Annex B

(informative)

Calculation of Maximum Radiant Section Tube Skin Temperature

B.1 General

This annex provides a procedure for calculating the maximum radiant section tube metal (skin) temperature.
Correlations for estimating the fluid-film heat-transfer coefficient are given in B.2. A method for estimating the
maximum local heat flux is given in B.3. The equations used to calculate the maximum tube skin temperature
and the temperature distribution through the tube wall are described in B.4. The sample calculation in B.5
demonstrates the use of these equations.

The maximum tube metal temperature (TMT) might or might not be located towards the process outlet of a
fired heater. Factors including inside film coefficient, radiant heat flux, heater/tube geometry, internal fouling,
and fluid flow regime all influence the maximum TMT calculation. In some cases, such as with vacuum
heaters, a tube-by-tube analysis from the fluid outlet to before the initial boiling point (IBP) should be
performed.

B.2 Heat-transfer Coefficient

A value necessary for calculating the maximum tube metal temperature is the fluid heat-transfer coefficient at
the inside wall of the tube. Although the following correlations are extensively used and accepted in heater
design, they have inherent inaccuracies associated with all simplified correlations that are used to describe
complex relationships.

For single-phase fluids, the heat-transfer coefficient is calculated by one of the two equations below, where
Re is the Reynolds number and Pr is the Prandtl number. No correlation is included for the heat-transfer
coefficient in laminar flow, since this flow regime is rare in process heaters. There is inadequate information
for reliably determining the inside coefficient in laminar flow for oil in tube sizes that are normally used in
process heaters.

The heat-transfer coefficient, Kl, expressed in W/(m2K) [Btu/(hft2°F)], for the liquid flow with Re  10,000 is
calculated using Equation (B.1) from Reference [14]:

014
.
  f ,Tb   f,Tb 
Kl  0.023   Re0.8 Pr 0.33   (B.1)
 Di   f,Tw 

where

Di qmA
Re  (B.2)
f,Tb

c p  f,Tb
Pr  (B.3)
 f,Tb

qmA is the mass flow rate, in kg/(m2s) [lb/(ft2h)], of the fluid;

cp is the specific heat capacity, in J/(kgK) [Btu/(lb°R)], of the fluid at bulk temperature;

B-1
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 f,T b is the thermal conductivity, expressed in W/(mK) [Btu/(hft°F)], of the fluid at bulk temperature;

Di is the inside diameter, expressed in meters (feet), of the tube;

 f,T b is the absolute viscosity, in Pas [lb/(fth)], of the fluid at bulk temperature;

 f,T w is the absolute viscosity, in Pas [lb/(fth)], of the fluid at wall temperature.

The heat-transfer coefficient, Kv, expressed in W/(m2K) [Btu/(hft2°F)], for the vapor flow with Re  15,000 is
calculated using Equation (B.4) from Reference [15]:

0.5
  f ,Tb  T 
K v  0.021   Re0.8 Pr 0.4  b  (B.4)
 i 
D  Tw 

where

Tb is the absolute bulk temperature, expressed in Kelvin (degrees Rankine), of the vapor;

Tw is the absolute wall temperature, expressed in Kelvin (degrees Rankine), of the vapor.

All of the material properties except  f,T w are evaluated at the bulk fluid temperature. To convert absolute
viscosity in millipascal-seconds or centipoise to pounds per foot per hour, multiply  f,T w by 2.42.

For two-phase flows, the heat-transfer coefficient may be approximated using Equation (B.5):

K2p  Klwl  Kvwv (B.5)

where

K2p is the heat-transfer coefficient, expressed in W/(m2K) [Btu/(hft2°F)], for two phases;

wl is the mass fraction of the liquid;

wv is the mass fraction of the vapor.

The liquid and vapor heat-transfer coefficients, Kl and K , should be calculated using the mixed-phase mass
flow rate and using the liquid and the vapor material properties, respectively.

NOTE In two-phase flow applications where dispersed-flow or mist-flow regimes occur due to entrainment of tiny liquid
droplets in the vapor (e.g. towards the outlet of vacuum heaters), the heat-transfer coefficient may be calculated using
the correlation for the vapor phase using Equation (B.4), based on the total flow rate, rather than being approximated by
Equation (B.5). In vertical tube two-phase flow applications where annular flow regimes occur upflow and downflow have
been noted as having different heat transfer coefficients. The downflow coefficient tends to be lower than upflow. Many
default calculations methods are good at predicting upflow coefficients.

