Jaguar

El jaguar ( Panthera onca ) es una especie de felino de

Jaguar
gran tamaño y el único miembro vivo del género Panthera
Rango temporal:
originario de América . Con una longitud corporal de
hasta 1,85 m (6 pies 1 pulgada) y un peso de hasta 158 kg Pleistoceno medio – presente
(~500.000–0 YBP ) [1]
(348 lb), es la especie de felino más grande de América y
la tercera más grande del mundo. Su pelaje
distintivamente marcado presenta un pelaje de color
amarillo pálido a tostado cubierto por manchas que pasan
a ser rosetas en los lados, aunque en algunos individuos
aparece un pelaje negro melánico . La poderosa mordida
del jaguar le permite perforar los caparazones de tortugas
y galápagos , y emplear un método de matanza inusual:
muerde directamente el cráneo de la presa mamífero
entre las orejas para asestar un golpe fatal al cerebro.
Estado de conservación
Los antepasados ​del jaguar moderno probablemente
entraron a América desde Eurasia durante el Pleistoceno
temprano a través del puente terrestre que alguna vez
atravesó el Estrecho de Bering . Hoy en día, el área de Casi amenazada ( UICN 3.1 ) [2]
distribución del jaguar se extiende desde el suroeste de los
Apéndice I de la CITES ( CITES ) [2]
Estados Unidos a través de México y gran parte de
Centroamérica , la selva amazónica y el sur hasta clasificación cientifica
Paraguay y el norte de Argentina . Habita una variedad de Dominio: eucariota
terrenos boscosos y abiertos, pero su hábitat preferido son
Reino: animales
los bosques latifoliados húmedos tropicales y
subtropicales , los humedales y las regiones boscosas. Es Filo: cordados
experto en nadar y es en gran medida un Clase: mamífero
superdepredador solitario, oportunista, que acecha y
Orden: carnívora
embosca . Como especie clave , desempeña un papel
importante en la estabilización de los ecosistemas y en la Suborden: Feliformia
regulación de las poblaciones de presas. Familia: Félidos
El jaguar está amenazado por la pérdida de hábitat , la Subfamilia: Pantherinae
fragmentación del hábitat , la caza furtiva para el Género: Pantera
comercio de partes de su cuerpo y las matanzas en
Especies: P. onca
situaciones de conflicto entre humanos y vida silvestre ,
particularmente con ganaderos en América Central y del Nombre binomial
Sur . Está catalogado como Casi Amenazado en la Lista Panthera onca
Roja de la UICN desde 2002. Se cree que la población
( Linneo , 1758 )
silvestre ha disminuido desde finales de la década de
1990. Las áreas prioritarias para la conservación del Subespecie
jaguar comprenden 51 Unidades de Conservación del
Jaguar (JCU), definidas como grandes áreas habitadas Panthera onca onca
† Panthera onca augusta
por al menos 50 jaguares reproductores. Las JCU están † Panthera onca mesembrina
ubicadas en 36 regiones geográficas que van desde México
hasta Argentina.

El jaguar ha ocupado un lugar destacado en la mitología

de los pueblos indígenas de América , incluidos los de las
civilizaciones azteca y maya .

