Universidad Complutense de Madrid: Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Universidad Complutense de Madrid: Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
TESIS DOCTORAL
PRESENTADA POR
Director
Madrid, 2021
1
Director: Tutora:
Dr. JAIME BOSCH PÉREZ Dra. ELENA ARRIERO HIGUERAS
Dpto. de Biogeografía y Cambio Global Dpto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
(MNCN, CSIC) Universidad Complutense de Madrid
C/ José Gutierrez Abascal, 2 C/ José Antonio Novais, 12
28006, Madrid (España) 28040, Madrid (España)
bosch@[Link] [Link]@[Link]
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ACERCA DEL IDIOMA
La presente tesis doctoral ha sido redactada en dos idiomas: castellano e
inglés. Mientras que la Introducción, los Objetivos Principales, y la Discusión
Integradora han sido redactados en castellano, los Capítulos 2-6 están
redactados en inglés puesto que ese fue el idioma en el que se escribieron
originalmente para su posterior publicación en revistas científicas
internacionales. No obstante, se incluye un breve resumen en castellano al
inicio de cada capítulo. Tanto el Resumen/Abstract como las
Conclusiones/Conclusions, han sido redactadas en ambos idiomas.
FUENTES DE FINANCIACIÓN
Los estudios contenidos en esta tesis doctoral han sido en su mayoría
financiados por la Fundación General CSIC y el Banco Santander (Zero
Projects, IP: Jaime Bosch). Otras fuentes de financiación incluyen a la
Fundación BBVA, el Proyecto BiodivERsA “Risk Assessment of
Chytridiomycosis to European Amphibian Biodiversity” RACE (Ministerio de
Ciencia e Innovación de España – EU12008-03637, IP: Jaime Bosch), los
Fondos del Gobierno Vasco (IT951-16), el Leverhulme Trust RPG 2014-273, y
la NERC Standard Grant NE/N009967/1.
PERMISOS
Los permisos para la realización de los trabajos de campo han sido otorgados
por la Consejería de Agricultura, Ganadería y Medio Ambiente de Aragón, por
la Consejería de Fomento y Medio Ambiente de Castilla y León, por la
Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Ordenación del Territorio y Sostenibilidad de
Madrid (permisos: 10/032921.9/12 y 10/071126.9/13), y por la Conselleria de
Medi Ambient i Territori de Mallorca (permiso: CEP 43/2015).
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AGRADECIMIENTOS
Y todo viaje, por largo que éste sea, ha de comenzar por un primer paso.
En mi caso, creo que tendría que remontarme a una experiencia que tuve la
suerte de poder vivir mientras realizaba una estancia en la Durrell Wildlife
Conservation Trust, importante institución dedicada a la conservación de
especies animales de todo el mundo. El director del departamento de
herpetología, el Dr. Gerardo García, me invitó a hacer una visita nocturna
guiada a las instalaciones en las que se mantenían a los anfibios y reptiles. El
poder ver y disfrutar de la belleza de esos animales de manera tan cercana me
impactó profundamente, y despertó en mí una admiración por ellos que me
acompañaría ya siempre. Posteriormente llegaron el trabajo fin de Máster
acerca de parásitos y quitridiomicosis en sapo común en el que estuvieron
implicados tanto Gerardo como Javier López, mi estancia en la Estación
Biológica de Doñana y los trabajos con distintas especies de anfibios que allí
desarrollé bajo la supervisión de Carmen Díaz e Iván Gómez, o el proyecto de
conservación y lucha frente a la quitridiomicosis en Montserrat con una
especie de anfibio en peligro crítico de extinción, la Mountain Chicken
(Leptodactylus fallax). A todas y todos aquellos con los que coincidí en este
tiempo previo al comienzo de la tesis les doy las gracias. Seguramente no
hubiese llegado hasta este punto sin su ayuda, sus enseñanzas y su apoyo.
5
Toda esa experiencia y conocimientos adquiridos me brindaron la
oportunidad de poder trabajar como parte del equipo del Dr. Jaime Bosch en
una de las más relevantes, sino la más, instituciones de investigación que
existen en España, el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) y
al mismo tiempo, me abrieron la puerta para que pudiera desarrollar este
proyecto de tesis doctoral trabajando en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias
Naturales (MNCN). Algo que para mí, ha significado un auténtico orgullo.
Jaime, eres sin duda alguna el principal artífice de que esto haya
finalmente podido salir adelante. Es complicado plasmar en tan sólo unas
pocas palabras todo lo que he podido aprender de ti. Han sido años de una
ingente cantidad de trabajo, de guía, implicación y supervisión por tu parte, de
incontables correos para corregir y mejorar los manuscritos que se han
convertido después en publicaciones, de momentos compartidos, de disfrutar
del frío aunque siempre precioso Maestrazgo turolense y de la agreste Serra de
Tramuntana mallorquina, de llamadas de atención cuando eran necesarias, y
de ofrecerme un soporte y respaldo cruciales que han hecho que sintiese la
confianza necesaria para terminar este gran proyecto. Tienes toda mi
admiración a nivel académico y para mí, ha sido todo un lujo trabajar a tu
lado. Pero también y sobre todo, a lo largo de todo este tiempo me has
demostrado tu enorme calidad a nivel personal. Creo que nunca podré
agradecerte lo suficiente el haber podido contar con todo tu apoyo y tu
comprensión cuando la vida, que desgraciadamente tiene estas cosas, me hizo
pasar por momentos tremendamente duros y complicados. Gracias, de
corazón.
Gracias también a Elena, por tu trabajo como tutora, por tus enseñanzas
en el campo de la inmunología, y por tu inestimable colaboración en uno de los
estudios que componen esta tesis doctoral.
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Al gran Equipo J, muchas gracias Saio y Püppy por todo lo compartido,
por vuestra acogida y por hacerme sentir siempre como en casa, por todas esas
horas de trabajo en el Centro de Cría, en el campo o en el laboratorio, por
tantos buenos momentos dentro y fuera del trabajo, por la compañía, por
vuestro apoyo y ayuda, por vuestra amistad, por las risas y por el buen
ambiente. Ha sido un verdadero privilegio haberos tenido como compañeras
de viaje. Tenéis gran parte de culpa de que haya llegado hasta aquí.
Muchísimas gracias Saio también, porque tu tesis ha sido una gran fuente de
inspiración y una gran ayuda a la hora de maquetar este trabajo.
Me gustaría también darles las gracias a otras personas con las que he
coincidido a lo largo de todo este tiempo, que han conseguido gracias a su
trabajo y a la ayuda que me han prestado, que este proyecto de tesis doctoral se
convierta en una realidad. Gracias Annie, Iván y Yolanda por vuestra ayuda y
vuestros consejos técnicos en el laboratorio de Biología Molecular del
MNCN.
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Gracias también a Goyo y Michel, por hacer de ese laboratorio un lugar de
trabajo ameno y con buen ambiente. Aquí me gustaría hacer una mención
especial y darle las gracias a la que creo sinceramente es el alma de ese
laboratorio. Infatigable, incansable y, “siempre en la lucha” entre muestras,
placas y reactivos. Gracias Pilar. A todas y todos, perdón por “amenizaros” las
mañanas y las tardes con el “sutil susurro” del beadbeater.
8
En este viaje no hubiera sido posible llevar la embarcación de vuelta a
Ítaca estando solo. Para llegar al destino ha sido indispensable poder contar
con una tripulación curtida y experimentada, capaz de sacar indemne al más
pequeño de los botes de la más temible de las tormentas. Y yo me siento
tremendamente afortunado por saber que he contado y cuento con la mejor
tripulación que pueda existir:
A mis amigos. Por fin después de todo este tiempo, creo que la próxima
vez que me preguntéis por el tema mi respuesta va a poder ser diferente.
Pedro, Miguel, Carlos, Fernando, Íñigo. Mi pequeño-gran cónclave. Sergio,
Rubén, Gerardo, gracias por esos raticos juntos, y por enseñarme esos
rinconcicos especiales de Madrid. A todos, gracias por estar siempre ahí, por
vuestra paciencia, vuestro interés y vuestro apoyo incondicional. Sin vosotros
como inseparables compañeros de viaje, sé que esto no hubiese sido posible.
