INGLÉS BI I

GRADO EN EDUCACIÓN PRIMARIA

AÑO 1
1º CUATRIMESTRE
 UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE BRITISH EDUCATION
SYSTEM: PRIMARY SCHOOL
1. Introduction
1.1. Presentation

El Marco común europeo de referencia (MCER, o CEFR en inglés) se enmarca en la

política común establecida por el Consejo de Europa respecto al fomento del
plurilingüismo, habida cuenta de la diversidad lingüística y cultural europea. Se trata,
pues, de fomentar no sólo el plurilingüismo sino también la pluriculturalidad. Esto
supone, en la práctica, la integración e interrelación de conocimientos y experiencias
en diversas lenguas y culturas. El aprendizaje de lenguas se concibe, pues, como un
todo integrado en el que ya no sólo prima la competencia lingüística del hablante,
sino también su capacidad de relacionarse en distintos contextos socioculturales de
manera efectiva.

La educación es, sin duda, uno de los elementos vertebradores de la cultura de cada
país. Por ello, se hace necesario conocer los sistemas y propuestas educativas de los
distintos países con objeto de profundizar en su cultura. Este conocimiento es todavía
más pertinente en el contexto de la formación del profesorado, por lo que en esta
primera unidad introduciremos las principales características del sistema educativo
inglés y nos centraremos en la etapa de Educación Primaria.

Además de este contenido, en esta primera unidad se trabajarán cuestiones

relacionadas con el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la
competencia lingüística, con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del
alumnado que parte de un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel
B1+.

1.2. Objectives
In this unit, learners will:

• Become familiar with the British Education system.

• Learn about Primary Education in England.

• Express their opinion on topics related to his/her field and interest with a
satisfactory level of comprehension, using appropriate phrases and
vocabulary as well as grammar structures.
• Learn how to use reasonably accurately a repertoire of present tense
patterns.
•
1.3. Unit 1 outline

2. Education system in the UK

2.1. Introduction

This first chapter outlines the education system in the United Kingdom, focusing on
England. In the first part, we will address its structure, organisation, and school types.
In the second section, we will learn the main issues related to its curriculum.

2.2. Structure and organisation

Across the UK, each school year runs from early September to July and it lasts for a
minimum of 190 teaching days, which is 39 weeks long. Schools are open five full
days per week. Breaks and holidays are different to the Spanish Education system,
as shown in Table 1:
Legally, the age of compulsory education in the United Kingdom varies depending
on where you live. It is compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 (4 in
Northern Ireland) and 16 in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland. However, if you
live in England, you must stay at school until you are 18 years old.

Schools in England are usually divided into Key Stages. Early Years Foundations
Stage (EYFS), is not compulsory and, therefore, is not a Key Stage, as it is for children
between 3 and 5 years old. In Primary schools, children undertake key stages 1 and
2 and they finish their Primary Education when they are 11 years old. Then, they will
move onto Secondary school and do key stages 3 and 4, finishing when they are 16.
Primary and Secondary Education are compulsory across the UK. After that, in
England, you can choose to continue your education taking one of the following
options:

• Key stage 6: stay in full-time education.

• Start an apprenticeship or traineeship.
• Spend 20 hours or more a week working or volunteering, while in part-time
education or training.

Table 2 gives an overview of the different key stages, with their corresponding
years and age of students:
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if we compare the British Education system with its Spanish counterpart, there are
some similarities and some differences. Both systems offer education to young children,
but it is not compulsory in either of them. They are also alike in the stages of compulsory
education: Primary and Secondary. Besides, these countries offer pre-school education
for young children, although it is optional. The key stages in Primary education and in
Secondary education differ. In the British system there are two stages in Primary and
Secondary education, whereas in Spain there are three stages in Primary education and
only one stage in Secondary education. Regarding the school year, it starts in September
in these two countries, but the Spanish academic year finishes earlier than the British one.
As for holidays and breaks, whereas the Spanish system has got two main long holiday
breaks that set the beginning of each term (Christmas and Easter), the British academic
year has got more short breaks throughout the year. Figure 1 summarises some of the key
features of both education systems.

3. Types of school
3.1. Introduction

The third chapter of this unit presents the different types of schools in the British
Education System, which fall into two broad categories. Additionally, there are
schools that specifically target students with special education needs. The last section
offers an overview of the types of schools in Primary Education.
3.2. Types of school

There are five stages of education across the UK: early years, primary, secondary,
Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE). The schools that provision these
stages fall into two broad categories:

▪ state schools
▪ independent (or private) schools.

The first ones, state schools, receive funding from the government and/or local
authorities, whereas the schools in the second group, indepentedent schools, are
self-funded.

3.2.1. State Schools

In England, UK 93% of the children go to State schools. These schools are regulated
by government and inspected by a range of bodies. They receive funding from the
Government or the local education authorities and, generally, must follow the
National Curriculum. The types of schools that belong to this group are listed
in Table 3 below:

3.2.2. Independent Schools

In England, 7% of the children attend independent schools. These schools are also
known as private schools, since they charge fees to attend because they do not
receive funding from the Government or local education authorities. They can also
be funded through gifts and endowments. Independent schools are exempt from
following the National Curriculum and have freedom in the way they are run by the
board of governors.
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3.2.3. Special Schools

Although for all school types it is mandatory to establish a clear Special Education
Needs (SEN) policy that follows the code of practice for SEN and vulnerable children,
there are some secondary schools that are specialised in an area of special
education needs:

▪ Communication and interaction

▪ Cognition and learning
▪ Social, emotional and mental health
▪ Sensory and physical needs.

Thus, you can find across the UK schools and colleges with specialised facilities that
dedicate, for example, to care and education for children and young adults who
experience Severe Learning Difficulties (SLD), or schools that offer specialist
education for pupils that are affected by deaf or hearing impairment.

There is an interesting website of a group that provides services to families with

children and young adults with special educational needs by offering information on
the schools/colleges/education centres and support groups assorted by types of
special needs. If you are interested you can click on the link below.

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4. The National Curriculum in England

1. Introduction
The fourth chapter focuses on different aspects of the National Curriculum in
England. It briefly summarises key legislation, as well as the key stages into which the
education system is divided and the subjects taught in each of them.

4.2. The National Curriculum in England

As already mentioned, the Education system in the UK is divided into five stages:
early years, primary, secondary, Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE).
Children start school at the age of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) and finish when they are
16 (in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland) or 18 (in England).

There is not one and only framework Act (law) for compulsory education. Instead,
several Acts of Parliament convey different aspects of education, such as curriculum,
assessment or school structure. Regarding Primary Education, Section 78 of the
2002 Education Act establishes the following general requirements, which only
applies to all state-funded schools, but not to private institutions:
The national curriculum establishes the core knowledge that all teachers need to
include in their programmes of study. This curriculum pursues to promote the
development of pupils' knowledge, understanding and skills. Legally, it
is mandatory for all state schools (all schools funded by the Government or Local
authorities). However, academies and private schools do not have to follow it,
although they must offer a balanced and broad curriculum, as already mentioned,
which includes English, Maths and Science.

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The national curriculum sets out both the subjects and the standards that children
should reach at each key stage in every subject. There are 11 subjects, which are
divided into two types: ‘core’ subjects and ‘other foundation’ subjects, as
represented in Table 4.
In addition to these subjects, it is compulsory to teach religious education at all key
states both in Primary and Secondary Education in all types of schools, that is,
maintained schools and private schools. Sex and relationship education will be
offered only in the key stages in Secondary Education.

By way of example, we include here the programme of study of Year 1 for the
English subject. As you will see, it includes statuary requirements (compulsory
because they are in the national curriculum) and some additional content (notes and
guidance) which is not compulsory. The English subject has the
following components:

▪ word reading
▪ reading comprehension
▪ writing – transcription
▪ writing – composition
▪ writing – vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

You can read below the statuary (compulsory) and notes and guidance (optional)
for the component ‘word reading’:
 5. Standard Assessment Tests
5.1. Introduction

This chapter addresses evaluation and, more specifically, the official standardised
assessment tests that are to be taken in Primary Education.
5.2. Standard Assessments Tests
At the end of each compulsory Stage, students are assessed. In Primary Education,
they are assessed twice, in years 2 and 6, through SATs (Standard Assessment Tests).
These tests aim at measuring children’s educational achievement to help schools to
account for the attainment of their pupils and their progress. In Secondary Education,
all students must take their GCSE's (General Certificate of Secondary Education) at
age 16. In England, the results of these official exams will allow them to go onto
further education and then higher education or vocational training. If they do live in
Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland, they can finish school and go into the working
world.

In Primary Education, the SAT exam is a multiple-choice, pencil-and-paper test set

and marked by the Standards & Testing Agency and carried out in UK schools. This
standardised assessment test is administered all over the country every year, and it
compares the results of children against the average attainment expectations for
their respective age groups.

5.2.1 KS1 SATs in Year 2

At the end of Year 2 (when children are 7 years old), in May, children sit their Key
Stage 1 (KS1) SATs. From 2023 on, the KS1 SATs will not be compulsory anymore, or
non-statutory, which means that schools will be able to decide whether they
administer it in their school or not.