Etimología
La palabra "jaguar" posiblemente se derive de la palabra
tupí-guaraní yaguara que significa "bestia salvaje que
vence a su presa de un salto". [4] [5] En América del Norte,
la palabra se pronuncia disilábica / ˈ dʒ æ ɡ w ɑːr / ,
mientras que en inglés británico se pronuncia con tres
sílabas / ˈ dʒ æ ɡ juː ər / . [6] [7] Debido a que esa palabra Alcance actual
también se aplica a otros animales, los pueblos indígenas
Antigua gama
de Guyana lo llaman jaguareté , con el sufijo agregado eté
, que significa "verdadera bestia". [8] "Onca" se deriva del
Sinónimos [3]
nombre portugués onça para un gato manchado que es
más grande que un lince ; cf. onza . [9] La palabra [espectáculo]
"pantera" se deriva del latín clásico panthēra , a su vez del Felis augustus (Leidy, 1872)
griego antiguo πάνθηρ ( pánthēr ). [10]
Felis listai (Roth, 1899)
Felis onca Linnaeus, 1758
Taxonomía y evolución
Felis onca subsp. boliviensis
Nelson & Goldman, 1933
Taxonomía
Felis onca subsp. coxi Nelson &
En 1758, Carl Linnaeus describió al jaguar en su obra
Goldman, 1933
Systema Naturae y le dio el nombre científico Felis onca .
[11] Felis onca subsp. ucayalae
Nelson & Goldman, 1933
En los siglos XIX y XX, varios especímenes de tipo jaguar
Felis veronis Hay, 1919
formaron la base para las descripciones de subespecies .
[3] En 1939, Iemish listai (Roth, 1899)
Reginald Innes Pocock reconoció ocho
subespecies basándose en los orígenes geográficos y la Panthera augusta (Leidy, 1872)
morfología del cráneo de estos especímenes. [12] Pocock
Panthera onca subsp. augusta
no tuvo acceso a suficientes especímenes zoológicos para
evaluar críticamente su estado subespecífico, pero (Leidy, 1872)

expresó dudas sobre el estado de varios. Un examen Uncia augusta (Leidy, 1872)
posterior de su trabajo sugirió que sólo deberían
reconocerse tres subespecies. La descripción de P. o. palustris se basó en un cráneo fósil . [5]

En 2005, nueve subespecies se consideraban taxones válidos : [3]

P.o. onca (Linnaeus, 1758) fue un jaguar de Brasil. [11]

P. o. peruviana (De Blainville, 1843) was a jaguar skull from Peru.[13]
P. o. hernandesii (Gray, 1857) was a jaguar from Mazatlán in Mexico.[14]
 P. o. palustris (Ameghino, 1888) was a fossil jaguar mandible excavated in the Sierras
Pampeanas of Córdova District, Argentina.[15]
P. o. centralis (Mearns, 1901) was a skull of a male jaguar from Talamanca, Costa Rica.[16]
P. o. goldmani (Mearns, 1901) was a jaguar skin from Yohatlan in Campeche, Mexico.[16]
P. o. paraguensis (Hollister, 1914) was a skull of a male jaguar from Paraguay.[17]
P. o. arizonensis (Goldman, 1932) was a skin and skull of a male jaguar from the vicinity of
Cibecue, Arizona.[18]
P. o. veraecrucis (Nelson and Goldman, 1933) was a skull of a male jaguar from San Andrés Tuxtla
in Mexico.[19]
Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus Panthera and observed that it shares several
morphological features with the leopard (P. pardus). He, therefore, concluded that they are most
closely related to each other.[12] Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal
north–south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation.[20][21]
DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar
populations in Colombia was high in the past.[22] Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be a
monotypic taxon,[23] though the modern Panthera onca onca is still distinguished from two fossil
subspecies, Panthera onca augusta and Panthera onca mesembrina.

Evolution
The Panthera lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged
from the common ancestor of the Felidae around
9.32 to 4.47 million years ago to
11.75 to 0.97 million years ago. [24][25][26] Some genetic
analyzes place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with
which it diverged 3.46 to 1.22 million years ago,[24][25] but
other studies place the lion closer to the leopard.[27][28]

The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa

and spread to Eurasia 1.95–1.77 mya. The modern species may
have descended from Panthera gombaszoegensis, which is
Fossil skull of P. o. augusta
thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia,
the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait,[29][30]
though other authors have disputed the close relationship between P. gombaszoegensis (which is
primarily known from Europe) and the modern jaguar.[31] Fossils of modern jaguars have been
found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago.[5] Results of mitochondrial DNA
analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000
years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America
after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene.[20]

Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American P. o.
augusta and South American P. o. mesembrina.[32]

