is
decreased for the ionizing events that occur
towards the ends of the anode.

• To prevent this and create a cylindrically

symmetrical electric field along the length of the
anode, the Rossi chamber surrounds the anode
with a fine helical wire.
113
 Rossi Chamber
Gas Inlet

Helix

A d
Anode

Gas
Outlet

Cathode
114
contact Anode contact
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
Typical Construction - Rossi Chamber

• A problem with this design is the fact that this helix

is susceptible to vibration

• S
Suchh vibration
ib ti results lt iin microphonic
i h i noise,
i ii.e.,
spurious counts. Since cylindrical chambers don’t
require a helix, they are more rugged as well as
being easier to construct.

115
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent

• The size of a pulse reflects the ionization

produced in the gas by the particle. As such, it
reflects the absorbed dose to the gas per particle
(e.g., per neutron).

116
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• By measuring the size of each pulse, we can
measure the absorbed dose (D) per particle in
the gas. As such, we could calculate the dose
equivalent (H) per particle if we could estimate
th quality
the lit ffactor
t (Q)
(Q).
• One way to estimate Q is to calculate the LET of
the particle – Q is derived from the LET.
• Because of the following relationship, we could
determine the LET of the particle if we knew its
path length in the detector gas.
117
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• The energy transferred (imparted) to the gas per
particle is:
, = LET x l or LET = ,/l

, is the energy imparted to the detector gas per

particle (e.g., keV).

LET is the average linear energy transfer of the

particle over the path length (e.g., keV/um).

l is the particle path length (um).

118
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent

• While the energy transferred (imparted) to the gas

per particle (,) can be measured, we don’t know
the path length (l) so we can’t determine the LET.

• However, if the detector chamber has a known

geometry, we can calculate the average path
length of the particles traversing the chamber.

• The average path (chord) length of particles

traversing a sphere is easy to determine.

119
 Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent

The average path (chord) length l5

for a sphere is:
l1
lave = (4/3) R
l7
Where R is the sphere radius
l4
l2 l6
l3

120
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• Knowing the average path length of particles
traversing a spherical detector chamber, and
knowing the energy transferred to the gas per
particle, allows us to calculate a quantity closely
related to the LET: the lineal energy.

• The lineal energy (y) is:

• The lineal energy (y), unlike the LET, can be

measured easily.
121
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• According to ICRU 40, “the lineal energy is the
quotient of , by lave, where , is the energy
imparted to matter in a volume by a single
energy-deposition event and lave is the mean
chord length in that volume”

• Unlike LET, lineal energy (y) is a stochastic

quantity – for a given type of particle and a given
energy, the lineal energy varies (due to varying
path lengths). 122
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• Even though the value assigned to Q is
conventionally based on the LET, it is recognized
that there is good reason to employ the lineal
energy to calculate Q.

• According to ICRU 40, lineal energy “should thus

be more closely related to the biological effect of
radiation [than the LET]” and “for purposes of
radiation protection, radiation quality [i.e., Q]
should be based on lineal energy in a 1 um
diameter sphere of ICRU tissue.”
123
Relationship Between the Quality Factor
and the Lineal Energy ( ICRU 40)

124
Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counters
How They Measure Dose Equivalent
• Since the energy deposited in the gas by a
particle (,) is directly related to lineal energy (y),
the pulse size is also directly related to y.
• Pulse height
g analysis
y on the TEPC output
p
generates a lineal energy spectrum: the higher
the lineal energy, the higher the channel number
the pulse is sorted into.
• By using the ICRU or ICRP recommendations
regarding the relationship between the lineal
energy and the quality factor (Q), a value for Q
can be assigned to each channel number. 125