This test comprises two parts:

• Reading
• Maths

In KS1 the children’s teacher is who assesses their ability in reading and maths
(number, shape, space and measurement). The average of these sections is the official
score for the SATs tests. Additionally, teachers will also evaluate children in other
areas, namely: science, writing, and speaking and listening. However, this teacher
assessment is not part of the official score. It only serves to show the quality of the
education at a school.

Figure 4 summarises the parts of the KS1 SATs, showing the different parts of each
examen and the time allotted to each of them.
5.2.2. KS2 SATs in Year 6
Key Stage 2 (KS2) SATs take place in the last term of Year 6, when they finish their
studies in Primary Education (at age 11). It is a more formal process of testing than
KS1 SATs, since students are not examined by their own teachers but they do
an official standardised assessment test, designed by the College Board and
administered nationally.

Students all over the country need to sit tests in the following compulsory areas:

• Reading
• Maths
• Grammar, punctuation and spelling (GPS)

Unlike in the case of KS1 SATs, which are corrected and evaluated by the child’s
teacher, the KS2 STAs are marked externally, and a report of the results is sent to
schools in the first two weeks of July. These results are used to measure both the
child’s progress and the school’s performance.

In addition to these tests, some schools can also be required to take part
in science tests, so as to check the level of students in science subjects. The selected
schools are randomly chosen as a representative sample of schools in the
country as a whole. The students who sit for this test will have to do three papers of
25 minutes each to complete:
 • Biology
• Chemistry
• Physics

Figure 5 depicts a summary of the tests included in the KS2 SATs, specifying the
number of papers and the timing for each test area.

Would you like to see some sample SATs papers?

Click here to see sample SATS PAPERS

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6. Use of English
6.1. Present tenses
6.1.1. Present simple and present continuous
FORM
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6.1.2. Present perfect simple and present perfect continuous
FORM

USE
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6.2. Expressing opinion

There are different ways to express I am pretty sure that…
your opinion:
It seems to me that…
As far as I know…
It is a complicated / difficult issue,
I agree with the opinion of… but…

I could be wrong, but… My view is…

I would definitely say that… My point of view is…

I would guess/imagine that… My point of view on this is…

I would say that… My view on this is…

I am absolutely certain that… Obviously, …

I am fairly confident that… Some people may disagree with me,

but…
I am no expert (on this), but…
This is just my opinion, but…
I am positive that…
Without a doubt, … Would you go along with that?

You probably will not agree, but… Do you know what I mean?

I am absolutely convinced that… What do you think about …?

I am convinced that… Do you think that’s right?

It seems clear to me that… What do you suggest?

Personally speaking / Speaking for What’s your view?

myself, …
What’s your point of view about this?
To be frank, …
Are you OK with that?
What I think is…
In the following link you can find
It could be said that… different sentences used to express
your opinion:
I think I will
[Link]
I think I would content/uploads/2014/08/100-
[Link]
In my humble opinion, …

I have come to the conclusion that…

DISAGREEING

I’m afraid I disagree

I don’t agree with you

I’d be inclined to disagree

That’s not the way I see it

I don’t think so / I don’t feel the same

ASKING FOR SOMEONE'S OPINION

Do you agree?

How do you feel about…?

What do you think?

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UNIT 2. BUILDING PARENT-TEACHER

RELATIONSHIPS

1.1. Presentation

El binomio escuela-familia es un eje fundamental en el proceso de aprendizaje de

cada estudiante, y una relación positiva entre ambas partes tiene un impacto notable
en el desarrollo integral del niño. Las sucesivas leyes educativas han ido incidiendo,
gradualmente, en la importancia del papel activo que juegan las familias para la
mejora de la calidad de la enseñanza y, por ende, del sistema educativo. En la
LOMLOE se insta a las familias a participar y cooperar en los centros educativos,
comprometiéndose en los diversos proyectos y actividades del centro, por ejemplo
aquellos que traten la igualdad o la diversidad cultural. Por consiguiente, es
importante que el profesorado desarrolle estrategias efectivas para la cooperación
y la comunicación con las familias. En esta unidad nos centraremos precisamente
en esta cuestión. Analizaremos la necesidad de informar a las familias de diversas
cuestiones, tales como del progreso de su hijo o hija en el centro, el funcionamiento
y organización del mismo, o los canales de comunicación. Asimismo, presentaremos
diferentes estrategias que pueden contribuir a fomentar y fortalecer la relación entre
ambas instituciones: la familia y la escuela.

Además de este contenido, en esta segunda unidad se trabajarán cuestiones

relacionadas con el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la
competencia lingüística, con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del
alumnado que parte de un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel
B1+.

1.2. Objective

In this unit, learners will:

 • Reflect on the importance of establishing a positive relationship between the
family and the school.

• Learn about different strategies to enhance effective communication with

school families.

• Explore different communication media to connect with parents.

• Learn how to use reasonably accurately a repertoire of past tense patterns.

• Practise how to make comparisons using adjectives, including superlative

forms.

1.3. Unit 2 outline

2.1. Introduction
This chapter provides, as a starting point, a definition of what we understand by
"parents-teacher/school" relationship and communication. Then, it puts forward
some arguments that support that having a positive relationship is a win-win
situation for all parties involved, i.e. students, families and teachers.

2.2. Parent-teacher Relationships: definition and benefits

It is universally acknowledged that building a trustful family-teacher
relationship and positive communication is crucial to get parents involved with
their children’s education. But, why is it so important? Establishing and developing
parent-teacher partnerships is an effective strategy to support and foster students’
learning process. However, some parents tend to think that they can turn the
education of their children over to the teacher after Nursery or Infants School. This
belief is wrong. In fact, the connection parents-teacher seems to be closely related
to student success and to improve students’ outcomes throughout the school years,
especially in Infants and Primary Education. We cannot forget that parents are
responsible for the education of their children and that home is the first school of
life.

Parents’ involvement does not necessarily imply that they have to come to school
activities, they can be actively involved with their children at home, helping them in
their learning process. We must bear in mind that parents can have different socio-
cultural backgrounds that might influence the way they help their children. So, our
role as teachers is to support and guide parents on how to effectively help their
children, for instance with their homework or in setting up some routines for children
to study at home. Obviously, this relationship does not take place overnight. The
teacher needs to spend time and effort in building a positive relationship with
families. This will increase the probability of getting parents involved in the education
of their kids.

Who benefits from this relationship? All the parties involved will benefit: teachers,
parents, students. In Figure 1 below you can see some of the benefits of positive
cooperation for each of them.

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We will finish this first section with the following quote from Lekli and Kaloti (2015,
p. 102), which summarises the positive effects of the relationship between parents
and teachers for students:

"A student who knows that the teacher communicates on a regular basis with
his/her parents and who knows that his/her parents trust the teacher, will likely put
more effort into school. (Davis, 1995, p.23-24) Putting more effort into school,
being more hard-working and attentive to school subjects implies more
concentration on the lesson, and less disruptive behaviors in the classroom which
would undoubtedly negatively affect the teaching process. Likewise, a student who
knows that the teacher rarely or never communicates with his/her parents, and/or
his/her parents do not trust the teacher is likely to cause the opposite. So that
would be counterproductive and of course it would create problems for the
teachers on the management of the classroom environment and the management
of the disruptive behaviors caused by pupils."

3.1. Introduction
We will divide this section into two parts. On the one hand, we will address one-way
communication, that is, a person sends a message to another and does not receive
feedback, in this case it would be communication from the school (sender) with
families (receiver). On the other hand, we will deal with two-way
communication strategies, that is, when the receiver sends feedback to the sender.
In this case, it would be communication between the school and its families, in which
both could be the sender or the receiver. Figure 2 below depicts the concept of one-
way communication and Figure 3 the concept of two-way communication.

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3.1 . One-way communication

As already explained, one-way communication in the school context refers to the
information that the school or the teacher sends to families. Some examples are:

▪ Weekly or term reports with student progress

▪ Classroom or school newsletters
▪ School website / social media
▪ Infographics
▪ Home flyers of school events

How should be this written material?

▪ Keep it simple and accessible to families. There is no point in

using sophisticated or specialised terminology that parents
cannot understand. You want to get your message across, so
provide clear information.
▪ Be concise and to the point. You need to provide concise,
accurate information so that parents will read and understand
it. For example, don’t use a newsletter announcing a school
event to mention other topics, like school holidays or news
about changes in the menu of the school canteen. In sum, do
not beat around the bush or parents could miss the important
message in the newsletter.
▪ Make it visually appealing. Use the same font, font size,
colour, layout in your written correspondence. Use diagrams,
tables, charts, infographics to help parents digest and
understand better the information.

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DESIGNING INFOGRAPHICS

We will finish this sub-section on one-way communication by

introducing infographics. According to the definition provided in the online
Cambridge Dictionary ([Link] an infographic is “a
picture or diagram or a group of pictures or diagrams showing or explaining
information”. This visual tool is becoming more and more frequently used in written
communication, also in the school context, to deliver information in a clear and
organized way, while, at the same time, it is visually appealing. In Unit 1 you have
already seen some infographics that we included to explain the British Education
system.