Phylogenetic relationships of the jaguar as derived through analysis of

nuclear DNA:[24]
⁠Felidae
⁠ Felinae
⁠
 ⁠Lion (P. leo)
⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠Jaguar
⁠ ⁠

⁠Panthera ⁠Leopard (P. pardus)

⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠ antherinae
P
⁠
⁠Tiger (P. tigris)
⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠Snow leopard (P. uncia)
⁠

⁠ Neofelis
⁠

mitochondrial DNA:[26]

⁠ Felinae
⁠

⁠Lion
⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠Leopard
⁠
⁠ ⁠
⁠
⁠Felidae ⁠Panthera ⁠Snow leopard
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠Pantherinae
⁠
⁠Jaguar
⁠

⁠Tiger
⁠

⁠ Neofelis
⁠

Description
The jaguar is a compact and muscular animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the
third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion.[5][33][34] It stands 57 to
81 cm (22.4 to 31.9 in) tall at the shoulders.[35][36] Its size and weight vary considerably depending
on sex and region: weights in most regions are normally in the range of 56–96 kg (123–212 lb).
Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg (348 lb).[37][38] The
smallest females from Middle America weigh about 36 kg (79 lb). It is sexually dimorphic, with
females typically being 10–20% smaller than males. The length from the nose to the base of the tail
varies from 1.12 to 1.85 m (3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in). The tail is 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in) long and the
shortest of any big cat.[37] Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other Panthera species
with similar body weight.[39]
Size tends to increase from north to south. Jaguars in the
Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of
central Mexico weighed around 50 kg (110 lb).[40] Jaguars in
Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of
about 95 kg (209 lb) in males and of about 56–78 kg (123–172 lb)
in females.[5]

The jaguar's coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-

yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots. The
spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they become rosettes
Skull of a jaguar
which may include one or several dots. The spots on the head and
neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may
merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip. They are
elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a
median stripe, and blotchy on the belly.[5] These patterns serve as
camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy
shadows.[41] Jaguars living in forests are often darker and
considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due
to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest
areas.[42]
Illustration of cheetah, leopard
The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more and jaguar
robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head. The rosettes
on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have
thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle.[39] It has powerful
jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger
and the lion.[43] It has an average bite force at the canine tip of
887.0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of
118.6.[44] A 100 kg (220 lb) jaguar can bite with a force of
A black jaguar. Such melanistic
4.939 kN (1,110 lbf) with the canine teeth and 6.922 kN jaguars as well as leopards are
(1,556 lbf) at the carnassial notch.[45] commonly called black panthers

Color variation
Melanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers. The black morph is less common than the
spotted one.[46] Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America. Melanism in
the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a
dominant allele.[47] Black jaguars occur at higher densities in tropical rainforest and are more
active during the daytime. This suggests that melanism provides camouflage in dense vegetation
with high illumination.[48]

In 2004, a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first
documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico.[49] Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa
Rica's Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve, in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca,
in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama.[50][48][51][52]

Distribution and habitat

In 1999, the jaguar's historic range at the turn of the 20th century
was estimated at 19,000,000 km2 (7,300,000 sq mi), stretching
from the southern United States through Central America to
southern Argentina. By the turn of the 21st century, its global
range had decreased to about 8,750,000 km2 (3,380,000 sq mi),
with most declines in the southern United States, northern
Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.[53] Its present
range extends from Mexico through Central America to South A female jaguar at Piquiri River,
Mato Grosso state, Brazil
America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia,
Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. It is considered to be
locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.[2]

Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico

and Texas.[54][55] Between 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant jaguar A jaguar in São Lourenço River
was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains.[56]

The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and
subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America;
open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United
States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) but avoids montane forests. It
favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover.[42] In the Mayan forests of Mexico
and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads;
females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less
disturbed by human population density.[57] A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi-
arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole.[58]