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A mi madre, la estrella que me ha guiado a lo largo de todo este gran viaje
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“Las ciencias tienen las raíces amargas, pero muy dulces los frutos”
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ÍNDICE DE CONTENIDOS
RESUMEN / ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................16
CAPÍTULO 1. INTRODUCCIÓN............................................................................................27
OBJETIVOS PRINCIPALES....................................................................................................74
CAPÍTULO 2..........................................................................................................................78
CAPÍTULO 3..........................................................................................................................96
14
CAPÍTULO 4.........................................................................................................................113
CAPÍTULO 5.........................................................................................................................142
CAPÍTULO 6........................................................................................................................164
CONCLUSIONES / CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................209
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RESUMEN / ABSTRACT
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17
RESUMEN
Esta patología que afecta a la piel de los anfibios, está originada por el
hongo quitridio Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (de aquí en adelante, Bd) y
afecta a multitud de especies principalmente de anuros. Hasta ahora Bd era el
único miembro del Filo Chytridiomycota capaz de causar una enfermedad en
vertebrados. No obstante, recientemente se ha descrito una nueva especie de
hongo quitridio, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (de aquí en adelante,
Bsal), que también muestra esta capacidad infectiva en vertebrados y que
afecta más directamente a anfibios urodelos como las salamandras.
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La capacidad de evasión de la respuesta inmune anfibia por parte de Bd
ha sido puesta de manifiesto por diversos estudios. Las hipótesis que se
manejan para explicar la diferente sensibilidad de las especies ante los efectos
del hongo giran en torno a lo demostrado por estas investigaciones, que
muestran que Bd podría inhibir la proliferación de linfocitos y provocar su
muerte celular, y sería también capaz de alterar la regulación de ciertos genes
necesarios para el buen funcionamiento del sistema inmune adquirido.
Muchos han sido los tratamientos que se han utilizado para tratar la
quitridiomicosis en anfibios mantenidos bajo condiciones controladas en
cautividad. Sin embargo, no todos ellos se han mostrado completamente
eficaces, e incluso algunos de ellos presentan efectos secundarios que pueden
poner en riesgo la salud tanto animal como humana. Todavía hoy en día se
sigue buscando un protocolo de tratamiento que sea totalmente eficaz, seguro,
y que pueda aplicarse fácilmente en todas las especies de anfibio y en todas las
formas de desarrollo (larvas, juveniles y adultos). El producto antifúngico más
extendido en su uso es el itraconazol, un triazol sistémico de primera
generación, que se aplica a través de baños a distintas concentraciones y del
que no obstante, se han detectado indicios de toxicidad cuando es utilizado
para tratar la enfermedad en el estadío larvario de algunas especies de anfibio.
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demostrado asociados al surgimiento de brotes de enfermedades infecciosas.
Esto se fundamentaría en que las variaciones bruscas de las condiciones
ambientales, en especial de la temperatura, hacen que los hospedadores
tengan que readaptarse a temperaturas que están fuera de su rango térmico
óptimo y en consecuencia, sufran un estrés térmico que los hace más
susceptibles a padecer los efectos de agentes patógenos. Además, bajo este
escenario de calentamiento global y de incremento de las temperaturas, los
seres vivos tienen que adaptarse a temperaturas que están cada vez más
próximas a su umbral térmico máximo (CTmax), punto en el que se produce
un desequilibrio homeostático que de prolongarse en el tiempo puede tener
consecuencias fatales.
20
se han implementado sobre el terreno medidas destinadas a tratar de mitigar
los efectos de la enfermedad en el medio natural.
21
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ABSTRACT
This disease, which affects the amphibian skin mainly of Anuran species,
is originated by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (here in
after, Bd). Until now Bd was the only example of a chytrid infecting
vertebrates. Recently though, a new chytrid fungus species has been described,
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (here in after, Bsal), which also has this
vertebrate infective capacity, mainly of Urodela species such as salamanders.
23
be able to inhibit lymphocyte proliferation, and even dysregulate the gene
expression profiles of a number of genes involved in the acquired immune
response.
24
close to their critical thermal maximum (CTmax), which represents the upper
limit of the ability of animals to counterbalance temperature increases and
also marks the loss of homeostasis.
Species illegal trade and globalization have intensified the chytrid fungus
and chytridiomycosis intercontinental dispersal until reaching a point of no
return where the disease is already globally widespread. That is the main
reason why there is an urgent need for designing and implementing different
field interventions able to mitigate the effects of the disease affecting wild
amphibian populations. The great challenge now is to find a safe, simple,
effective, reliable and transferable across host species and environments
mitigation strategy. Two of those mitigation techniques, which have been
tested and have provided a more hopeful outcome, will be described in this
thesis. One of them was carried out in Mallorca, and represents the first
successful attempt of the world to achieve eradication of Bd from a natural
setting.
Since its discovery, the scientific community has tried to unveil the
origins of this disease, unravel all the different factors that have an influence
on its dynamics and transmission, determine the host response against the
fungal pathogen, or design effective treatment regimes that could be used to
clear infection. There have also been some initiatives attempting to mitigate
the effects of the disease in the natural environment.
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26
CAPÍTULO 1. INTRODUCCIÓN
27
28
Introducción
INTRODUCCIÓN
29
Capítulo 1
30
Introducción
cambio climático, que sobre todo en los últimos años se está revelando como
una seria amenaza para el conjunto de la biodiversidad debido al
calentamiento global y a la aparición cada vez más frecuente de eventos
climáticos extremos (Daszak et al. 1999; Hof et al. 2011; Blaustein et al. 2012;
Scheele et al. 2019).
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Capítulo 1
32
Introducción
33
Capítulo 1
34
Introducción
llegar a cinco continentes y afectar a los anfibios que en ellos habitan (Farrer et
al. 2011; Byrne et al. 2019). Este linaje hipervirulento y muy resistente es el
que desgraciadamente podemos encontrar tanto en la península ibérica, como
en el resto de Europa, donde también se ha detectado la presencia de otros
linajes como BdCAPE y BdAsia1. La existencia de distintos linajes en una
misma área abre la posibilidad a que se produzcan hibridaciones entre linajes
que den lugar a cepas recombinantes, que pueden llegar incluso a ser más
virulentas que sus antecesores (Byrne et al. 2019; Castro Monzon et al. 2020).
En lo referente al hospedador, dentro de estos factores bióticos, además de la
condición corporal, la estructura poblacional, los rasgos del ciclo vital de cada
especie, la presencia de una microbiota en la piel de los anfibios capaz de
producir sustancias que inhiben el crecimiento del hongo, la producción por
parte de glándulas existentes en la piel de los anfibios de un abanico de
péptidos antimicrobianos con efectos fungicidas, o los distintos elementos que
componen el sistema inmune innato y adquirido, aparece también otro factor
adicional que condiciona la evolución de la infección y es, la variabilidad en
cuanto a sensibilidad frente al patógeno que existe entre las distintas especies
de anfibios. Ha quedado ya probado por la comunidad científica, que no todas
las especies de anfibios responden de igual manera ante la infección por parte
del agente fúngico (Woodhams et al. 2007; Briggs et al. 2010; Tobler &
Schmidt 2010). Así, mientras especies como la rana toro americana
(Lithobates catesbeianus) o la rana de uñas africana (Xenopus laevis), aún
siendo infectadas por Bd se muestran completamente asintomáticas, y son
capaces de soportar cargas fúngicas muy elevadas sin que éstas tengan
consecuencias negativas para sus organismos (Garner et al. 2006; Ramsey et
al. 2010), otras especies como la rana de patas amarillas de montaña (Rana
muscosa), o el sapo partero común (Alytes obstetricans), sí que se muestran
especialmente sensibles (Figura 2) a los efectos del hongo (Bosch et al. 2001;
Vredenburg et al. 2010).
35
Capítulo 1
Figura 2. Sapo partero común (A. obstetricans) muerto a causa de la quitridiomicosis. Foto: Jaime Bosch.
36
Introducción
Hay también otro factor a tener en cuenta cuando las infectadas por el
hongo son aquellas larvas de determinadas especies de anfibios
eminentemente terrestres en su fase adulta, pero con un desarrollo larvario
muy largo, que incluso puede prolongarse durante varios años. Especies como
R. muscosa o A. obstetricans tienen un desarrollo larvario que puede
extenderse a lo largo de varios años en localizaciones de una elevada altitud,
donde el agua se mantiene a una baja temperatura durante todo el año (Bosch
37
Capítulo 1
Por otra parte, los efectos del hongo sobre el organismo son distintos
cuando el agente fúngico infecta a un anfibio de una especie sensible que ya ha
completado la metamorfosis. Como se ha mencionado con anterioridad, el
hongo limita su rango de acción a las células queratinizadas. Durante la
metamorfosis, esas células que en los estadíos larvarios estaban presentes
solamente en la boca, se extienden por toda la piel de los anfibios, con lo que
también se aumenta de una manera significativa el rango de afección de Bd.