B.3 Maximum Local Heat Flux

The average heat flux in the radiant section of a heater (or in a zone of the radiant section) is equal to the
duty in the section or zone divided by the total outside surface area of the coil in the section or zone. The
maximum local heat flux at any point in the coil may be estimated from the average heat flux. The maximum
local heat flux is used with the equations in B.4 to calculate the maximum tube metal temperature.

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Local heat fluxes vary considerably throughout a heater because of nonuniformities around and along each
tube. Circumferential variations result from variations in the radiant heat flux produced by shadings of other
tubes or from the placement of the tubes next to a wall. Conduction around the tubes and convection flows of
flue gases tend to reduce the circumferential variations in the heat flux. The longitudinal variations result from
the proximity to burners and variations in the radiant firebox and the bulk fluid temperatures. In addition to
variations in the radiant section, the tubes in the shock section of a heater may have a high convective heat
flux.

The maximum radiant heat flux, qR,max, expressed in W/m2 [Btu/(hft2)], for the outside surface at any point in
a coil may be estimated from Equation (B.6):

qR,max  Fcir FLFTqR,ave  qconv (B.6)

where

Fcir is the factor accounting for circumferential heat flux variations;

FL is the factor accounting for longitudinal heat flux variations;

FT is the factor accounting for the effect of tube metal temperature on the radiant heat flux;

qR,ave is the average radiant heat flux, in W/m2 [Btu/(hft2)], for the outside surface;

qconv is the average convective heat flux, in W/m2 [Btu/(hft2)], for the outside surface.

The circumferential variation factor, Fcir, is given as a function of tube spacing and coil geometry in Figure
B.1. The factor given by this figure is the ratio of the maximum local heat flux at the fully exposed face of a
tube to the average heat flux around the tube. This figure was developed from considerations of radiant heat
transfer only. As mentioned above, influences such as conduction around the tube and flue-gas convection
act to reduce this factor. Since these influences are not included in this calculation, the calculated value is
somewhat higher than the actual maximum heat flux.

The longitudinal variation factor, FL is used to account for the variation in heat flux along the flame path, from
the burner to the firebox exit. The longitudinal variation factor, is not easy to quantify. Values between 1.0
and 1.5 are most often used. In a firebox that has a very uniform distribution of heat flux, a value of 1.0 may
be appropriate. Depending on firebox and flame aspect ratios, this factor may be higher than 1.5 at the peak
heat flux elevation (typically 2/3 of flame length) and as low as 0.7 at the floor and 0.5 at the roof. For new or
existing heaters, this factor may be estimated with CFD modeling methods that have been field checked for
burner type, fuels and heater configuration. In existing heaters, infrared measurement of tubes or tube
supports along the flame path may be used to estimate the heat flux profile.

The tube metal temperature factor, FT, is less than 1.0 near the coil outlet or in areas of maximum tube metal
temperature. It is greater than 1.0 in areas of lower tube metal temperatures. For most applications, the
factor may be approximated as given in Equation (B.7):

 Tg*,4ave  Ttm*4 
FT   * 4 *4  (B.7)
 Tg, ave  Ttm , ave 

where


T g,ave is the average flue-gas temperature, expressed in Kelvin (degrees Rankine), in the radiant
section;

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
T tm is the tube metal temperature, expressed in Kelvin (degrees Rankine), at the point under
consideration;


T tm,ave is the average tube metal temperature, expressed in Kelvin (degrees Rankine), in the radiant
section.

The convective heat flux in most parts of a radiant section is usually small compared with the radiant heat
flux. In the shock section, however, the convective heat flux may be significant; it should therefore be added
to the radiant heat flux when the maximum heat flux in the shock section is estimated. Note that frequently
the location of maximum convective heat flux does not coincide with maximum radiant heat flux.

B.4 Maximum Tube Metal Temperature

In addition to the heat-transfer coefficient and the maximum heat flux, the temperature profile of the fluid in
the coil is necessary for calculating the maximum tube metal temperature in the radiant section of the heater.
This profile, which is often calculated by the heater supplier, defines the variation of the bulk fluid
temperature through the heater coil. For operation at or near design, the design profile may be used. For
operation significantly different from design, a bulk temperature profilemay be developed.