Former range
In the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River 48–80 km (30–50 mi)
north of Longs Peak in Colorado, in coastal Louisiana, northern Arizona and New Mexico.[59]
Multiple verified zoological reports of the jaguar are known in California, two as far north as
Monterey in 1814 and 1826. The only record of an active jaguar den with breeding adults and
kittens in the United States was in the Tehachapi Mountains of California prior to 1860.[60] The
jaguar persisted in California until about 1860.[55] The last confirmed jaguar in Texas was shot in
1948, 4.8 km (3 mi) southeast of Kingsville, Texas.[61] In Arizona, a female was shot in the White
Mountains in 1963. By the late 1960s, the jaguar was thought to have been extirpated in the United
States. Arizona outlawed jaguar hunting in 1969, but by then no females remained, and over the
next 25 years only two males were sighted and killed in the state. In 1996, a rancher and hunting
guide from Douglas, Arizona came across a jaguar in the Peloncillo Mountains and became a
researcher on jaguars, placing trail cameras, which recorded four more jaguars.[62]

Behavior and ecology

The jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight.[36][63][64] However, jaguars living in
densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day,
whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night.[65] The activity pattern of the
jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species.[66] Jaguars are good swimmers and play
and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers. They have been recorded moving between islands
and the shore. Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars.[5]

Ecological role
The adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it is at the top of
the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild. The jaguar
has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed that it
controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and
seed-eating mammals and thus maintains the structural
integrity of forest systems.[40][67][68] However, field work has
shown this may be natural variability, and the population
increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone predator Jaguar at Three Brothers River,
hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.[69] Pantanal, Brazil

The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar. In central Mexico,

both prey on white-tailed deer, which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey,
respectively.[40] In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their
diet overlaps dependent on prey availability. Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves. In Mexico
and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator.[70] In
South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over
22 kg (49 lb). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg (4 and 49 lb), which is thought
to be the reason for its smaller size.[71] This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its
broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the
jaguar in human-altered landscapes.[40]

Hunting and diet

The jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh
for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies
documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges
in weight from 1 to 130 kg (2.2 to 286.6 lb); it prefers prey
weighing 45–85 kg (99–187 lb), with the capybara and the
giant anteater being the most selected. When available, it also
preys on marsh deer, southern tamandua, collared peccary and
black agouti.[33] In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take The jaguar has a powerful bite that
reptiles such as turtles and caimans. Consumption of reptiles allows it to pierce the shells of
appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big armored prey.
cats. [72] One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is
recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.[73] The
jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce.[74][75] The daily
food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg (75 lb) was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) of
meat.[76]

The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle
and the yellow-footed tortoise.[76][77] It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian
prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.[78] It kills
capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its
zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often
through the ears.[79] It has been hypothesized to be an
adaptation to cracking open turtle shells; armored reptiles may
have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the
late Pleistocene extinctions.[76] However, this is disputed, as
even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken
relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their
greater abundance.[72]
Jaguars killing and feeding on a
yacare caiman
Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were
monitored in the southern Pantanal. In the dry season from
April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from
one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March.[80]

The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey. The cat will
slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The
jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species'
ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous
people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several
different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite
capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a
heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the
carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest. The heart and
lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.[81]

Social activity
The jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs. In
1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two
females with two males were sighted several times in a study
area in the Paraguay River valley.[82] In some areas, males may
form paired coalitions which together mark, defend and invade
territories, find and mate with the same females and search for
and share prey.[83] A radio-collared female moved in a home
range of 25–38 km2 (9.7–14.7 sq mi), which partly overlapped
with another female. The home range of the male in this study Male (background) and young
area overlapped with several females.[82] female (foreground) near the Cuiabá
River, Porto Jofre, Poconé, Mato
The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces to mark its Grosso, Brazil
territory.[84][85] The size of home ranges depends on the level
of deforestation and human population density. The home
ranges of females vary from 15.3 km2 (5.9 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 53.6 km2 (20.7 sq mi) in the
Amazon to 233.5 km2 (90.2 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest. Male jaguar home ranges vary from
25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 180.3 km2 (69.6 sq mi) in the Amazon to 591.4 km2
(228.3 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest and 807.4 km2 (311.7 sq mi) in the Cerrado.[86] Studies
employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per
100 km (62 mi) in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this
suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a
sampling area.[87] Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been
observed in the wild.[84] In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more
social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more
friendly and co-operative interactions.[73]