Esto conlleva cambios fisiopatológicos en la estructura del estrato granuloso y
del estrato córneo de la epidermis, los cuales se ven invadidos por las
zoosporas infectivas que después se transforman en esporangios. La piel de los
anfibios es única entre los vertebrados terrestres, ya que a través de ella se
produce un intercambio de gases, agua y electrolitos, que consigue que el
animal mantenga un equilibrio osmótico con el ambiente que le rodea. Las
alteraciones producidas por el hongo a nivel de la epidermis causan un
engrosamiento de la piel o hiperqueratosis, y ocasionan una disrupción de las
funciones cutáneas con la consiguiente inhibición del transporte de
38
Introducción
electrolitos, que en el caso del sodio y del potasio puede llegar a alcanzar
niveles de un 20% y de un 50% respectivamente (Voyles et al. 2009). Esto
acaba comprometiendo de forma severa la osmorregulación y la falta de
electrolitos, sobre todo de potasio, termina afectando a la función cardíaca.
Finalmente, el fallo del corazón lleva, en última instancia, a la muerte del
animal (Voyles et al. 2009). Nos encontramos así con la paradoja de que un
agente patógeno que limita su rango de afección a los estratos más
superficiales de la epidermis y no causa cambios patológicos en ningún órgano
interno, acaba siendo letal para los anfibios al provocar un paro cardíaco
(Voyles et al. 2009).
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Capítulo 1
especie que los produzca (Rollins-Smith & Conlon 2005; Conlon et al. 2009;
Grogan et al. 2018; Rollins-Smith. 2020). Finalmente, dentro del sistema
inmune innato estarían las células dendríticas que son células presentadoras
de antígenos, y los componentes del complemento. El sistema del
complemento inmunitario está formado por una serie de proteínas cuya
activación a través de tres diferentes vías lleva a la mejora de la respuesta
inflamatoria, a una opsonización del patógeno, y a una lisis celular a través de
la formación del complejo de ataque de membrana (Rodriguez & Voyles 2020).
El complemento es por lo tanto un elemento importante en la respuesta
inmune temprana, ya que hace que esa respuesta sea más robusta y eficiente, y
también actúa como un nexo de unión entre el sistema inmune innato y el
adquirido (Robert & Ohta 2009; Rollins-Smith et al. 2009; Rodriguez & Voyles
2020). La otra parte del sistema inmune anfibio sería el sistema inmune
adquirido o adaptativo, compuesto principalmente por un tipo de leucocitos,
los linfocitos tipo B y tipo T. Aunque los anfibios carecen del equivalente a lo
que en los mamíferos son los nódulos linfáticos, sí que poseen un timo, que es
el órgano donde se diferencian los linfocitos T y un bazo, que también actúa
como órgano linfoide en el que se acumulan los linfocitos T y B. Este sistema
adquirido está también formado por el complejo mayor de histocompatibilidad
(MHC por sus siglas en inglés), del cual hay dos clases. El MHC Clase-I se
encarga de presentar principalmente antígenos de origen intracelular,
mientras que el MHC Clase-II hace lo mismo con los antígenos de origen
extracelular (Rollins-Smith. 2001; Robert & Ohta 2009; Rollins-Smith et al.
2009). Su funcionamiento se basa en la competencia que poseen los péptidos
que forman el MHC para unirse a los antígenos y posteriormente
presentárselos a los linfocitos, que son entonces capaces de destruir las células
infectadas y de montar una respuesta humoral consistente en la producción de
inmunoglobulinas o anticuerpos específicos para esos antígenos (Figura 3).
Este proceso de presentación de antígenos y de respuesta humoral específica
es lo que hace que el sistema inmune adaptativo sea más lento y en teoría, lo
40
Introducción
Figura 3. Componentes del Sistema Inmune Innato y Sistema Inmune Adquirido de los anfibios.
A pesar del parecido que guarda el sistema inmune anfibio con el del
resto de vertebrados, hay sin embargo un proceso que atraviesan los anfibios
41
Capítulo 1
en algún momento a lo largo de su ciclo vital, que los hace únicos y los
diferencia del resto de vertebrados del planeta. Es la metamorfosis. Este
proceso de transformación que supone un tránsito desde los estadíos larvarios
a la etapa adulta, tiene también un efecto muy importante en el sistema
inmune anfibio, ya que conlleva un profundo y radical cambio en la expresión
de proteínas, la población de linfocitos y por lo tanto, en el repertorio de los
anticuerpos que éstos producen (Hsu & DuPasquier 1992). Durante la
metamorfosis hay una reorganización total del sistema inmune. A lo largo del
desarrollo larvario, la población de linfocitos va expandiéndose. Las larvas, al
igual que los adultos, poseen inmunoglobulinas IgM y también IgY, aunque
éstas últimas en bastante menor cantidad que los adultos. Algo que también
diferencia el sistema inmune adulto del larvario, es la ausencia en este último
de MHC Clase-I (Du Pasquier et al. 1989; Rollins-Smith. 1998). La
metamorfosis acarrea grandes cambios a nivel tisular en todo el organismo y
por supuesto, estos cambios afectan también a los linfocitos que ven su
población disminuida drásticamente (Hsu & DuPasquier 1992). Durante el
clímax metamórfico, el número de linfocitos larvarios decrece hasta en un
40%. Este acuciado descenso está ocasionado por un aumento en la
producción de hormona liberadora de corticotropina (CRH por sus siglas en
inglés) por parte del hipotálamo. La CRH provoca a su vez, una elevación en la
producción por parte de la hipófisis de hormona adrenocorticotropa (ACTH) y
de hormona estimulante del tiroides (TSH). Finalmente, la cascada hormonal
se completa con un acusado incremento en los niveles de las hormonas
tiroideas y en los corticoesteroides circulantes en sangre. Estas hormonas
ayudan a acelerar la metamorfosis, pero los costicoesteroides, que se producen
también bajo situaciones de estrés, inducen además la muerte celular o
apoptosis de los linfocitos. Esta destrucción fisiológica de los linfocitos
larvarios se produce durante la metamorfosis para evitar que esos mismos
linfocitos reaccionen y ataquen al nuevo repertorio proteíco y linfocitario
específico de los anfibios adultos, que se forma tras la metamorfosis. Después
42
Introducción
43
Capítulo 1
44
Introducción
45
Capítulo 1
anfibia (Rollins-Smith et al. 2011; Grogan et al. 2018). Los AMPs son
normalmente de naturaleza catiónica e hidrofóbicos, y tienen una importante
capacidad de disrupción de las membranas celulares, lo que les confiere la
facultad de proteger a la piel de agresiones causadas por bacterias, virus,
protozoos y también hongos. Estos AMPs jugarían un papel crítico en la
prevención de la colonización de la piel por parte de Bd, limitando el grado de
infección. Se ha comprobado además que estos péptidos actúan
sinérgicamente para inhibir el crecimiento de las zoosporas y los esporangios
del hongo. Serían así una pieza fundamental en la resistencia contra los efectos
del patógeno (Rollins-Smith et al. 2009; Ramsey et al. 2010; Gervasi et al.
2014). Diversos estudios han evidenciado también su importancia a la hora de
luchar frente al hongo quitridio, ya que se ha demostrado que algunas especies
sensibles a Bd como el sapo boreal (Anaxyrus boreas) no poseen una mezcla
peptídica efectiva contra el patógeno (Rollins-Smith et al. 2009). Y viceversa,
aquellas especies de anfibios más resistentes a la enfermedad y que no han
sufrido declives, son aquellas capaces de secretar un abanico de péptidos que
sí muestran un alto grado de efectividad in vitro frente al hongo (Woodhams
et al. 2007). Existen así evidencias cada vez más sólidas, que nos llevan a
pensar que se podría predecir la supervivencia o el declive de una especie de
anfibio al enfrentarse a una infección por Bd en la naturaleza, según la clase y
la cantidad de péptidos antimicrobianos que dicha especie sea capaz de
producir (Rollins-Smith et al. 2011). Además de estas defensas dérmicas, otro
tipo de defensas, conformadas por el sistema inmune innato y el adquirido,
son movilizadas para tratar de contener la infección si el hongo tiene éxito a la
hora de colonizar la piel del anfibio. Entran en juego entonces las defensas
celulares y las humorales. Dentro de la respuesta celular, es de gran
importancia la actividad de los linfocitos T. De hecho, durante mucho tiempo
se ha otorgado a las células T un rol preponderante en la defensa frente a las
infecciones fúngicas (Blanco & García 2008). En el caso de la infección por el
hongo quitridio, se ha observado una proliferación de linfocitos T muy débil,
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TRATAMIENTO DE LA QUITRIDIOMICOSIS
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Sin duda, el fármaco que se usa de una forma más generalizada y el que
mejores resultados ha dado hasta el momento, sobre todo al tratar anfibios
juveniles y adultos infectados con Bd, es el itraconazol (Nichols & Lamirande
2001). Este triazol sistémico de primera generación, altera la permeabilidad de
membrana y las funciones del hongo (Loyau et al. 2016), y ha sido utilizado
con éxito en distintos centros de investigación y en programas de cría en
cautividad (Forzán et al. 2008; Garner et al. 2009a; Jones et al. 2012).