Do you have any doubts about why using infographics? Read the following
information

▪ Can you create an infographic with whatever topic? Yes, you

can present any topic in the form of an infographic. It will help
you convey and transmit the content more effectively.
▪ Are they easy to share? Yes, you can share them by simply
attaching them to an email, for example, and you can share
them on any social media platforms of your school, like
Instagram, Tweeter or Facebook.
 ▪ Are they easy to create? Yes, you can use PowerPoint
templates to produce your own infographics. There are more
professional-like online platforms you can use to create
Infographics if you feel skilled enough, such as Canva
([Link] or [Link] ([Link]

Read the infographics (Figure 4) below to find out more benefits of this powerful
visual tool.

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Do you want to know

how to create your own
infographic? Use these
links to find out!

English
[Link]
infographics-in-powerpoint

Spanish

[Link]
powerpoint--cms-31342

As a final tip, do you know you can also use infographics to present content in
the classroom? Why? Read Figure 5 below.
3.2. Two-way communication
Two-way communication takes place when there is interaction between the sender
and the receiver of a message. At school, this type of communication takes place, for
example, when teachers dialogue with parents. This interaction should be based on
mutual respect and trust and should allow for contrasting perspectives. Some typical
examples are:

▪ Phone calls home

 ▪ Parent-teacher conferences
▪ Open school days
▪ Send-home parent surveys

This type of communication strategies has some advantages and some

disadvantages, which are summarised in Table 2:

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Making phone calls home

Let’s be honest. Teachers tend to contact parents to share a concern about the
student more often than to celebrate or recognise students’ success. This does not
help to build a positive relationship between teachers and parents, who may end up
feeling that making or receiving phone calls is a source of tension rather than a
chance to engage in productive interactions.

But how can address parents or guardians in different situations? Watch this video
to see some sample conversations giving advice, thanking or congratulating.

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What things can you do to be ready for the phone call? See Diagram 1 to find
out.
In Figure 6 there are some examples of sandwich approach scripts.

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4.1. Introduction
In the 1990s, Joyce Epstein and her colleagues developed a framework to build
positive relationships with families, known as the Framework of Six Types of
Involvement, or the “School-Family-Community Partnership Model”. This model,
which has undergone some revisions,[1] has remained the most influential model in
establishing relationships among teachers, parents and schools. In this chapter, we
will introduce this model, which aims at establishing a systematic approach to
establishing and developing parental involvement.

4.2. The Framework

Eipsten and her colleagues (1997) based this framework on their research on parent-
teachers-school relationships. They found that some teachers do not involve all
parents equally, as some of them have stereotypes. For example, some believe that
those parents who are single parents or who have low socio-economic backgrounds
are not able to engage in their child’s education. However, we want all students to
succeed in their learning process, so we need to encourage all families or guardians
to be involved. We cannot only encourage only those families that we feel more
comfortable with.

This Framework of Six Types of Involvement proposes six different ways to engage
parents or guardians in their child’s education, as shown in Diagram 2 (adapted from
Epstein 1995, p. 704, in Ihmeideh, AlFlasi, Al-Maadadi, Coughlin & Al-Thani 2018:
190-191):
These authors further develop each type of parent-teacher/school communication
by providing sample practices, challenges, implications for students, parents and
teachers. In Diagram 3 there is a selection of sample practices that will help to
illustrate each type of parents’ involvement.
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5. Use of English
5.1. Past tenses
5.1.1. Past simple, past continuous and past perfect

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5.2. Comparatives and superlatives

5.2.1. Comparatives
We use comparative adjectives to compare two people, animals, or things.

FORM

One syllable adjectives = adjective + -er + than:

This student is taller than Peter.

This classroom is bigger than the other one.

Two or more syllables adjectives = more + adjective + than:

Mary is more intelligent than John.

The book I am reading is more interesting than the one I read last month.

The opposite of more is less. We use less + adjective + than: Your teacher is less
strict than my teacher (my teacher is more strict).

We use much / a lot / a bit to emphasize the degree of comparison:

This student is much more popular than any other.

This exam is a lot worse than the previous one.

He is a bit taller than me.

AS + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + AS = used to say that two things or people are similar
in some way:

Mary is as clever as her sister.

COMPARING ACTIONS WITH ADVERBS

She drives fast, but I drive faster.

With adverbs ending in -ly, you must use more to form the comparative and most
to form the superlative (She speaks more quietly than her teacher)

5.2.2. Superlatives
We use superlative adjectives to compare more than two things.

After the superlative we use:

in + names of places or singular words for groups of people (class, school, team,
family...): Michael Phelps is the best swimmer in the world.

of + periods of time or a number of people (of the year, of my life, of the students):
I am the most intelligent of my brothers)

FORM

One syllable adjectives = the or a possessive adjective (my, your, his, her, Paul's) + -
est

October is our busiest time of year.

Two or more syllables adjectives = the or a possessive adjective + most + adjective

I am the most intelligent of my brothers

The opposite of the most is the least: He is the least hardworking student in the class.

SPELLING
One syllable adjective (consonant + vowel + consonant) = double consonant + -er / -
est (hot, hotter, the hottest; big, bigger, the biggest)
Two syllables ending -y = -ier / -iest (happy, happier, the happiest; healthy, healthier,
the healthiest).

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

Good - better - the best
Bad - worse - the worst
Far - further - the furthest
Little - less - the least

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UNIT 3. CLASSROOM INTERACTION AND

MANAGEMENT
1.1. Presentation

El concepto de “Gestión de Aula” o “Classroom managment” se refiere a las

herramientas y estrategias que usa un docente con el propósito de propiciar y
mantener un ambiente de aprendizaje favorable en el aula para que los estudiantes
obtengan un aprendizaje significativo y logren los objetivos de aprendizaje
propuestos. Uno de los elementos claves para propiciar un buen clima en el grupo
es, sin duda, la interacción en el aula o “Classroom interaction”. No hay un único
patrón de interacción entre profesores y alumnos, sino que estos dependerán de los
objetivos didácticos o de las exigencias de las actividades de aprendizaje diseñadas.

Teniendo en cuenta el papel importante que juegan estos aspectos en el aprendizaje

del alumnado, es fundamental que un docente
conozca estrategias y técnicas específicas de gestión de aula, así como
distintos patrones de interacción en el aula que consigan captar y mantener la
atención del alumnado. Estos son precisamente las dos cuestiones que abordaremos
en esta tercera unidad de aprendizaje.

Además de este contenido, en esta tercera unidad se trabajarán cuestiones

relacionadas con el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la
competencia lingüística, con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del
alumnado que parte de un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel
B1+.

1.2. Objectives
In this unit, learners will:

▪ Learn about strategies and techniques for classroom

management.
▪ Explore different interaction patterns to implement in the
classroom.
▪ Reflect on their own teaching practise regarding classroom
management.
▪ Examine different patterns of classroom interaction.
▪ Learn how to use reasonably accurately a repertoire of future
tense patterns.
▪ Learn how to use reasonably accurately non-personal verb
forms.

1.3. Unit 3 outline

2.1. Introduction

In the first chapter of Unit three, we will provide a definition of what is meant by
“classroom management”. Then, we will reflect on classroom management styles that
different teachers perform depending on the context. We will finish this chapter by
exploring different strategies and techniques that will be useful to improve classroom
management.

2.2. Definition of classroom management

Classroom management seems to be crucial to ensure that the lessons run smoothly,
and that there is no disruptive behavior from students.

So, if having a structured learning environment that promotes learning is so

important, the first thing we need to ask ourselves is: what is classroom
management? According to Delceva–Dizdarevik (2014: 52):

In other words, classroom management is about:

 ▪ Building a positive relationship with students
▪ Creating a positive atmosphere for learning to take place
▪ Getting students involved in the learning process
▪ Ensuring discipline in the classroom

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Managing effectively your class will have a positive impact on both teachers and
students. Teachers will feel they are not wasting their teaching time, as the classroom
will be more productive when students are focused and working on tasks. Students
will improve the quality of their learning process and will feel more motivated to
learn.

Figure 3 summarises the phases for successful classroom

management proposed by Delceva–Dizdarevik (2014: 53):
These steps encompass all the teaching process from the very beginning, when
lesson planning and preparation take place, to the very end, when the teacher
reflects on their own teaching practice as well as on the success of the lesson. So, to
be successful in managing a class, it is necessary to carefully plan our classes, to set
the timing and the rhythm during the lesson, to establish clear rules to diminish or
remove undesired behaviour that might interfere with the learning process, to
evaluate the teaching and learning process, and to reflect on the effectiveness of
the lesson planned.

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1.3. Classroom management styles

Classroom managements styles refer to the practices and strategies that teachers
use to promote and enhance students’ engagement and learning, that is, to the
actions and techniques that teachers use in order to ensure a positive learning
environment in the classroom. Therefore, these styles have a direct impact on both
the students’ success as learners and on the teacher’s satisfaction and, ultimately,
effectiveness as a teacher.

Martin and Baldwin (1993a; 1993b) proposed a classification of classroom

management styles following Wolfgang & Glickman’s (1980) study on teachers’
beliefs about discipline. This classification includes the following classroom
management styles: non-interventionist, interventionist and interactionist. Each
style is defined as follows (Djigić & Stojiljković 2012: 66):

▪ Non-interventionist: it is based on the belief that a person has

his own needs that tend to express and accomplish themselves,
so the teacher undertakes minimal control.
 ▪ Interventionist: it is based on the belief that human
development is affected mainly by the external environment
(people and facilities). This belief affects the teacher to assume
full control under the situation in the classroom.
▪ Interactionist: it focuses on the mutual influence between the
individual and the environment. In this case, control over the
situation in the classroom is shared between teacher and
students.