The jaguar roars/grunts for long-distance

communication; [5][76] intensive bouts of counter-calling 0:02

between individuals have been observed in the wild.[76] This Captive jaguar vocalizing while
vocalization is described as "hoarse" with five or six guttural playing
notes.[5] Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting,
during courting, or by a mother comforting her cubs. This
sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and
passivity.[88][89] Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing.[5]

Reproduction and life cycle

In captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual
maturity at the age of about 2.5 years. Estrus lasts 7–15 days
with an estrus cycle of 41.8 to 52.6 days. During estrus, she
exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged
vocalizations.[90] She is an induced ovulator but can also
ovulate spontaneously.[91][92] Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days.[93]
The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.[94]
His mean ejaculate volume is 8.6±1.3 ml.[95] Generation length Jaguars mating in the northern
of the jaguar is 9.8 years.[96] Pantanal

In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together

for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs.[97] The young
are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs
are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth
den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother
on hunts.[98] Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two
years. They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive
individuals may live 22 years.[5]

In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs

Female jaguar picking up her cub
in Emas National Park. DNA paternity testing of blood samples
revealed that the male was the father of the cubs.[99] Two more
cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013.[100] To defend against
infanticide, the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior.[101]

Attacks on humans
The Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar. According to Charles Darwin, the indigenous peoples
of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were
abundant.[102] The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.[103]
Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.[104] The majority of known attacks on people
happened when it had been cornered or wounded.[105]

Threats
The jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat,
illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for
illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as Near
Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the jaguar
population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-
1990s. Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its
range. Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the
Argentine pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico and the
southwestern United States.[2] A South American jaguar killed by
Theodore Roosevelt
In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had
declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century.[53]
In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only
remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by
deforestation.[106] Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to
83.759 km2 (32.340 sq mi), with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between
Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).[107] By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were
lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.[108]

In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching. Its habitat is fragmented in northern
Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, caused by changes in land use,
construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.[109] In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in
retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.[110] In Venezuela, the jaguar was
extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry savannas and
unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzoátegui.[111] In Ecuador, the jaguar is
threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network
facilitated access of human hunters to forests.[112] In the Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, at least 117
jaguars were killed in Iguaçu National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and
2008.[113] Some Afro-Colombians in the Colombian Chocó Department hunt jaguars for
consumption and sale of meat.[114] Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by
livestock farmers in central Belize.[115]

The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the
early 1970s.[116] Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were
yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since
1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted.[117]
Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people
killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.[118] Between August 2016 and August 2019,
jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima,
Iquitos and Pucallpa.[119] Human-wildlife conflict, opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in
domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.[120] Seizure reports
indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482
individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in China.[121] Between 2014 and early 2019, 760
jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover
investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in
Bolivia.[122]

Conservation
The jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in
jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil,
Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States,
and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru.[2] In Ecuador, hunting
jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.[123] In Guyana, it is
protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.[124]

In 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was

established in Belize as the world's first protected area for
jaguar conservation.[125]