49
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50
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celular fúngica y hacer que el hongo pase a ser más susceptible a las
propiedades disruptivas de los péptidos (Holden et al. 2014).
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diversidad anfibia se refiere (Hof et al. 2011). Los eventos climáticos extremos
y la variabilidad térmica, serán los causantes de que múltiples especies del
planeta sufran de un estrés térmico al sacar a los organismos fuera de su zona
térmica de confort, lo que llevará a un aumento de las tasas de mortalidad
(McMichael et al. 2006). Estos cambios bruscos y rápidos pueden hacer
también que aquellas especies anfibias que evolutivamente ya habían
optimizado su sistema inmune para enfrentarse a patógenos bajo unas
condiciones ambientales específicas, vean afectada su capacidad para
desplegar una respuesta inmune robusta o adecuada al cambiar dichas
condiciones (Fisher et al. 2007). Vemos así como la variabilidad térmica
podría afectar a las defensas de los hospedadores ectotérmicos (Rohr & Raffel
2010; Cohen et al. 2020). La hipótesis del desequilibrio térmico (Cohen et al.
2017), se basa en que los rangos fisiológicos térmicos son diferentes entre
patógenos y hospedadores. Normalmente los patógenos tienen rangos más
amplios, lo que les permite aclimatarse mejor y de una forma más rápida que
sus hospedadores a la variabilidad térmica y a las condiciones ambientales
cambiantes (Cohen et al. 2020). Nos encontraremos así con que los
hospedadores serán más vulnerables a los efectos de los patógenos cuanto mas
difieran las temperaturas de aquellas a las que están adaptados (Cohen et al.
2017; Neely et al. 2020). Para cualquier organismo además, montar una
respuesta inmune eficaz es costoso a nivel energético. Así, las especies de
anfibios amenazadas por patógenos como Bd y sujetas a unas condiciones
ambientales que les exigen optimizar muy bien sus recursos, haciéndoles
funcionar habitualmente manteniendo un delicado equilibrio muy cerca de sus
límites fisiológicos, como aquellas que habitan en zonas de montaña, pueden
encontrarse con que estos cambios bruscos en las condiciones ambientales les
fuercen, con el fin de hacer frente al patógeno fúngico, a destinar recursos a su
sistema inmune de los que quizá carezcan o, que tengan que detraer de otras
funciones orgánicas (Fisher et al. 2009). El hecho de que hospedadores que
habitan zonas de montaña sean por lo tanto menos capaces que aquellos que
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Smick KM, Condit PK, Proctor RL, Sutcher V. (1964). Fatal aplastic anemia: An
epidemiological study of its relationship to the drug chloramphenicol. Journal of Chronic
Diseases, 17 (10): 899-914.
Sudova E, Machova J, Svobodova Z, Vesely T. (2007). Negative effects of malachite green and
possibilities of its replacement in the treatment of fish eggs and fish: a review. Veterinarni
Medicina, 52: 527-539.
Voyles J, Young S, Berger L, Campbell C, Voyles WF, Dinudom A, Cook D, Webb R, Alford RA,
Skerratt LF, Speare R. (2009). Pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis, a cause of catastrophic
amphibian declines. Science, 326: 582-585.
71
Capítulo 1
Vredenburg VT, Knapp RA, Tunstall TS, Briggs CJ. (2010). Dynamics of an emerging disease
drive large-scale amphibian population extinctions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107 (21): 9689-
9694. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0914111107
Walker SF, Bosch J, Gomez V, Cunningham AA, Schmeller DS, Ninyerola M, Henk D, Ginestet
C, Arthur CP, Fisher MC. (2010). Factors driving pathogenicity vs prevalence of amphibian
panzootic chytridiomycosis in Iberia. Ecology Letters, 13: 372-382. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-
0248.2009.01434.x
Woodhams DC, Ardipradja K, Alford RA, Marantelli G, Reinert LK, Rollins-Smith LA. (2007).
Resistance to chytridiomycosis varies among amphibian species and is correlated with skin
peptide defenses. Animal Conservation, 10: 409-417. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00130.x
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Developmental and Comparative Immunology, 5 (1): 117-122.
Young S, Speare R, Berger L, Skerratt LF. (2012). Chloramphenicol with fluid and electrolyte
therapy cures terminally ill green tree frogs (Litoria caerulea) with chytridiomycosis. Journal
of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 43 (2): 330-337.
72
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OBJETIVOS PRINCIPALES
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OBJETIVOS PRINCIPALES
75
solitario, bien en combinación con otro producto antifúngico llamado metil
tiofanato, para tratar larvas de A. obstetricans infectadas de forma natural con una
cepa hipervirulenta y muy resistente de Bd. Evaluar el grado de eficacia de dichos
tratamientos determinando su capacidad para limpiar completamente a las larvas
de la infección, y si presentan efectos secundarios potencialmente peligrosos.
76
77
CAPÍTULO 2
1
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
2
Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain.
3
Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK.
4
Centro de Investigación, Seguimiento y Evaluación, Parque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama,
Cta. M-604, Km. 27,6, 28740 Rascafría, Spain.
DOI: [Link]
78
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Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
RESUMEN
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
ABSTRACT
Fungal pathogens have evolved a broad suite of strategies aiming at evading the
host immune response. Amphibians are globally infected by the panzootic chytrid
fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and, while robust innate immune
defences have been characterised, there is little evidence for the existence of
effective adaptive immunity. We determine the immune response of the common
midwife toad following challenge by Bd as larvae. Immune function was described
for both the cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses following
infectious challenge as larval amphibians. While there were no significant
differences in the ratio of neutrophils/lymphocytes between infected and
uninfected individuals, early exposure of tadpoles to Bd significantly dampened
the levels of circulating immunoglobulins (IgM and IgY) in the serum of juveniles
after metamorphosis. Our results show that Bd immunosuppresses amphibians
when infection occurs as larvae with potentially broad effects on the remodelling of
immunity during metamorphosis.
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Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
INTRODUCTION
The main organ responsible for the immune changes during amphibian
metamorphosis is the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis that acts by
increasing levels of plasma corticosteroids (Rollins-Smith. 1998, 2001; Gervasi &
Foufopoulos 2008; Kindermann et al. 2012). This sharp increase in corticosteroid
levels, however, results in a transient immune impairment during metamorphosis
(Flajnik et al. 1987; Rollins-Smith 1998, 2001). While this is a physiological
process, the lymphocyte breakdown and temporary immunosuppression that
happens during the metamorphosis climax, leaves amphibians more prone to
82
Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
Tadpoles were wild caught from infected and non-infected populations of the
Provinces of Teruel and Zamora (north and central Spain). A. obstetricans is an
amphibian species highly susceptible to Bd with an extremely long larval stage
characterised by high prevalences and fungal loads upon metamorphic climax
(Fernández-Beaskoetxea et al. 2015). To determine the leukocyte profiles, tadpoles
were raised in captivity until metamorphosis and blood samples were obtained by
heart puncture from tadpoles and juveniles prior to terminal anaesthesia. Animals
were swabbed immediately after taking blood samples (the oral disc for larvae and
83
Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
the lower ventral surface and hind-limbs of juveniles) with sterile rayon-tipped
swabs (MW100-100; Medical Wire & Equipment Co., Corsham, UK), then DNA
was extracted with PrepMan Ultra and quantitative PCR analyses were carried out
following Boyle et al. (2004).
Standard blood smears were made on clean microscope slides that were air-
dried, fixed with pure alcohol, and stained with the Diff-Quick staining technique.
Haematological smears were read under ×40 magnification using a compound
microscope. Cell counts were performed until at least 100 leukocytes were
enumerated. White blood cells were identified and the proportion of each cell type
was afterwards determined.
84
Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
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Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
between the first and the third factor was considered because not every level of the
Bd treatment factor was replicated across the other two factors. For statistical
analyses, variables were transformed using Box-Cox or Johnson normalizing
transformations, and residuals of general linear models did not deviate from the
canonical assumptions.