Once the bulk fluid temperature is known at any point in the coil, the maximum tube metal temperature, Tmax,
expressed in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit), can be calculated from Equations (B.8) to (B.12):

Tmax  Tbf  Tff  Tf  Ttw (B.8)

where

Tbf is the bulk fluid temperature, expressed in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit);

Tf is the temperature difference across any internal fouling, expressed in degrees Celsius
(Fahrenheit);

Tf f is the temperature difference across the fluid film, expressed in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit);

Ttw is the temperature difference across the tube wall, expressed in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit).

qR,max  Do 
Tff   D  (B.9)
K ff i
where

Kf f is the fluid-film heat-transfer coefficient, expressed in W/(m2) [Btu/(hft2)];

qR,max is the maximum radiant heat flux, expressed in W/m2 [Btu/hft2], for the outside surface;

Do is the outside diameter, expressed in meters (feet), of the tube;

Di is the inside diameter, expressed in meters (feet), of the tube.

 Do 
Tf  qR,max Rf  (B.10)
 i   f 
D

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where

f is the coke and/or scale thickness, expressed in meters (feet);

Rf is the fouling factor inside the tube due to the presence of any internal fouling, coke or scale,
expressed in m2K/W (hft2 ºF/Btu).

  Do  
 Doln  D  
 i 
Ttw  qR,max  (B.11)
 2tm 
 
 

where

 tm is the thermal conductivity, expressed in W/(mK) [Btu/(hft°F)], of the tube metal.

The effect of internal fouling on the tube metal temperature can be calculated if a fouling factor rather than
coke thickness has been provided on the fired heater datasheets (see API 560). The fouling factor, Rf, may
also be expressed as a function of coke or scale thickness and thermal conductivity, as given in
Equation (B.12), if only coke or scale thickness is provided:


Rf  f (B.12)
f

where

f is the coke and/or scale thickness, expressed in meters (feet);

f is the thermal conductivity of coke or scale, expressed in W/(m2K) [Btu/hft°F].

If a thickness for a layer of coke or scale is specified, the effective inside diameter of the tube is adjusted as
noted in Equation (B.10). The effects of internal fouling, coke or scale on tube metal temperature can be
calculated using Equations (B.8) and (B.10).

Equation (B.13) should be used to calculate the maximum fluid-film temperature coincident with maximum
radiant heat flux, Tfm, expressed in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit).

Tfm  Tbf  Tff (B.13)

In the absence of thermal conductivity data provided by the Purchaser, the following range of values may be
used. Petroleum coke: 4.91 W/mK to 5.89 W/mK (2.8 Btu/hftF to 3.4 Btu/hftF) and iron oxide scale:
0.87 W/mK to 1.05 W/mK (0.5 Btu/hftF to 0.6 Btu/hftF).

The thermal conductivity of the tube material,  tm, used in Equation (B.11), should be evaluated at the
average tube wall temperature.

See Figure B.1 depicting the ratio of maximum local to average heat flux based on centerline nominal tube
spacing and tube diameter.

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Figure B.1—Ratio of Maximum Local to Average Heat Flux

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B.5 Sample Calculation

The following sample calculation demonstrates how to use the equations given in B.2 to B.4.

NOTE Differences in results between calculations in SI and USC units for dimensionless numbers are due to the
significant figures used in the dimension conversions.

In the heater under consideration, the medium-carbon-steel tubes are in a single row against the wall. Other
aspects of the heater configuration are as follows:

Tube spacing is 203.2 mm ( 0.667 ft  8.0 in.).

Do  114.3 mm ( 0.375 ft  4.5 in.);

 t,ave  6.4 mm ( 0.020 8 ft  0.25 in.);

Di  101.6 mm ( 0.333 ft  4.0 in.);

 f  0 mm (0 in);

 tm  42.2 W/(mK) [24.4 Btu/(hft°F)] at an assumed tube metal temperature of 380 °C (720 °F).

The flow in the tubes is two-phase with 10 % mass vapor. Other operating conditions are as follows:

Flow rate (total liquid plus vapor) is 6.3 kg/s (50,000 lb/h).

Tb  271 °C (520 °F);

qR,ave  31,546 W/m2 [10,000 Btu/(hft2)].

The properties of the liquid at the bulk temperature are as follows:

 f,T b  2.0  103 Pas [4.84 lb/(hft)];

 f, Tb  0.1163 W/(mK) [0.0672 Btu/(hft°F)];

cp,f  2.847 J/(kgK) [0.68 Btu/(lb°F)].

The properties of the vapor at the bulk temperature are as follows:

 v,Tb  7.0  106 Pas [0.017 lb/(fth)];

 v,Tb 0.0346 W/(mK) [0.020 Btu/(hft°F)];

cp,v  2.394 J/(kgK) [0.572 Btu/(lb°F)].