Jaguar Conservation Units

In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries
determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar El Jefe, a jaguar in Arizona
conservation based on the status of jaguar population units,
stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called
"Jaguar Conservation Units" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and
range in size from 566 to 67,598 km2 (219 to 26,100 sq mi); 51 JCUs were designated in 36
geographic regions including:[53]

the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico

the Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala
the Chocó–Darién moist forests from Honduras and Panama to Colombia
Venezuelan Llanos
northern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil
Tropical Andes in Bolivia and Peru
Misiones Province in Argentina
Optimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in
2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the
shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of
dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk. They cover an area of 2,600,000 km2
(1,000,000 sq mi) and range in length from 3 to 1,102 km (1.9 to 684.8 mi) in Mexico and Central
America and from 489.14 to 1,607 km (303.94 to 998.54 mi) in South America.[126] Cooperation
with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected
populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors.[127] Seven of 13 corridors in
Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14.25 km (8.85 mi) and a length of no more than
320 km (200 mi). The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer.[128]
In August 2012, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 3,392.20 km2 (838,232 acres)
in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar.[129] The Jaguar Recovery Plan was
published in April 2019, in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the
Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico.[130]

In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in
2016.[109] The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010
to about 4,800 individuals in 2018. This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation
measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental
institutions and landowners.[131]

An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality
habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees. Since co-occurring mammals benefit from
the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species.[132] Central American JCUs
overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19
amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.[133]

Approaches
In setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to
be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to
confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if
the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the
areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent
poaching are essential to make conservation areas
effective.[134]
A jaguar in Belize
To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep
track of individual jaguars, camera trapping and wildlife
tracking telemetry are widely used, and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to
study jaguar health and diet.[87][135]

Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting
ecotourism.[136] Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic
animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in
conservation efforts. A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the
species requires. If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to
be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into
place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population.[137]

Conservationists and professionals in Mexico and the United States have established the 56,000
acres (23,000 ha) Northern Jaguar Reserve in northern Mexico. Advocacy for reintroduction of the
jaguar to its former range in Arizona and New Mexico have been supported by documentation of
natural migrations by individual jaguars into the southern reaches of both states, the recency of
extirpation from those regions by human action, and supportive arguments pertaining to
biodiversity, ecological, human, and practical considerations.[138]

In culture and mythology

In the pre-Columbian Americas, the jaguar was a symbol of
power and strength. In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by
the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of today's
Peru by 900 BC.[139] The later Moche culture in northern Peru
used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their
ceramics.[140] In the Muisca religion in Altiplano
Cundiboyacense, the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and
people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals.[141] The
skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoquía
Region.[142] The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was
derived from the Chibcha words nymy and quyne, meaning
"force of the jaguar".[143][144]
Jaguar warrior in the Aztec
Sculptures with "Olmec were-jaguar" motifs were found on the culture
Yucatán Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco; they show stylized
jaguars with half-human faces.[145] In the later Maya civilization,
the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the
living and the dead and to protect the royal household. The Maya
saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual
world, and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the
Mayan word for jaguar b'alam in many of the Mayan languages.
Balam remains a common Maya surname, and it is also the name
of Chilam Balam, a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th
and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important
Moche jaguar figurine dating to
knowledge. Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial
300 CE, at the Larco Museum in
site in Guatemala, which indicates that Mayans may have kept
Lima, Peru
jaguars as pets.[146]

The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the

representative of the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the
Jaguar warrior. In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the
powerful deities Tezcatlipoca[147][148] and Tepeyollotl.[149]

A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County, Missouri.
The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures 104 mm × 98 mm (4.1 in × 3.9 in).[59] Rock
drawings made by the Hopi, Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the
American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much
larger than an ocelot.[55]

The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture.[150] It is the national animal of
Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms.[151]

See also
List of largest cats

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External links
"Jaguar Panthera onca" (http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=95). IUCN Cat Specialist Group.
"Jaguars: Born free" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01q9djl). BBC Natural World. 2013.
Retrieved 13 August 2021.
People and Jaguars a Guide for Coexistence (https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150720/htt
p://www.amazonarium.com.br/docs/peopleandjaguarcomplete.pdf)
Felidae Conservation Fund (http://felidaefund.org/)
"Jaguar" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Jaguar).
Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.

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