Figure 4 below depicts these styles in a continuum taking teacher control as the
key dimension:

As research has demonstrated, teachers act according to all three styles, although
one model usually predominates over the others in beliefs and actions. If this is so,
one may wonder whether one style is better than the others. In general, most
surveys agree that the best style is the interactionist model, as this style:

However, teachers should adjust their styles in order to meet their students' needs,
since every classroom is different. What works well in one class does not necessarily
mean that it will be effective in another class. Each student and each group are
different, and teachers need to identify which style will help that particular group
work more efficiently. Even more, a teacher may adopt different styles in the same
group depending on the situation.
These three styles pivot around teacher control, as shown in Figure 4. This main
guiding principle can be further broken down into three dimensions: people
management or personality, instructional management or teaching and behaviour
management or discipline. These dimensions are further described for each
classroom management style in Table 1 below:

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2.4. Classroom management: strategies and techniques

As already mentioned in the previous section, classroom management styles

encompass three dimensions: personality, teaching and discipline. Just as a reminder,
these dimensions are described, using the words in Djigic & Stojiljkovic (2011: 821),
as:
We will follow these three dimensions to provide a set of strategies and techniques
to help teachers manage their classrooms successfully.

2.4.1. Personality: strategies and techniques

A) Seating plan

At the beginning of school year, it will be very useful to use permanent seating
arrangements to help you to learn your students’ names or take attendance, for
example. This permanent arrangement can be modified to adapt to the different
learning activities in which students will be involved. Calling your students by their
names will make them feel that you know them and will be the starting point to build
a relationship in the classroom.

B) Classroom displays

In order to create a welcoming and motivational environment for students, showcase

student work, posters, visuals or maps. This decoration will let students know you
value their work and, at the same time, it will give them a sense of ownership.

Get inspired by some creative classroom displays by clicking on the link below.

[Link]

C) Welcome students

Welcoming and greeting your students not only on the first day, but every day, will
create a positive atmosphere in the class, and will improve students’ academic
engagement. Don’t just introduce yourself.
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D) Share your story

It is important to let your students get to know you if you want to build a relationship
with them. As in any relationship, it is two-way channel. You can start by explaining
to them why you went into teaching, or what your interests and hobbies are, for
example. Telling funny anecdotes will also boost the class environment any time.

Click here to find some creative ways to introduce yourself:

[Link]
students-2/

2.4.2. Teaching: strategies and techniques

A) Physical classroom organisation

The organisation of a classroom is crucial to allow the teacher and the students to
move freely about the classroom, to interact among them and to minimise distracting
others or disruptive behaviour. A good planning of the classroom space will let
teachers and students identify the different instructional areas for different teaching
purposes. For instance, if the teaching activity is that students present their work to
the whole group, a space where students can sit down in a semi-circle would be
necessary. Having different corners or spaces will enable students to anticipate what
kind of activity they will be doing and where they need to go. This will make
transitions run smoothly, which will result in maximising class time and in minimising
misconduct.

You can read more about classroom organisation in the link provided below.

[Link]
organization-physical-environment/

B) Variety of teaching activities

Use a range of different types of activities and different teaching methods when
planning your lesson. This variety will ensure that students will not get bored of
repeating the same activity time and time again. Besides, variety in teaching activities
will enhance differentiated instruction, as it will cater for different learning styles, for
different types of intelligences and interests.

Click on the link below to include a variety of teaching ideas in your lesson plan.
[Link]
instruction/

C) Giving instructions to students

Giving clear instructions to students will enable students to understand better what
is expected from them. Follow these tips:

▪ Use clear and precise language: short and complete sentences,

nouns instead of pronouns, concrete terms rather than abstract
nouns.
▪ Repeat instructions: do not assume all students will understand
the activity the first time you explain it. Optionally, you can ask
one student to explain or rephrase what they have understood
to the rest of the group.
▪ Explain the purpose of the activity: if students understand why
they are doing an activity, how it is connected to the content
they are studying, it will be more meaningful to them.
▪ Provide examples: if you can show your students examples of
how to do an activity, it will help them know what the teacher
expects.
▪ Break the activity into chunks: if an activity involves a series of
steps, divide it into smaller parts, and provide directions for a
single part at a time. Then, go on to the second part of the
activity and give instructions for this second part. Continue until
the task is completed. This is especially necessary when
teaching younger children.

2.4.3. Discipline: strategies and techniques

A) Establishing classroom rules

Rules are essential to set up a classroom framework that will guide students’
behaviour throughout the school year. It is important to get students involved in
establishing these rules as well as their consequences. You can get them involved by:

▪ Brainstorming disruptive behaviour.

▪ Writing rules using affirmative sentences (e.g. treat your
classmates with respect). Using negative sentences create a
more oppressive atmosphere in the classroom.
▪ Establishing the consequences, both positive and negative.
What will happen if a student breaks a rule? How can you
reinforce rules in a positive way? For example, using stickers or
behaviour charts.
 ▪ Getting students to make a poster with the classroom rules and
display it in class.

Would you like to find out some teaching ideas to set classroom rules with your
students? Click on the link below.

[Link]
expectations-students/

B) Establishing classroom routines

Establishing classroom routines is a proactive strategy that will support the learning
process by building positive behaviours and controlling negative behaviour. The first
thing a teacher has to do is identifying class routines, like using the toilet, sharpening
pencils, checking attendance, handing in or returning student work, turn-taking, or
getting teacher’s attention. Teach the expected behaviour for each routine and
review it frequently to ensure students’ understanding and teacher’s consistency.

C) Using positive feedback and reinforcement

Who does not like receiving a compliment after hard work? Everybody does and so
do our students. Providing positive feedback motivates them and predisposes them
to repeat the positive behaviour. Follow these tips to encourage them to keep doing
their jobs well:

▪ Provide positive feedback immediately after the positive

behaviour occurs.
▪ Be sincere and don’t overact.
▪ Address an individual student rather than a group.

If you would like to read more about specific strategies to provide positive
reinforcement, click on the following link below:

[Link]

D) Gamifying classroom management

Using gamification is a powerful and recognised tool to grab students’ attention and
boost their interest in following expected behaviour. ClassDojo
([Link] is a free digital tool that help classroom teachers track
down positive and negative behaviours on each individual student. Colao (2012, para
5, in Chiarelli, Szabo & Williams 2015: 83) claims that “teachers using ClassDojo
reported a 45% – 90% increases in positive behavior and a 50% – 85% decrease in
incidents of negative behavior”. Chiarelli, Szabo & Williams (2015: 83) continue to
describe ClassDojo stating that since this gamified online tool gives:

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3.1. Introduction

This second chapter of Unit three starts by defining the term “interaction patterns”
to establish a shared framework. The second section of this chapter will address the
different types of patterns of interaction that we may encounter in a classroom. This
chapter finishes with a reflection on the importance of changing the patterns of
interaction during a lesson.

3.2. Definition of classroom interaction

The online Cambridge Dictionary ([Link] defines

interaction as: “an occasion when two or more people or things communicate with
or react to each other”. When applied to school context, interaction refers to
communication between teachers and students, and the different ways in which this
communication takes place is known as patterns of interaction, or interaction
patterns. This communication is fundamental in all classroom activity, and it
determines the student learning achievement.

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Selecting patterns of interaction is crucial and it influences all the teaching/learning

process, from the lesson planning to the learning outcomes, as shown in Figure
5 below:
An intrinsic feature when interacting is reciprocity, as it implies collaboration between
the two (or more) parties involved in communication. In a language learning class, the
active engagement of parties is even more important for language learning to take
place, as explained by Sundari, Rafli & Ridwan (2017: 100):

When teaching young learners, teachers have the advantage that they are naturally
prone to talk and interact, so they should take advantage of it to foster language
learning. Naturally, when children start learning the new language, they are able to
communicate in a very limited way by repeating chunks of language they have heard or
practised beforehand. Nevertheless, they need to have the change to be creative with
language and interact with their classmates, who have a similar level of cognitive and
social development. Peer interaction offers them the opportunity to take risks with
language, as they feel more relaxed than when talking to the teacher, which boosts
their language learning. After all, as Vigotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory states,
learning is a social process that takes place when interacting between peers, or with a
teacher or an expert. Ellis (2000, in Fahim & Haghani 2012: 694) argues that:
3.3. Types of interaction patterns

Choosing a specific interaction pattern for an activity serves a double purpose. On

the one hand, teachers need to think what teaching/learning aims they want their
students to achieve when doing an activity. On the other hand, a teacher needs to
foster cohesion in the group because if students feel involved and they identify
themselves with their class, they will be more prone to engage in their own learning,
thus playing an active role in this process.

In this section, we will follow Ur’s (1996) classification of interaction patterns, as it is

commonly used in the specialised research. Table 2 explains the different types of
interaction and their definitions, as summarized by Sari (2018: 42):
Let us see a few examples of some of these patterns of interaction, as illustrated by
Sari’s study (2018). In the closed-ended teacher questioning (IRF) pattern, the teacher
(T) starts the interaction by asking a question to students (Ss), who answer this question
and they receive feedback from the teacher (T). So, the interaction pattern that follows
this structure: T-Ss-T. The following excerpt (Figure 6) illustrates this interaction pattern
when an Indonesian teacher (T1) made some comments on a short movie that the class
had watched.