From the inside diameter, the flow area is equal to 8.107  103 m2 (0.0873 ft2). Using the total flow rate:

qmA  6.3/(8.107  103),

qmA  777.1 kg/(m2s).

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In USC units:

qmA  (50,000/0.0873),

qmA  5.73  105 lb/(hft2).

The Reynolds number [Equation (B.2)] is calculated as follows:

For liquid:

In SI units:

Re 
 01016
.  7771.   3.95  10 4
0.002

In USC units:

Re 
 0.333   5.73  105   3.94  10 4
4.84

For vapor:

In SI units:

Re 
 01016
.  7771.   113
.  107
7.0  10 6

In USC units:

Re 
 0.333   5.73  10 5   112
.  107
0.017

The Prandtl number [Equation (B.3)] is calculated as follows:

For liquid:

In SI units:

Pr 
 2847  0.002  49.0
01163
.

In USC units:

Pr 
 0.68 4.84  49.0
0.0672

For vapor:

In SI units:

Pr 
 2395  7.0  1 0 6   0.485
0.0346

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In USC units:

Pr 
 0.572 0.017   0.486
0.020

Assume that for the liquid:

014
.
 f, Tb 
   11
.
 f, Tw 

Assume that for the vapor:

0.5
 Tb 
 T   0.91
w

These assumptions will be checked later. Using Equation (B.1):

  f , Tb 
 
0.8
K l  0.023  3.94  10 4  49.0 0.33 11. 
 Di 

  f, Tb 
 433.8 
 Di 

Using Equation (B.4):

  f, Tb 
 
0.8
K v  0.021 .  107
112  0.486 0.4  0.91
 Di 

  f, Tb 
 6242 
 Di 

Hence:

In SI units:

 01163
.  2
Kl  433.8    497 W/m  K
 01016
. 

 0.0346  2
K v  6242    2126 W/m  K
 01016
.

In USC units:

 0.0672  2
Kl  433.8    87.5 Btu/h  ft  F
 0.333 

 0.020  2
K v  6242    375 Btu/h  ft  F
 0 .333 

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The two-phase heat-transfer coefficient can then be calculated using Equation (B.5):

In SI units:

K2p  (0.90)Kl  (0.10)Kv

 (0.90)(497)  (0.10)(2126)

 659.9 W/(m2K)

In USC units:

K2p  (0.90)(87.5)  (0.10)(375)

 116.3 Btu/(hft2 °F)

The ratio of tube spacing to tube diameter is as follows:

In SI units:
2 1
0 1
3 4
2 .
.
=
1
.
7
8
3

In USC units:
8 4
.
0 .
=
1
.
7
8
5

From Figure B.1, Fcir  1.91. Assume that for this heater, FL  1.1, FT  1.0, and qconv  0 (i.e., there is no
convective heat flux at this point). Using Equation (B.6):

In SI units:

qR,max  (1.91)(1.1)(1.0)(31,546)

 66,278 W/m2

In USC units:

qR,max  (1.91)(1.1)(1.0)(10,000)

 21,010 Btu/(hft2)

The temperature difference through each part of the system can now be calculated from Equation (B.9) for
the fluid film:

In SI units:

 66 , 278   114.3 
Tff    113 K
 659.9   101.6 

In USC units:

 21,010   0.375 
Tff    203 o R
 116.3   0.333 

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From Equation (B.11) for the tube wall:

In SI units:

  114.3  
 114.3ln  101.6  
Ttw  66 ,278    10 3  11 K
 2  42.2 
 
 

In USC units:

  0.375  
 0.375ln  0.333  
Ttw  21,028    19 oR
 2   
24 .4
 
 

Using Equation (B.8), the maximum tube metal temperature is as follows:

In SI units:

Tmax  271  113  11  395 °C

In USC units:

Tmax  520  203  19  742 °F

Checking the assumed viscosity ratio, at the oil-film temperature calculated above, 271  113  384 °C
(520  203  723 °F), the viscosity is 1.1 mPas (2.66 lb/ft-h). So, for the liquid:

In SI units:

014
. 014
 f, Tb   0.002 
.
 1.82
014
.
  1.09

 f, Tw 
  0.0011

In USC units:

014
. 014
  f, Tb   4.84 
.
 1.82
014
.
  1.09

 f, Tw 
  2.66 

For the vapor:

In SI units:

0.5 0.5
 Tb   270  273 
  0.83 
0.5
  0.91
 Tw   384  273 

In USC units:

0.5 0.5
 Tb   520  460 
  0.83 
0.5
  0.91
 T 
w  723  460 

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