RESULTS
86
Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
Table 1. Average percentages for each cell type in each development group
Levels of IgM did not differ across Bd treatments (F2,70 = 0.905, p = 0.409),
among animals being in contact or not with Bd during the late contact phase of the
experiment (F1,70 = 0.238, p = 0.626), nor of the interaction between Bd contact
during the early and the late phases (F1,70 = 0.630, p = 0.430; Figure 1). On the
other hand, there was a strong effect upon levels of IgM following contact with Bd
during the first contact phase (F1,70 = 321.67, p = 0.0001). Similar results were
obtained for IgY, showing a very significant effect of being in contact with Bd
during the early contact phase of the experiment (F1,70 = 308.47, p = 0.0001).
87
Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
Figure 1. Humoral immune response (IgM and IgY OD levels) of experimental larvae on nine different
experimental groups (A–I) belonging three consecutive phases. (1) Early contact phase: non overwintering
(NOW) experimental larvae being in contact with Bd− (groups A–E) or Bd+ (groups F–I) overwintering larvae
(OW); (2) intermediate treatment phase: NOW experimental larvae were treated with itraconazole (ITZ;
groups B, D, F, and H), elevated temperature (temp; groups C, E, G, and I), or not treated (NA; group A); and
(3) late contact phase: NOW experimental larvae being in contact again with Bd− (groups A–C and F–G) or
Bd+ (groups D–E, and H–I) OW larvae. Sample size of each experimental group at the end of the experiment
was, respectively, 8, 10, 6, 7, 10, 10, 8, 7, and 11.
DISCUSSION
88
Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
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Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
reinfected, with some animals eventually clearing their infection. Yet another
study showed that boreal toads (Anaxyrus boreas) that were previously exposed to
Bd lived for a longer period of time after reinfection and suffered from a lower
infection intensity than Bd-naïve individuals (Murphy et al. 2011). Together, these
studies may suggest the possible presence of a Bd-specific acquired immune
response. On the other hand, effects of previous immunisation with heat-killed Bd
have also been studied in the highly susceptible species Rana muscosa (Stice &
Briggs 2010). In this case, no significant differences between control and
immunised individuals in the infection’s proportion, fungal loads, and mortality
were observed. Cashins et al. (2013) also showed that prior infection and
treatment was ineffective in increasing protective immunity in Litoria
booroolongensis.
90
Fernández-Loras et al. (2017). Capítulo 2
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Ribas L, Li M-S, Doddington BJ, Robert J, Seidel JA, Kroll JS, Zimmerman LB, Grassly NC, Garner
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Exposición temprana a Bd causa inmunosupresión en anfibios
Stice MJ, Briggs CJ. (2010). Immunization is ineffective at preventing infection and mortality due
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94
95
CAPÍTULO 3
1
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
2
Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK.
3
Unit for Environmental Research and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520,
South Africa.
4
Centro de Investigación, Seguimiento y Evaluación, Parque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama,
28740 Rascafría, Spain.
DOI: [Link]
96
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ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
RESUMEN
98
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
ABSTRACT
99
ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
INTRODUCTION
Amphibians are the most threatened and rapidly declining vertebrate class,
and the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is responsible for globally widespread
declines (Stuart et al. 2004). The widespread and hypervirulent global panzootic
lineage (BdGPL) is responsible for most cases of lethal chytridiomycosis (Farrer et
al. 2011).
100
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
101
ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
102
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
Experimental Temp. Antifungal agent Days of treatment n Status Gosner stage Weight
group ID (concentration) (exposure time)
ITZ.1 18
ITZ.1A ITZ (0.0001) 7 (5 min) 18 OW 30–36 na
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ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
TM-ITZ.1 7.8
TM (6) + ITZ (0.0001) 6dTM + 3d/10minITZ 15 OW 26–32 0.89
TM-ITZ.1A
RESULTS
104
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
105
ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
Figure 1. (A) Average infection loads (mean ± 95% by the bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap interval method with
2000 bootstrap replications) and prevalence (mean ± 95% Clopper-Pearson CI) before (white columns) and after (black
columns) treatments of A. obstetricans tadpoles with different concentrations and regimens of itraconazole (8
experiments), thiophanate-methyl (5 experiments) or a combination of both (1 experiment). Experimental groups are
arranged according to the antifungal agent concentrations used, in ascending order (see Table 1 for details). (B) Survival
(%) of control (black columns) and experimental (grey columns) animals for the same treatment groups. GE: genomic
equivalents; na: data not available when there were no surviving animals at the end of the experiment.
106
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
DISCUSSION
The failure of TM and mixed treatments to clear infection further highlights this
lack of transferability, although Hanlon et al. (2012) press-applied TM continuously for
up to 60 d, at least 4 times longer than our treatments. Increasing the length of
application may yield better results than the limited reduction of prevalence and load
we observed in our shorter exposure periods (Figure 1).
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ITZ y MT no limpian larvas infectadas con Bd
impacts to the drug, as the commercial solution also contains other potentially
hazardous components that increased in concentration along with the ITZ.
Furthermore, the impacts may be cumulative rather than direct: exposure to Bd can
immunosuppress common midwife tadpoles and otherwise compromise their health
(Fernández-Loras et al. 2017). These types of costs can result in increased mortality in
their own right, and may very well increase the likelihood of mortality associated with
exposure to any further stressor like treatment with an antifungal or exposure to an
acidic solution. Whatever the mechanism behind the effect on survival, our results do
indicate that application of ITZ solutions exceeding 0.01% should be avoided for
treatment of Bd infections in larval amphibians.
Our study adds to the growing literature examining field and captive applications
of chemical treatments to control the impacts of Bd in amphibians (e.g. Martel et al.
2011). Unfortunately, our findings do more to illustrate the limitations of these
approaches rather than provide more tools that can be applied toward mitigation of
chytridiomycosis. While this message appears to be anything but optimistic, it does
draw much needed attention to the fact that any approach developed for combating
chytridiomycosis is unlikely to be widely transferable across amphibian species, and
possibly across populations of the same species (Garner et al. 2016). Unfortunately,
research on approaches for controlling the disease lags far behind the efforts to
understand the ecology and evolution of the pathogen and how it interacts with hosts.
This has to change.
108
Fernández-Loras et al. (2018). Capítulo 3
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chytridiomycosis. Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 16: 669−685.
Barrows M, Koeppel K, Drake G. (2010). The use of F10 as a treatment for bacterial and fungal disease in
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Berger L, Speare R, Pessier A, Voyles J, Skerratt LF. (2010). Treatment of chytridiomycosis requires
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Bishop PJ, Speare R, Poulter R, Butler M, Speare BJ, Hyatt A, Olsen V, Haigh A. (2009). Elimination
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Farrer RA, Weinert LA, Bielby J, Garner TWJ, Balloux F, Clare F, Bosch J, Cunningham AA, Weldon
C, du Preez LH, Anderson L, Pond SLK, Shahar-Golan R, Henk DA, Fisher MC. (2011). Multiple
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Hudson MA, Young RP, Lopez J, Martin L, Fenton C, McCrea R, Griffiths RA, Adams SL, Gray
G, Garcia G, Cunningham AA. (2016). In-situ itraconazole treatment improves survival rate
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cures terminally ill green tree frogs (Litoria caerulea) with chytridiomycosis. J. Zoo Wildl. Med, 43:
330−337.
111
112
CAPÍTULO 4
1
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, Madrid, Spain.
2
Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the
Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain.
3
IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.
4
Unidad de Cambio Climático y Medio Ambiente, Instituto de Estudios del Hábitat (IEH),
Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Temuco, Chile.
5
Núcleo del Estudio en Ciencias Ambientales (NEA) y Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales,
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile.
6
Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana-CSIC, Américo Vespucio s/n,
Sevilla, Spain.
7
Lendület Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural
Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
8
Department of Ecology, Institute for Biology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary.
113
9
Centro de Investigación, Seguimiento y Evaluación, Parque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama,
Rascafría. Spain.
10
Research Unit of Biodiversity (CSIC, UO, PA), Oviedo University-Campus Mieres, Spain.
DOI: [Link]
114
115
Infección por Bd disminuye tolerancia térmica en larvas
RESUMEN
116
Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
117
Infección por Bd disminuye tolerancia térmica en larvas
ABSTRACT
118
Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
temperatures, the effect of Bd infection might tip the balance and lead some
already threatened amphibian communities towards extinction.
119
Infección por Bd disminuye tolerancia térmica en larvas
INTRODUCTION
120
Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
121
Infección por Bd disminuye tolerancia térmica en larvas
temperature cycles will most likely be shifted away from their optimum and closer
to lethal extremes (Bernardo & Spotila 2006; Fisher 2007).