Choral responses take place when the teacher (T) asks a question and gives a clue or a
model that students (Ss) repeat. The structure of this interaction pattern is T-Ss. Look at
the following example in Figure 7:

In the student initiates-teacher answers pattern, the student (S) addresses the teacher
(T) or asks a question. The structure followed in this pattern of interaction is S-T. Figure
8 exemplifies this type of interaction pattern:

When the teacher (T) initiates the interaction and different individual students (S)
respond, the pattern used is open-ended teacher questioning. So, the structure of this
pattern is T-S. Figure 9 illustrates this type of pattern of interaction in an Indonesian
classroom:
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Some of these types of interaction patterns are more teacher-centred, that is, the
teacher takes most of the talking time in class and is the main focus of the
teaching/learning process, whereas others are more student-centred, that is, the
student plays an active role in their learning process and talks more time during
class. The relationship between the types of patterns of interaction and
student/teacher centred approaches is depicted in Figure 10.

3.4. Varying interaction patterns

Varying the patterns of interaction that we use in class is crucial to:

▪ Improve the students’ achievement of the proposed

teaching objectives.
▪ Vary the pace of the classroom by making it more dynamic.
▪ Cater for diversity in the classroom.
What other benefits does it bring to the classroom? See Figure 11 to find out more
reasons to change interaction patterns during a class.

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The benefits are notorious, so when planning lessons, teachers can not overlook the
importance of varying patterns of interaction. Luckily, this planning is not really
challenging. All a teacher needs to bear in mind is mixing some of these general
patterns (Figure 12):
When a teacher plans a lesson, they need to take into account the learning aims and
the interaction patterns to be used during the class time to ensure that the lesson is
effectively implemented and successfully performed by students. The same activity can
pursue different objectives and, therefore, require different interaction patterns. For
instance, a teacher wants to do dictation in class. This activity can be led by the teacher
or students can work in pairs. Table 3 displays the teaching aims and the teaching
procedure or steps for these two interaction patterns.
4.1. Future tenses

FORM
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4.2. Non-personal verb forms

4.2.1. Gerunds
It is the -ing form of a verb (making, speaking, reading). They are used:

• After certain verbs (like, enjoy...): I like reading, I enjoy working.

• After prepositions (in, on, after, before...): I will be at home after studying.
• As the subject or the object of a sentence: Playing is good for children.

4.2.2. Infinitives
[Link]. To + infinitive

USE:

• After certain verbs (decide): We decided to leave.

• After a lot of adjectives: It is difficult to learn this lesson.
• Meaning a purpose: I came to Spain to learn Spanish.

[Link]. Bare infinitive (infinitive without to):

USE:

• After modal verbs (can, must, could, should...): You can teach English.
• After some verbs (make, let and sometimes help): The teacher let us
finish the task.
• After some verbs of perception (watch, see, hear, notice, feel...):
I watched her walk away.

In the following link, you have some verbs that are usually followed by gerunds or
by infinitives:

[Link]

[Link]. The imperative

FORM

Verb + object (if needed): Sit down, shut up.

Negative = do + not or don't: Do not read this book / Don't read this book.

It is expressed by using the base form of the main verb, which is used without a
subject. It is used:

• To give commands and orders: Don't talk; wait a minute.

 • To give instructions: Open your book and read the text on page 2.
• To give advice or warnings: Do not forget to take your notebook with you;
Be careful
• To make an offer or an invitation: Have a piece of cake; Came in.

The imperative of do + main verb can be used:

• For polite emphasis: Do take your coat off.

• To be persuasive: Do try to eat a little more; It will be good for you.
• To show irritation: Do stop talking! I am trying to explain this.

4.2.3. Making suggestions

We use let's (let + us) + main verb to encourage someone to do something with
you: Let's visit the head now; Let's go to the classroom now.

Negative = Let's not + main verb: Let us not forget that book.

Emphatic form = Do + let's + main verb

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UNIT 4. LEARNING INDIVIDUALLY, LEARNING

TOGETHER
1.1. Presentation

Esta unidad complementa la anterior, profundizando en la importancia de variar los

patrones de interacción y trabajo en el aula para maximizar el aprendizaje que los
alumnos obtienen de las actividades y tareas que realizan. Tanto el trabajo individual
como el trabajo grupal son necesarios para la consolidación y el progreso en el
proceso de aprendizaje del alumnado, y cada uno de ellos aporta distintos beneficios,
como veremos a lo largo de esta unidad. Asimismo, abordaremos las características
de estas formas de organización del trabajo del alumnado, así como los criterios que
han de guiar la toma de decisiones del profesor.

Además de este contenido, en esta cuarta unidad se trabajarán cuestiones

relacionadas con el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la
competencia lingüística, con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del
alumnado que parte de un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel
B1+.
1.2. Objectives
In this unit, learners will:

• Learn about the main features of individual work.

• Learn about the main features of group work.
• Reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of a range of groupings, and
how these can be used in the classroom.
• Explore different ways of grouping learners.
• Learn how to use reasonably accurately a repertoire of passive voice
patterns.
• Learn how to use reasonably accurately a broader range of question types.

1.3. Unit 4 outline

2.1. Introduction

In the second chapter of Unit four, we will analyse why working individually is
important and needs to be taken into account when planning lessons. We will also
discuss when this learning modality is more suitable to be implemented to boost
students’ achievements as well as what competences it contributes to developing in
students.
2.2. Working individually

The first thing that we have to clarify is what we mean by getting learners to work
individually. This term is self-explanatory, in individualistic learning students work by
themselves, independently, to accomplish learning goals.

In a context in which group work is gaining momentum, working individually has

been and is being relegated to a second plane in the classroom. However, we cannot
underestimate the value of getting learners to work individually when:

▪ the activity to be carried out is non-divisible, that is, it cannot

be divided into different parts to work in groups.
▪ the activity involves some sort of drill or practice.
▪ directions for completing the task are simple and clear.
▪ students are expected to succeed in completing the task.
▪ there are enough or adequate resources for each student.

Additionally, but not necessarily, individual work can be subsequently used to

complete group work in a more complex task like, for example, doing an oral
presentation in class.

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In fact, not all tasks are suitable for group work and learners perform better when
working alone. This is true for both offline and online learning. In the latter context,
online learning, it has been studied and concluded that certain types of tasks are
more successfully completed when children work individually rather than in pairs or
in groups:

The main benefits of getting young learners to work individually, therefore, seem to
involve three main areas:

▪ On-task behaviour: they concentrate for longer periods when

working on their own.
 ▪ Off-task behaviour: they get less distracted than when
interacting with peers.
▪ Task performance: they perform better in drills and practice
tasks.

We may add a fourth advantage of individual work: personalising learning. When

assigning individual work and activities to students, teachers can cater for individual
differences, learning styles and needs by, for example, offering a choice in terms of
the materials used to complete the activity. You can ask a student to do additions by
completing a worksheet, by recording themselves solving them, or by solving one
addition and jumping as many times as the number of the result. This way, a teacher
could adapt the same practice to different learning styles, in this case:
reading/writing, auditory and kinesthetic.

Figure 1 summarises the main benefits of individual work in the classroom:

As already stated, the

advantages of using individual work are meaningful. So, it is important to save
some time when planning our lessons to give students the time and space to work
on their own.

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2.3. Working alone: autonomy and self-regulation

In the recommendations of the Council of Europe (2018), the acknowledgment of the

importance of instilling and developing competences from early childhood is clear:
This is particularly necessary when referring to life-long learning competences: “[t]he
importance of early self-regulatory skill has seen increased focus in the applied
research given the implications of these skills for early school success” (2018: 84).
Therefore, the Council of Europe recommends to:

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Self-regulation and autonomy are two concepts that are intrinsically related. Learners
who have these skills are motivated and proactive in their learning process. These
skills can be enhanced by making students work individually and by introducing
strategies and techniques that foster the development of these lifelong competences.
For example, in her study, Padmadewi (2016) proposes a series of techniques to lead
Indonesian students in primary school to have autonomous learning in the
classroom. These strategies focus on promoting autonomy and self-regulation in
reading skills. Most of them are meant for individual work and can be transferred to
our own context:

▪ Empowering reading logs for initiating reading habits: giving

choices of what books to read and asking learners to set their
own goals (how many books to read a month, how long to read
every day…).
▪ Evaluating the reading log: involving students in the evaluation
process together with the teacher (for example, asking students
to reflect on their goals and whether they had achieved them).
▪ Rewarding through Reading Rocket and other systems to
enhance the power of repetition: reinforcing positive behaviour
through a point system or certificates for achievements.
 ▪ Reading cards and journals: using reading cards to promote
introspection (students complete the cards/journals to think
how they have learnt and what they have learnt).

There are more strategies to increase learner autonomy and responsibility for
other subjects and contents. Figure 2 presents some strategies adapted from
McCombs (2010).

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Obviously, lifelong learning competences can also be developed not only when
students work independently but also when they work together in pairs or in small
groups, as will see in the next chapter.
3.1. Introduction
In Chapter three of this learning unit, we will deal with group work and answer
questions such as: How do we make groups? Which types of grouping are more
effective? How can I help learners to be focused while working together? What
problems may arise during group work and how to solve them?

3.2. Group work

Group work occurs when two or more students work together to achieve
a common goal, which can be completing an activity, learning some content or
giving feedback to another group’s work. Each member of the group is responsible
for contributing to the common objective and for helping other group members in
the task. Thus, group work fosters an “atmosphere of achievement” (Panitz 1996, in
Palmer, Peters & Streetman 2003).

Group work brings benefits to students that go beyond enhancing cognitive

development, as students build deeper knowledge and understanding when they
engage in meaningful interaction. Group work also develops students’ social skills
and teamwork skills, since they have to interact to complete an activity. Some of
these skills are conveyed in Figure 3.

Group work also promotes civic values, according to Johnson and Johnson (2002:
102):
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Individual work and group work complement each other. Teachers can not only use
one of them to organize and plan their classwork. A combination of both is necessary
for successful learning to take place. The use of individual or group work will depend
on the type of activity and learning objectives. For example, a teacher may ask
students to solve a mathematics problem following three steps:

Now, picture this situation: you are a teacher and you have prepared a group work
activity, for example, solving a puzzle. You group students and ask them to do the
activity. Some questions arise:

Some teachers believe that grouping students and asking them to work together
will make students cooperate, be responsible and learn, and they feel disappointed
when this does not happen. You hear teachers making comments like: “group work
does not work”, “getting students together is a waste of time”, “some students do
not work with their partners and just misbehave”. Effective group work does not
occur in the classroom as if by magic, there are some elements (Figure 4) that the
teacher needs to take into account when planning group work (Slavin, Hurley, &
Chamberlain, 2003: 184-187):
For example, imagine that a teacher wants students to do dictation in pairs to review
the water cycle. In order to make sure that the group worked well, the teacher would
need to structure the activity in such a way that both students needed each other to
finish it and that each student had something to do during the activity. The text would
have two paragraphs, student A would get paragraph 1 and student B would get
paragraph 2. In this way, the teacher would ensure that both students would be
engaged during group work and that they would need each other to do the task, as
each of them would only have part of the material necessary to complete it:

1. Structure interaction:

a. Student A dictates the first paragraph and student B copies.

b. Student A proofreads student B’s copy and corrects any mistakes.

c. Student B dictates the second paragraph and student A copies.

d. Student B proofreads student A’s copy and corrects any mistakes.

2. Setting goals: the specific goal of this activity is reviewing the water cycle. For
so doing, students will have to dictate each other part of a short text related to this
content.
3. Individual accountability: both students will be engaged during the activity
because they will be either dictating, proofreading or copying. Each of them must
perform their part well so that the group successfully completes the task.

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3.3. Making groups

Is there an ideal number of students for group work? The answer is it depends. If
the teacher or the students have no or little experience with group work, the best
choice would be to start with pair work. Why? It is easier to interact only with one
classmate than with three or four at a time. It will make students feel more
comfortable and more focused on the task, and the teacher will feel they have some
control over what is going on in the classroom. When the students are more skilled
or have more experience with group work, they can work in groups of three or four.
Larger groups can be more difficult to handle for cooperation and to ensure that all
group members equally contribute to the task (Bertucci, Conte, Johnson & Johnson
2010: 270). In addition to teacher and student experience in group work, there are
other factors to consider when choosing the group size:

▪ Time: if the time for an activity is short, the group size should
be short as well. They will need less time to organise and start
group work, and they will have more time to interact.
▪ Task: if the task is simple, for example completing a worksheet,
small groups will work better. If the task is more complex or
requires more students to perform it, for instance recording an
advertisement, then a group of three or four students would be
necessary.
▪ Resources: the lack of enough resources for an activity may
dictate the size of the group. For example, in a class of twenty-
four students, if you want students to play a ball game to review
some vocabulary and you have eight balls, then group the
children in groups of three.

Figure 5 summarises the key factors to consider when deciding group size.
Hay actividades de autoevaluación
Once the group size is decided, the teacher needs to consider how to group
students. There are three main ways of assigning students to a group: random
selection, teacher selection, student choice. Each of them has got its advantages
and disadvantages, as Table 1 shows:

As you can see, there are advantages and disadvantages for each of them.
Changing how you form groups is probably the best solution depending on the
students and the activities they have to do. The important thing is that the teacher
decides the way of making groups when planning the lesson, before the class starts.
This will make students feel you have planned the lesson and that you have the
final say in class. Whatever way the teacher decides, while students are working in
groups, the teacher needs to get involved. Here is a list of dos and don’ts a
teacher should do while group work:
Would you like some fresh ideas on how to group students? Click on the link
provided below.

3.4. Managing group work

The final section of this chapter will provide some general guidelines on how to
manage group work and some problems that might have arisen while getting
students to work together. Regarding the first issue, group work management, we
will consider three different moments to implement and manage group work in the
classroom (adapted from University of Waterloo Centre for Teaching Excellence (n.d.)
and from Palmer, Peters & Streetman 2003):

1. Planning group work

2. Implementing group work
3. Ending group work

When planning group work a teacher needs to do the following (Figure 6):
Hay actividades de autoevaluación

It is important to finish group work well, follow these tips to wrap up a group work
task (Figure 8):

Would you like to read more on how to manage group work? Click on the link below
to read the article in the University of Waterloo Centre for Teaching Excellence.

[Link]
tips/alternatives-lecturing/group-work/implementing-group-work-classroom

Ideally, when students get together to work in groups there would not be any
problems or difficulties. But, the reality is that there are. Not only in class, but also
with other colleagues or with families. Have you never heard comments like
Learning to overcome these and other difficulties related to group work is a
process. However, the benefits of group work for students are so many and so
important for their personal development that taking a chance on getting them
together is really worthwhile.

4.1. Passive voice

FORM

Subject + verb to be (same tense as in the active voice) + past participle of the
main verb

Example:
The teacher created the book

The book was created by the teacher (verb to be in past since created is in past
tense, and created (past participle of the verb create)

USE

It is used when the focus is on the action; it is not important who or what is
performing the action, but the action itself.

4.1.1. Passive voice sentences with two objects

Mary offered a book to me

There are two possibilities to write this sentence by using the passive voice:

a) I was offered a book by Mary

b) A book was offered to me by Mary

4.1.2. Impersonal passive voice

FORM

It + passive verb (be + past participle) + that clause

They say that the lesson is difficult

It is said that the lesson is difficult

The common verbs used in impersonal passive voice are: agree, allege, announce,
assume, claim, consider, declare, expect, find, know, propose, recommend, show,
supposed, suggest, understand, think, believe...

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4.2. Questions
4.2.1. Object questions
They are used to know where, when, why….

Question word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + complements?

Example: What did John buy in Ireland?

4.2.2. Subject questions

It is used to know who or what makes the action

Question word + main verb + complements?

Example: Who bought this nice present in Ireland?

Questions words used in subject questions: who, what, which, whose, how many...

4.2.3. Questions with preposition

They are used when we ask about an element of the sentence that comes after a
preposition.

The preposition is put at the end of the question.

Example: I learned English with John = Who did you learn English with?

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4.3. Question tags

A question tag is a small question at the end of a statement, and they are used to
ask for agreement or confirmation.

4.3.1. Negative question tags

FORM

A positive statement + a negative question tag

Examples:

You are a teacher, aren’t you?

Fred speaks English, doesn’t he?

4.3.2. Positive question tags
FORM

A negative statement + a positive question tag

Examples:

She is not a teacher, Is she?

Fred does not speak German, does he?

REMEMBER:
Statements using barely, hardly, neither, no, nobody, none, nothing and seldom are
treated as negative statements:

Nobody went to the meeting, did they?

Nothing is ready, is it?

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UNIT 5. ACTIVE METHODOLOGIES IN THE

CLASSROOM
1.1. Presentation

En la actualidad, la educación dista cada vez más de modelos tradicionales. El modelo

formativo emergente pone el foco en el estudiante como centro del proceso de
enseñanza/aprendizaje y como agente activo en el mismo. Se promueven
competencias y destrezas que se adapten más a las necesidades del siglo XXI, como
veremos en el segundo capítulo. Esta nueva perspectiva supone un cambio en los
diferentes componentes y actores que participan en educación: profesorado,
alumnado, materiales, evaluación, contenidos, actividades, tecnologías y
metodologías.

Este último componente se presenta como un elemento esencial y vertebrador del

cambio puesto que guía la formación del alumnado favoreciendo su rol activo, el
aprendizaje significativo a través de diseños inclusivos y contextos reales, la
colaboración entre estudiantes y su autonomía en el proceso de
enseñanza/aprendizaje. En este quinto tema de la asignatura Inglés I introduciremos
el concepto de metodologías activas y presentaremos una selección de las mismas
en el contexto de Educación Primaria.

Además de este contenido, en esta unidad se trabajarán cuestiones relacionadas con

el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la competencia lingüística,
con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del alumnado que parte de
un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel B1+.

1.2. Objectives

In this unit, learners will:

 ▪ Learn about the main features of active methodologies.
▪ Be introduced and learn about a selection of active
methodologies.
▪ Reflect on their classroom practice as regards methodological
issues.
▪ Learn how to exploit a wide range of simple language to deal
with most situations likely to arise in their everyday life.
▪ Learn how to express personal opinions and exchange
information on topics that are familiar, of personal interest or
pertinent to everyday life (e.g. family, hobbies, work, travel
and current events).