122
Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
an anuran species from temperate Europe which has been hit hard by
chytridiomycosis (Bosch et al. 2001; Walker et al. 2010). Our goals were (1) to
determine if gradually and briefly elevating environmental temperature close to
the CTmax of individuals can be used to clear Bd infection from both host stages–
an experimental heating procedure similar to heating pulses employed to trigger
cleaning Bd from amphibian hosts (Greenspan et al. 2017)–and (2) to assess
whether infection with Bd lowers upper thermal tolerance limits of tadpoles or
toadlets in this species (as suggested by Greenspan et al. 2017).
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light:dark cycle of 12:12. Containers were filled with dechlorinated tap water in the
case of tadpoles, while containers with toadlets were lined with sterilized paper
towels moistened with dechlorinated tap water. Every 72 hours we changed water
and replaced the wet paper towels, and subsequently fed tadpoles and toadlets ad
libitum with commercial food for amphibian tadpoles or with baby crickets,
respectively.
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
water or sterilized moistened paper lining, respectively, to allow enough time for
Bd DNA from dead chytrid cells to degrade. Tadpoles were then euthanized with
an overdose of tricaine methanesulfonate buffered with NaHCO 3, and whole
tadpole mouthparts were collected and fixed. Surviving toadlets were swabbed on
day 15 and released at the exact point of capture, whereas animals found dead
upon daily screenings were toe-clipped immediately. Tissue samples were stored
in 70% ethanol and swabs were stored dry at 4˚C until processing.
The experiments here performed were carried out in accordance with all
current European directives and Spanish laws, and approved by the competent
authorities of the Consejería de Medio Ambiente from Junta de Andalucía (Ref.
12_44). Procedures conformed to the recommended guidelines or use of live
amphibians and reptiles in laboratory research (ASIH 2004). All experimental
protocols were approved by the ‘Comité de Ética de Experimentación Animal
CEEA-EBD’. All researchers implied in the experiments (AFL, JB, MT) have the
competent accreditation (Category C) according to the EU Directive 2010/63/EU
Article 23.2 accredited by the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science
Associations (FELASA).
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Infection loads for tadpoles and toadlets before and after thermal treatments
were compared using linear mixed models, with individuals as a random factor,
and time (before/after), population, treatment (control/heated), and the
interactions time x population and time x treatment as fixed factors. Infection load
was transformed (log10) to reach normality but also to reduce differences between
values obtained by swabbing the oral discs (initial) and by using the whole oral
disc (final). We analysed variation in Box-Cox transformed values of CTmax of
tadpoles and toadlets separately using general linear models (GLM) because all
tadpoles collected from Acherito and no toadlets collected from Toro were
infected. We entered population origin as a fixed factor and Bd infection load and
body mass as covariates. JMP Pro 12 (SAS Institute Inc., NC, USA) was used for all
statistical analyses.
RESULTS
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2019). Capítulo 4
All tested tadpoles (78) and toadlets (36) recovered after reaching their
CTmax. Averaged CTmax values were very high and extremely similar for both
tadpoles (37.3˚C) and toadlets (37.7˚C; Figure 1). Heating to CTmax did not clear
Bd infection. None of the 20 tadpoles collected from Toro, neither the 18 tadpoles
from Acherito that tested positive for Bd at the start, changed their infection score.
Similarly, all 20 control tadpoles maintained their infection status after completing
the experiment.
All toadlets from Toro survived until completion of the experiment, 15 days
after exposure to CTmax. On the other hand, only four of the 20 toadlets collected
at Acherito survived until the end of the experiment. From those four toadlets, two
were Bd-free and the other two had low Bd loads (9 and 27 Bd zoospore GE,
respectively) at the beginning of the experiment. Most toadlets died 6 days (13
animals) after the beginning of the experiment, the rest died on day 9 (3 animals).
Toadlets that died on days 6 and 9 did not differ in Bd loads at the beginning of the
experiment or on the day of death (Student’s t-tests; t<0.8, p<0.43 in both cases).
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None of the 14 Acherito toadlets that were initially Bd-infected lost their infection
after going through the CTmax experiment.
The linear model used to analyse differences in CTmax of tadpoles was highly
significant (R2 = 0.63, F3,76 = 41.359, p < 0.001). We observed a significant
difference in CTmax between the two studied populations (F1,76 = 61.28, p <
0.0001), with CTmax being higher in tadpoles collected from Acherito than those
obtained from Toro (mean ± SE: 38.238 ± 0.075 vs. 36.975 ± 0.061˚C). Most
importantly, a significant negative relationship between Bd infection load and
CTmax was found (F1,76 = 5.77, p = 0.0189), with a slightly lower CTmax in infected
(37.046 ± 0.083˚C) than non-infected tadpoles (37.500 ± 0.127˚C). The effect of
larval body mass had a marginally non-significant influence on CTmax (F 1,76 =
3.45, p = 0.0673). In the case of toadlets, neither population origin nor body mass
or Bd infection status had a significant effect on CTmax values (R2 = 0.03, F3,35 =
0.3238, p = 0.8081).
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Figure 1. CTmax (˚C) in both tadpoles and toadlets from the two studied localities, Acherito and Toro.
Uninfected animals appear in blue and Bd-infected animals are in red. Numbers above each box-plot are
sample sizes. Horizontal lines depict medians, boxes represent interquartile ranges, whiskers extend to
minima-maxima, dots show potential outliers.
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Figure 2. Bd loads (GE, log10 transformed) in both groups of tadpoles (control and heated) at the initial and
final time. Horizontal lines depict medians, boxes represent interquartile ranges, whiskers extend to minima-
maxima.
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DISCUSSION
Our main observation that CTmax values obtained for Bd-infected tadpoles
were significantly lower than those of uninfected ones supports similar results
reported for the adult stage of the Australian frog Litoria spenceri (Greenspan et
al. 2017). Therefore, this fungal pathogen may be capable of altering the thermal
physiology of the hosts it infects, or, in a narrower sense, to lower their ability to
withstand high temperatures. In a global warming scenario this could have serious
conservation implications for many amphibian species, especially for tropical
species, which often live close to their thermal limits (Duarte et al. 2012;
Gutiérrez-Pesquera et al. 2016). On the other hand, temperate amphibian species
may be relatively secure from similar impacts of warming, since their warming
tolerance (the difference between their CTmax and environmental temperatures)
is higher in most cases (Duarte et al. 2012). Because permanent ponds are in
general deeper and cooler than shallow ephemeral water bodies, A. obstetricans
and many other species using permanent ponds as their larval habitat could be on
the safe side in this respect, while species spawning and developing in temporary
water bodies may be exposed to higher risk. Nonetheless, amphibians of the
temperate zone may also be highly vulnerable to climate change, because
temperatures are predicted to rise more steeply in these regions (Williams et al.
2007), and, coupled with the observation of Bd-infection lowering CTmax, the
presence of the chytrid fungus may push local populations towards extinction.
However, we have to note that the decrease in CTmax accountable to Bd-infection
was less than 0.5˚C for tadpoles and a similar effect could not be detected in
toadlets, while CTmax was still higher than 37˚C in infected tadpoles and even
higher in toadlets. Thus, our results indicate that Bd-infection may lower upper
thermal tolerance limits of amphibians, but this decrease is minimal in A.
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obstetricans and will have to be assessed in a variety of other species before we can
determine the importance of this effect.
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To conclude, our study shows that besides other malign effects on its
amphibian hosts, Bd can also reduce their critical thermal maximum (CTmax), at
least for tadpoles. A reduction in thermal tolerance can have serious consequences
for the persistence of amphibian populations at many localities worldwide,
especially under the ongoing process of global climate change. At the same time,
our results and those of previous studies suggest that short spikes in peak
temperatures are unlikely to clear Bd-infection from amphibian hosts. Finally, our
study draws attention to the importance of determining effective combinations of
time and temperature parameters in order to deploy optimized and safely
applicable disinfection treatments against this deadly disease.
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CAPÍTULO 5
1
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
2
Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Vizcaya,
Spain.
3
IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.
4
Research Unit of Biodiversity (CSIC, UO, PA), Oviedo University, Mieres, Spain.
DOI: [Link]
142
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RESUMEN
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ABSTRACT
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Intervención en hábitat consigue éxito temporal reduciendo niveles de Bd
INTRODUCTION
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2020). Capítulo 5
Puschendorf et al. 2011; Becker et al. 2012; Heard et al. 2014; Scheele et al. 2014).
Given that Bd growth, reproduction and infection prevalence and intensity are
negatively affected by high air and water temperature (Piotrowski et al. 2004;
Stevenson et al. 2013), some studies propose reducing canopy cover to increase
solar insolation and thus warm patches where temperature would be above Bd
upper optimal threshold, acting as amphibian thermal refuges in the water (Raffel
et al. 2010; Geiger et al. 2011; Becker et al. 2012; Heard et al. 2014) or ground
(Daskin et al. 2011; Puschendorf et al. 2011).