1.3. Unit 5 outline

2.1. Introduction

In chapter 2 of this unit, students will learn about the skills and abilities that the new
era demands from students. We will discuss the Framework for 21st century learning,
pointing out the differences with more traditional views on education.
2.2. Framework for 21st Century Learning

Education must meet the needs of society and adapt to new realities and new
requirements. The history of education has changed accordingly. Traditional
education answered to the demands of the Industrial Revolution era, in which
uniformity and clear standards applied, and education was approached as a one-size-
fits-all model. Students’ abilities or interests were irrelevant, and there was a high
degree of uniformity in teaching styles and evaluation methods.

Figure 1 shows a well-known picture depicting the underlying principle of

traditional teaching.
The competences and skills that students will need in their life are not, therefore, the
same as those in the 20th century, not that long ago. Based on this assumption,
advocates for a change in the educational framework have raised their voices to
adapt the educational framework to the new requirements of the 21st century. Among
them, the most well-known proposal is the Framework for 21st Century Learning,
developed by Partnership for 21st Century Skills (now the Partnership for 21st
Century Learning, or P21), a “not-for-profit organization committed to collaborating
with school systems and communities to realize the power and promise of 21st-
century learning for every student” ([Link]
This framework proposes to integrate skills into the teaching of core academic
subjects. These skills can be divided into three categories: learning skills, literacy skills
and life skills, as shown in Figure 2.
The skills and core academic subjects find the necessary support systems (standards,
assessments, curriculum and instruction, professional development and learning
environments) to ensure that students “are more engaged in the learning process
and graduate better prepared to thrive in today’s global economy” (BattelleforKids
2109: 2). A summary of this framework is represented in Figure 3.
As it can be observed, the difference between traditional education and this new
educational framework is notorious. We have changed from content-driven
education to skills-based learning, from a uniform and one-size-fits-all model to a
differentiated and personalised learning environment. This change has an impact in
all areas related to education, including methodology.

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3.1. Introduction

In the present chapter, we will first provide a definition of what is known as ‘active
methodologies’. This will help students understand the features, elements and main
benefits of this kind of methodologies and their relationship with the development
of skills for the 21st-century learner. Then, we will introduce a selection of active
methodologies that are suitable for Primary Education: project-based learning,
cooperative learning, thinking-based learning and gamification.
3.2. Active methodologies

What kind of methodology is needed for the teaching of the 21st-

century skills? Traditional methods perceive the learner as a passive recipient of
content to be memorised and practised through drilling, that is repetitive exercises
with no context or connection to everyday life.

This is not the kind of methodology for the school of the 21st century. Nowadays, the
learner plays an active role in the teaching/learning process, and learning activities
are contextualised so that students can practise the skills in situations that emulate
real contexts. Therefore, the required methodology needs to be active. “Active
methogology” is an approach that can be defined as:

What does this mean? What are the implications derived from this conception?
The advantages of using active methodologies in the classroom are diverse and
have a positive impact on students’ outcomes (See Figure 4 below). These
methodologies engage students more deeply with the course content and develop
the 21st century skills mentioned in the previous chapter. Learners become more
involved in the learning process and become more responsible for their progress,
which results in better academic performance as well as in more solid and long-term
knowledge. They collaborate and interact to build knowledge and make decisions
that involve actions, which promotes a sense of community in the classroom.
Teaching becomes more personalised, as different learning styles, interests and
attitudes are catered for, and teachers give more frequent and immediate feedback
that guides students in the learning process.
Would you like to find out some tips on how to get started with integrating active
methodologies into your classes? Click on the link below.

[Link]

The next question that arises is: what methodologies are more effective? There is
not a unique answer to this question, it depends on the context, on the students’
needs and abilities, on the teacher’s preferences and personality and on the content
to be taught. Figure 5 below shows the types of activities that foster more active
learning.

A close look at the learning pyramid shows that those methodologies that involve
interaction among students and which involve participation and practical tasks are
more successful as regards deeper learning. There are many active methodologies
that can be used in the classroom setting, some of the most common methodologies
are presented in Figure 6.
Due to space restrictions, it goes beyond the scope of this unit to discuss all these
methodologies. So, we will introduce four active methodologies in the subsequent
sections of this chapter.

3.2.1. Project-based learning

Project Based Learning (PBL) is a dynamic teaching and learning strategy or method
that engages learners in carrying out complex activities autonomously. Students
collaborate in small groups for a period of time, which can take from a few weeks up
to a full term, by applying knowledge and skills “to investigate and respond to an
authentic, engaging, and complex question, problem, or challenge” (Temporaktif
Education 2017). The project requires that students produce a product to be
presented in class or for a real audience. This methodology aims to make students
develop not only deep content knowledge, but also to develop key 21st century skills
such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and communication.

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The video in Exercise 2 shows two of the phases that are used when doing PBL.
According to the general framework of PBL (Temporaktif Education 2017), the whole
process of implementing PBL generally follows three phases: planning, creating and
processing. This general framework would be more complete if it added two more
phases: sparking interest and presenting. Thus, the proposed phases to implement
PBL in the Primary Education classroom are:

There are seven components of PBL that teachers need to take into account when
planning their projects (Han and Bhattacharya 2001):
Figure 7 is an infographic that presents visually the benefits of using PBL in the
classroom.
Would you like to see some examples of PBL? Click on the links below.

3.2.2. Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is defined by Johnson & Johnson, fathers of this methodology,

as “the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize
their own and each other’s learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2013)” (Johnson
& Johnson 2014: 841). Let us analyse this definition:

• Small groups: groups are ideally composed of three or four students,

depending on the number of students in the group. Groups of three will
maximise their learning and reduce distractions.

• Work together: cooperative learning is not just group work, that is getting
students together and making them work without giving them clear
instructions on how to do it. This type of group work does not guarantee that
everyone will participate or that a student does not take advantage of the
work done by a classmate. Teamwork is based on highly structured strategies
or techniques that ensure that each student is responsible of part of the task
so to complete the activity.
 • Maximise their own learning: as we will see, one of the principles of
cooperative learning is individual accountability, which states that students
learn together but perform alone.

• Maximise each other’s learning: students interact and collaborate to learn

together. They learn by interacting with each other and there is a mutual
responsibility.

According to Johnson & Johnson (1999: 26-28), there are five elements for
cooperative learning to work effectively:

• Positive interdependence: when organising teamwork, we must ensure that

students perceive that they cannot succeed unless their teammates also
succeed (and vice versa). In other words, students need to be aware that they
doing their work is important and necessary for the group to complete the
activity. Students must believe that they sink or swim together How is this
element achieved? When preparing the activity teachers can make sure that
all team members do something by:
o giving the group joint rewards, if all members of your group score 90
percent correct or better on the test, each will receive 5 bonus points
(p.26)
o making sure that the necessary resources for an activity are divided
among the group members, that is, giving each group member a part
of the total information required to complete an assignment (p.26).
o assigning roles to each group member. Each role implies some
responsibilities that contribute to effective group work. Look at Figure
8 to see some examples:
 • Individual accountability: As mentioned before, students learn together but
perform alone. This means that each individual student has to show or prove
what they have learned individually. The team has to make sure that each
individual student learns the required content, so they have to help each
other, encourage and support group members in order to achieve a common
goal, which can be, for example, completing an activity or understanding new
content. In the words of Johnson & Johnson:

How can teachers promote individual accountability? Johnson & Johnson give
these ideas (1999: 27):

o giving an individual test to each student

o randomly selecting one student's product to represent the entire
group
o having each student explain what they have learned to a classmate.

• Face-to-face interaction: if positive interdependence is the heart of

cooperative learning, face-to-face interaction is necessary for group work to
occur. Only when students work together, can they be responsible to peers,
have the ability to influence each other's reasoning and conclusions, provide
social modelling and social support (p.28). Cooperative learning gives
students an opportunity to explain and discuss various perspectives and to
elaborate new knowledge building from what they learn from their partners,
which enhances a greater understanding of the activity or content to be
learned. All this elaborative thinking enhances the development of critical
thinking skills.

• Social skills: group work requires that students develop interpersonal and
small group skills and promote tolerance and respect to others’ views and
opinions. Putting students together does not mean that they have, as if by
magic, they have to be taught by the teacher. Which skills to teach? Johnson,
Johnson & Holubec (1994: 45-48) categorise social skills into four levels:
o Forming: skills needed to establish a functioning cooperative learning
group.
o Functioning: skills needed to manage the group's activities in
completing the task and in maintaining effective working relationships
among members.
o Formulating: skills needed to build a deeper level of understanding of
the material being studied, to stimulate the use of higher quality
reasoning strategies, and to maximize mastery and retention of the
assigned material.
o Fermenting: skills needed to stimulate reconceptualisation of the
material being studied, cognitive conflict, the search for more
 information, and the communication of the rationale behind one's
conclusions.

Some social skills under each category are conveyed in Table 1.

Are you interested in learning how to teach social skills in Primary Education? Click
on the link provided below to find out.