There has been great investment in studying the biology and dynamics of
chytridiomycosis and implementing treatments to clear amphibian populations
from the pathogen. However, the vast majority of treatments have consisted of
applying high temperatures (Woodhams et al. 2003; Chatfield & Richards-Zawacki
2011; Geiger et al. 2011) or antifungal products, such as itraconazole (Garner et al.
2009; Tobler & Schmidt 2010; Brannelly et al. 2012; Jones et al. 2012),
chloramphenicol (Bishop et al. 2009), thiophanate-methyl (Hanlon et al. 2012) or
voriconazole (Martel et al. 2011), to captive amphibian collections under
monitored conditions. While the treatment of captive amphibians has been
successful, translating this knowledge into safe, reliable, transferable, cost-
effective and long-term solutions to manage chytridiomycosis in the wild remains
a challenge.
Four different strategies have been used to try mitigate the impacts of the
disease in natural habitats (Garner et al. 2016), with no or partial success: (1)
translocations or reintroductions; (2) bioaugmentation of the host microbiome; (3)
treatment of individuals with antifungals; and (4) the combination of antifungal
treatments with environmental disinfection using chemicals. Other potential
mitigation strategies, such as obtaining resistant amphibians through genetic
manipulation and selective breeding, remain untested. Here we report a
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2020). Capítulo 5
Figure 1. Box plots of Bd load (log10 x+1 transformed) of overwintering A. obstetricans larvae at different
breeding sites sampled in 2010, 2011 and 2012 before habitat intervention.
Each site was randomly assigned to one of the following experimental groups,
comprised of three sites each: control (Blanca, Juan and Milano sites); removal
only (Jorcas, Reguero and Torreta sites); removal and fencing (Blandina, Cuerda
and Molino sites); and removal and drying (Abrevador, Cebo and Gil sites). All
larvae were removed from the sites in all cases; in the control group, larvae were
immediately returned to their original sites; in the fencing group, larvae were
removed and then the site was isolated using a fence that was left there during the
whole breeding season (45 days), to avoid the entrance of metamorphosed
individuals; in the drying group, larvae were removed and then the site was
completely dried out and kept it dry for at least 20 days, during which no rain
occurred and no other persisting sources of moisture were present. Habitat
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Intervención en hábitat consigue éxito temporal reduciendo niveles de Bd
We collected twenty samples per site before habitat intervention and ten
samples per site annually for three consecutive years after intervention. We took
samples from the mouthparts of overwintering (OW) larvae using cotton swabs
(MW100-100; Medical Wire & Equipment Co., Corsham, UK), extracted the DNA
with PrepMan Ultra, and amplified the DNA using a BIO-RAD CFX96 Real-Time
PCR Detection System following Boyle et al. (2004). Each 96-well assay plate
included a negative control and four different standards containing DNA from 100,
10, 1 and 0.1 Bd genome equivalents (GE). We tested all the samples, as well as the
negative control and the standards, in duplicate. We considered samples with
greater than 0.1 GE in both replicates, and the expected sigmoidal shaped curve,
positive for Bd. We transformed Bd loads to the log10(x+1) to reach normality and
used a general linear model to analyse variation before and after intervention. We
considered treatment and year as fixed factors and site as fixed factor nested
within treatment, and used post-hoc Tukey’s honest significance tests to compare
pairs of Bd load means for the treatment by year interaction (Table 1).
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Fernández-Loras et al. (2020). Capítulo 5
Table 1. Tukey’s post-hoc tests comparing pairs of means of Bd loads for the treatment by year interaction.
Letters not connected by the same letter are significantly different.
RESULTS
The Bd loads varied across treatments, sites within treatments and years
(Figures 2, 3), and the treatment by year interaction was also significant (p < 0.05
in all cases), explaining the model 54% of the observed variation. While complete
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Intervención en hábitat consigue éxito temporal reduciendo niveles de Bd
clearance of Bd was not achieved in any of the experimental groups (Figures 2, 3),
the drying group remained Bd-clean for two years. In the control group, infection
levels remained constant at Blanca and decreased at Milano in 2013 and 2104; we
found no larvae at Juan in 2013 and 2014, or in any control site in 2015. In the
removal group, we found less than 10 larvae in 2013 and 2014, and no larvae in
2015 at Jorcas (which prevented comparisons), and Bd loads remained similar or
increased after habitat intervention at Reguero and Torreta. Similar results were
found in the fencing group, with increased Bd loads at Blandina in 2014 and 2015,
and no larvae in 2013 and 2015 at Cuerda and in 2014 at Molino. In contrast, Bd
loads were null at all sites in the drying group for two years (2013 and 2014),
although infected larvae were collected again in 2015 at Cebo (with extremely low
Bd loads) and Gil; Abrevador did not present overwintering larvae in 2015, but ten
non-overwintering larvae resulted Bd-negative (data not shown).
Figure 2. Box plots of Bd load (log10 x+1 transformed) of overwintering A. obstetricans larvae at the twelve
study sites immediately before (2012) and after habitat intervention (2013-2015). NA: no overwintering larvae
present.
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Figure 3. Bd load (logarithmic scale) and prevalence of infection (mean ± 95% CI) across the four
experimental groups (control, before (2012) and after habitat intervention (2013-2105). There is no data from
the control group in 2015 because no overwintering larvae were found.
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DISCUSSION
This study shows how some types of habitat intervention, but not others, are
able to affect the dynamics of chytridiomycosis in natural habitats by reducing Bd
loads. In particular, we achieved the elimination of Bd after removing larvae of A.
obstetricans from their natural breeding sites, and then completely drying out the
sites and keeping them dry for at least 20 days. As a result of this intervention, Bd
remained absent for at least two years (three in one site), which contrasted with
other interventions (i.e., larval removal only, or larval removal plus site fencing),
which rendered no significant or consistent effects on Bd loads. Other authors had
suggested that drying out the natural habitat could be a viable way of suppressing
Bd in the wild, given the high sensitivity of Bd zoospores to desiccation as shown in
laboratory conditions (Woodhams et al. 2011). However, Bosch et al. (2015) failed
to eradicate Bd in wild populations of Alytes muletensis populations after
completely drying out the aquatic habitat until a chemical was applied. Our study
supports those results and emphasizes the need of using chemicals to completely
and permanently eradicate Bd from the environment.
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There are two possible ways of reinfection of dried habitats that may have
occurred in our study, namely the arrival of infected amphibians and the existence
of potential reservoirs in the surroundings of breeding sites. Data are insufficient
to completely discard the arrival of infected individuals, even when A. obstetricans
is the only amphibian species present in the area. The persistence of infection in
postmetamorphic A. obstetricans could explain why water bodies were reinfected
after two complete years being utterly cleared of Bd. However, this explanation
could also be deemed unlikely, since A. obstetricans adults are fully terrestrial and
generally live far away from the water, being rarely infected by the chytrid fungus
(Allain & Goodman 2018; JB, unpublished results; but see Spitzen-van der Sluij et
al. 2014). Thus the existence of terrestrial Bd reservoirs in the surroundings of
breeding sites could be considered as a more plausible explanation for habitat
reinfection. If such environmental reservoirs of Bd were confirmed by field studies,
then the use of chemicals in the surroundings of water bodies could be one of the
best methods, already proved as efficient, in order to remove the chytrid fungus
from the environment (Bosch et al. 2015). Obviously, environmental disinfectant
application would need to be coupled with appropriate management of adult
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recolonization for those species with aquatic or semiaquatic adults. The use of
chemicals in natural habitats has been criticized for its potential damage to aquatic
organisms and ecosystems, but this mostly applies to the massive use of pesticides
in agriculture (Köhler & Triebskorn 2013). In contrast, using biocides for specific
conservation purposes often has more advantages than disadvantages (Martín-
Sánchez et al. 2012; Peay et al. 2019), and should be considered as a viable option
to eradicate the chytrid fungus from natural habitats.
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1
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
2
Conselleria de Medi Ambient i Mobilitat, Govern de les Illes Balears, Gremi Corredors, 10,
Polígon Son Rossinyol, 07009 Palma, Spain.
3
Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Hospital,
Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
4
Institute of Zoology, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK.
DOI: [Link]
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RESUMEN
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ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
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(Stice & Briggs 2010). The remaining approaches that hold promise for in situ
control include bioaugmentation with bacteria, direct application of antifungal
drugs and environmental application of anti-Bd chemicals. Although not without
promise, research on the application of bioaugmentation so far describes complex
interactions between host, beneficial bacteria, the broader microbiota and
pathogen that are strongly dependent upon environmental context and amphibian
community structure (Kueneman et al. 2014; Michaels et al. 2014). For this
reason, bioaugmentation strategies are unlikely to converge on an intervention
that can be generalized across amphibian communities and ecosystems. The
immediacy of the epizootic of chytridiomycosis calls for an intervention that can be
applied across systems, so we chose to explore direct application of antifungal
drugs to infected hosts and environmental application of chemicals as strategies to
eliminate Bd from a simple, single host system (Walker et al. 2008).
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Eliminación exitosa de Bd en la naturaleza
RESULTS
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Bosch et al. (2015). Capítulo 6
drained of water and naturally dried by the arid environment that typifies
Mallorca. We had previously determined that Bd is absent from the other two
ephemeral water bodies in this drainage, and environmental Bd is not thought to
persist during periods of drying (Johnson et al. 2003). The two ponds naturally
refilled during the autumn rainy season. At no point during this prolonged period
of captivity did we detect any evidence of infection in the treated tadpoles. The
following spring, qPCR analysis showed that all treated animals had contracted
infections not significantly different from what had been recorded at the location
before treatment (Lubick. 2010) (Figure 1). Repeating the protocol in the spring of
2012, this time without draining the breeding sites, and with tadpole release only 7
days after treatment, was again not associated with reduction in the prevalence of
infection or reduced burdens of infection in the following spring (Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Infection intensity (left panels; mean ±95% CI by the bias-corrected and accelerated BCa method
with 2000 bootstrap replications) and prevalence (on the right; mean ±95% Clopper–Pearson CI) over two
pond sites at the Cocó de sa Bova (combined in top panels) and three at the Torrent des Ferrerets (combined
in bottom panels), over the course of the study. Blue (light colour) shows values derived from spring sampling,
green (darker colour) for summer. Pairwise comparisons (Wilcoxon signed-rank tests for infection intensities
and Fisher exact tests for prevalence) are represented by dashed lines and significant differences represented
with asterisks (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001) after a sequential Bonferroni adjustment. Sample sizes
are shown in left panels. Dashed vertical lines in right panels indicate when treatments were implemented.
DISCUSSION
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Bosch et al. (2015). Capítulo 6
de sa Bova, but the most likely explanation is that infection reinvaded tadpoles
from post-metamorphic animals that we could not access in their terrestrial
refuges. We do occasionally discover corpses of juveniles exhibiting a strong
molecular signal of infection. Like other amphibian species, Alytes spp. tadpoles
scavenge from corpses, and this process is presumed to be a factor in transmission
of Bd from corpses to tadpoles in another species (Peaman et al. 2004; Bielby et al.
2009). Irrespective of this, our application of Virkon S at Torrent des Ferrerets
provided proof-of-principle that environmental application of fungicides and other
chemical treatments may be a better approach when combined with antimicrobial
treatment of infected hosts. This initial conclusion was reinforced when we
recapitulated our result by clearing infection in Cocó de sa Bova the following year.
In our case, combining chemical disinfection twinned with antifungal treatment of
tadpoles proved the better strategy, eliminating infection and preventing spill-back
over the short term at four of the five pools where we attempted mitigation.
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Bosch et al. (2015). Capítulo 6
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DISCUSIÓN INTEGRADORA
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anfibios, pero podría ser de gran ayuda para tratar una enfermedad como la
quitridiomicosis, que está causada por un hongo quitridio que precisamente se
localiza exclusivamente en este tipo de células (Pessier & Mendelson 2010). Se
han detectado sin embargo también, inconvenientes que desaconsejan su uso
para tratar según qué cepas de Bd, sobre todo en los estadíos larvarios. Existen
ya casos en los que el uso de itraconazol para tratar la enfermedad en larvas y
en animales recién metamorfoseados, utilizando concentraciones seguras en
adultos, ha resultado en episodios de toxicidad e incluso mortalidad (Pessier &
Mendelson 2010; Baitchman & Pessier 2013). La solución oral del fármaco que
se comercializa, además de tener un alto coste económico, es muy ácida
(pH=2), ya que contiene ácido clorhídrico (Nichols & Lamirande 2001). Dado
que el producto se administra a través de baños diarios en una solución con
una concentración determinada, esta acidez puede llegar a ocasionar irritación
cutánea en los anfibios y también, una disfunción osmótica en animales que
como ya hemos visto, debido a la fisiopatología de la enfermedad que padecen,
tienen de hecho esa función osmótica comprometida (Pessier & Mendelson
2010). Pero sus efectos secundarios no terminan ahí. En mamíferos, son varios
los estudios que han detectado un descenso en los niveles de potasio en sangre
(hipopotasemia o hipokalemia), y una hepatotoxicidad en humanos que
reciben tratamientos crónicos, que ocasiona un aumento de las enzimas
hepáticas (Tucker et al. 1990; Collazos et al. 1995). En roedores, se observaron
extensos daños a nivel hepático como pueden ser necrosis hepatocelular,
degeneración, hiperplasia del conducto biliar y cirrosis biliar causados por un
tratamiento prolongado con itraconazol (Somchit et al. 2004). Estas
afecciones hepáticas se han encontrado también en el caso de anfibios tratados
con este fármaco. En el transcurso de un tratamiento experimental frente a Bd
realizado con larvas de sapo partero balear (A. muletensis), se observó una
depigmentación en los renacuajos tratados. Esta pérdida de pigmento puede
ser indicativa de un fallo en la producción de melanina y de toxicidad a nivel
hepático, ya que la melanina se produce entre otras, en las células de Kupffer
185
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sufrir tanto los efectos del patógeno fúngico (Doddington et al. 2013).
Finalmente en tercer lugar, este estudio refleja las grandes diferencias
existentes a la hora de tratar cepas más o menos virulentas y resistentes del
hongo quitridio. Si bien el tratamiento que se realizó a las larvas de A.
muletensis infectadas con la cepa hipovirulenta BdCAPE fue un éxito, y
consiguió limpiarlas del hongo utilizando una pequeña concentración de
itraconazol (Bosch et al. 2015), como ya ha sido expuesto en el estudio que
conforma el Capítulo 3 de esta tesis, y reseñado anteriormente en esta
discusión, esas mismas concentraciones de itraconazol no son efectivas cuando
se tratan larvas infectadas naturalmente con la cepa BdGPL. Esta última cepa,
hipervirulenta y mucho más resistente, requiere de concentraciones de
antifúngico mucho más elevadas para ser eliminada y esto, genera la aparición
de efectos secundarios nocivos y no deseados como una alta toxicidad, que
puede llevar a la muerte de las larvas tratadas.
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Existen además, como hemos visto a lo largo de los diferentes capítulos del
presente trabajo, otros elementos que componen el llamado “triángulo
epidemiológico”, que vienen determinados tanto por el patógeno, como por el
hospedador y por el hábitat, que van a intervenir o influir directamente en el
diseño y la implementación de cualquier tipo de actuación de mitigación de la
enfermedad en el entorno natural. En este sentido, factores como la cepa del
hongo quitridio a la cual nos estemos enfrentando, la especie de anfibio
tratada, sus rasgos ecológicos, la sensibilidad o la respuesta inmune que
presente frente al patógeno, los estadíos predominantes en la población sobre
la cual queramos intervenir, o también la altitud y la temperatura en las que
implementaremos nuestras medidas, van a condicionar de una manera
significativa la forma de actuar y la estrategia de mitigación a emplear en cada
caso, complicando exponencialmente nuestra capacidad para encontrar un
método de mitigación que se pueda aplicar de manera global o universal, y
haciendo necesario estudiar cada situación de manera individualizada con el
fin de aplicar las medidas correctoras más adecuadas.
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CONCLUSIONES / CONCLUSIONS
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CONCLUSIONES
3. El uso del metil tiofanato, y sobre todo del itraconazol, para tratar la
enfermedad en los estadíos larvarios está desaconsejado, debido a los altos niveles
de toxicidad que presentan, y a su baja efectividad a la hora de eliminar al patógeno,
bien sea en solitario o combinando ambos productos. Es necesario continuar con la
búsqueda de protocolos terapéuticos seguros, eficaces, y que puedan ser aplicados
en todas las diferentes fases de desarrollo anfibio.
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más expuestos a sufrir estrés térmico y en consecuencia, aumentaría su
susceptibilidad a padecer diversas enfermedades.
211
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CONCLUSIONS
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more exposed to suffer from thermal stress, and increase their susceptibility to
different infectious diseases.
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Foto: Andrés Fernández Loras
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