[Link]

• Group processing: after finishing an activity, the group must reflect (process)
how each individual has worked in the team and how the group has
functioned as a team and if they have achieved their goal. Students need to
think about their behaviour during task completion, whether they did their
part of the activity, about the effective use of social skills for successful
teamwork. It is important that students become aware of their strengths and
weaknesses in order to improve the quality and effectiveness of cooperative
learning group work. Group processing involves discussion, reflection and
providing and receiving feedback from peers. All these processes help
students to develop metacognition and the learning to learn competence.

Figure 9 summarises the five elements of cooperative learning.

Would you like to learn more about cooperative learning in Primary Education?
Click on the links below.

[Link]
%20Op%20%EF%80%A2%20Group%[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

We will finish this section by providing some cooperative learning strategies or

techniques that can be used in Primary Education. We will introduce three
strategies or structures and see them exemplified in the classroom through these
videos.

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3.2.3. Thinking-based learning

Thinking-based learning is “a method of teaching and learning where the teaching

of a specific thinking skill is infused into the teaching of content or
subject matter” (Nor’ain Mohd Tajudin & Othman 2019: 397). In other words, this
methodology tries to develop students’ critical thinking skills by providing
a structure to their thinking process supported by graphic organisers. Like the
previous active methodologies, thinking-based learning is student-centred and
contributes to develop 21st-century skills in students, such as critical thinking,
problem solving, creativity, innovation, collaboration, teamwork and the use of
technological tools. This methodology is not about helping students memorise
content, but about developing a deeper understanding of the content and how it
relates to other content.

There are two leading figures in this methodology: Robert Swartz and David Perkins.
Each of them has developed complementary methods and procedures to promote
critical thinking in students. In the following video, Robert Swartz explains what
thinking-based learning is and how it works.

Hay un video explicativo

On this video, Swartz explains how we tend to make quick decisions based on positive
consequences. This, he claims, leads to a lot of trouble in our lives. Therefore, he
proposes to teach students how to think skillfully. This way, students will be able to
transfer those thinking skills (decision-making, problem-solving, verifying the
reliability of sources, part-all thinking…) to their everyday life in the present and in
the future.

David Perkins explains the importance of putting the focus on making students
understand, rather than on making them memorise. Only when they really
understand, they can put that knowledge into practice. Watch this video to see how
he illustrates and exemplifies this idea.

Hay un video explicativo

Making students really understand and think skilfully undoubtedly brings many
benefits into their lives, as can be seen in Figure 10 below, which briefly outlines
some of them.
In what follows, we will present three thinking routines introduced by Perkins in the
well-known Project Zero ([Link] Thinking
routines refers to “a set of questions or a brief sequence of steps used to scaffold
and support student thinking” ([Link] with
the purpose of making their ideas visible and, frequently, with the help of a graphic
organiser.

See-think-wonder

This is one of the ‘core’ thinking routines in Project Zero and its purpose is to guide
students through basic thinking processes and help them to reflect and expand their
creativity and curiosity. The graphic organiser used for this thinking routine has three
steps, an example of which is included below (Figure 11).
Hay ejercicios de autoevaluación

Compass points

This second thinking routine aims at helping students see an idea/argument/concept

from different perspectives, thus enhancing deeper thinking when making decisions
or evaluating different options, facts or ideas. A sample graphic organiser is included
below (Figure 12).
Hay ejercicios de autoevaluación

3-2-1 Bridge

This thinking routine is really useful to develop students’ metacognition and make
them think about their learning process, as they have to complete this routine before
learning the new material and after learning the new material, so that they can
compare what they knew and what they have learned. Figure 13 shows a graphic
organiser that can be used for this thinking routine from Project Zero.
Hay ejercicios de autoevaluación

3.2.4. Gamification
Using games in education is not new. Games have been, more or less, present in the
classroom for a long time. However, gamification is something different. This term
refers to:

These authors put forward a set of elements that feature gamification and which
are depicted in Figure 14.
Gamifying is not a simple process; teachers need to follow five steps to apply
gamification in the classroom, according to Huang & Soman (2013: 7-15):

• STEP 1: Understanding the Target Audience and the Context

o Target audience: the teacher needs to know the age of their students,
their learning abilities and experience with ICT tools.
o Context: the teacher needs to know the group size, the time they have
to implement the gamification, days and time when the classes take
place (e.g. before or after the break), the sitting arrangement, the ICT
tools available to students.

• STEP 2: Defining Learning Objectives

o The teacher needs to know what the learning objectives are and how
they are framed in the syllabus. These goals may include general goals
(e.g. doing an assignment), specific goals (e.g. understanding a new
concept) and/or behavioural goals (e.g. increasing students’
engagement).

• STEP 3: Structuring the Experience

 o Breaking down the learning experience into smaller parts will make the
final task more achievable for students. You can organise the activity
so that students complete part of the task in each stage.

• STEP 4: Identifying Resources

o Once the stages have been identified, the teacher can choose which
elements are the most appropriate for the game from the elements
included in Figure 15.

• STEP 5: Applying Gamification Elements

o At this point, the teacher decides which gamification elements will use
for their game. These elements can be either self-elements (elements
that get students to focus on competing with themselves and
recognising self-achievement) or social-elements (elements that put
the students in a community with other students, and their progress
and achievements are made public). Some examples of these two
types of elements are conveyed in Figure 16.
Gamification can be complex when a teacher gets started in this methodology, so
the best option is to go little by little introducing one or two elements of gamification
in an activity and then increasing the difficulty and the number of elements as the
teacher gains confidence. The use of gamification elements is known as game-based
learning.

ICT tools can help teachers in this task, as it is a useful resource that facilitates the
use of gamification or game-based learning in the classroom. There is a range of ICT
tools that can be very easily introduced in the classroom and whose interfaces are
familiar to students, who are used to using them in their everyday life, so, according
to Kiryakova, Angelova & Yordanova (2014: 2), using digital tools for gamification:

▪ “improves the abilities to learn new skills by 40%.”

▪ “lead to a higher level of commitment and motivation of users
to activities and processes in which they are involved.”

Additionally, Stott & Neustaedter (2013: 1-3) state the following benefits to
students:

▪ Freedom to fail: in games, players have multiple lives or are

allowed to start again.
▪ Rapid feedback: personalised immediate feedback is another
plus of digital gamification.

▪ Progression: students feel they make progress as they pass to

the next level or the next game.

▪ Storytelling: most games use some kind of story, which

provides a context for the material to be learnt.
We are aware that there is a range of websites and applications that can be used
to introduce gamification or game-based learning. As it is impossible to refer to all
of them, we have made a selection of some of them that can be used in the foreign
language classroom in Primary Education in Table 2.

Hay actividades de autoevaluación

 4.1. Hobbies, likes & dislikes
There are different expressions used in English to express likes, dislikes and also
expressions to express neither like nor dislike.

4.1.1. Expressing likes

I like...

I love...

I adore...

I'm crazy about...

I enjoy...

I'm keen on...

I think....is brilliant / great / wonderful

I am really interested in...

4.1.2. Expressing dislikes

I don't like...

I dislike...

I hate...

I abhor...

I can't bear...

I can't stand...

I detest...

I loathe...

I'm not keen on...

4.1.3. Expressing neither like nor dislike

I don't mind + -ing verb (I do not mind playing football)

I don't really care either way

It is all the same to me

I think ... is / are alright

It doesn't bother me

It doesn't matter to me

Hay video y ejercicio de repaso

4.2. Giving personal information

Sometimes you find yourself in a situation in which you have to give your personal
information. In this situation you will have to answer some of the following
questions:

a) What’s your name?

b) What is your first name? what is your surname, second name or family name?

c) How do you spell it?

d) Do you have a nickname?

e) How old are you?

f) Where are you from?

g) What is your date of birth? It is the second of July, 1995

h) When were you born? On the second of July, 1995

i) What is your marital status? I am married / single /divorced / widowed

j) What is your address? / Where do you live?

k) What is your telephone number?

l) What is your email address? John@[Link] (John at gmail dot com) = @ at;

m) Where do you work?

n) Do you like your job?

UNIT 6 . DESIGNING LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Introduction
1.1. Presentation

En la unidad anterior, sobre metodologías activas, vimos que el modelo de enseñanza

se ha transformado. El alumno se ha convertido en el centro del proceso de
enseñanza/aprendizaje y juega un papel activo en el mismo. Este cambio
paradigmático lleva al docente a plantearse en profundidad la planificación y el
diseño de las actividades de aprendizaje, puesto que estas han de convertirse en
acciones o tareas que el estudiante realizará para aprender una serie de contenidos
y para desarrollar una serie de destrezas.

El diseño de actividades de aprendizaje innovadoras y atractivas para el alumnado

es, pues, un elemento clave que integra todo lo trabajado en esta asignatura. Estas
actividades se han de enmarcar dentro del paradigma de la enseñanza para el siglo
XXI, por lo que en su diseño se primará que sean activas y colaborativas para el
estudiante.

Además de este contenido, en esta unidad se trabajarán cuestiones relacionadas con

el uso de la lengua inglesa y con las distintas destrezas de la competencia lingüística,
con objeto de fomentar el uso de la misma y el progreso del alumnado que parte de
un nivel B1 e irá avanzando a lo largo del curso a un nivel B1+.

1.2. Objectives
In this unit, learners will:

• Be introduced to the different types of learning activities.

• Learn about the different elements that are necessary to plan a learning
activity.
• Fluently relate a straightforward narrative or description as a sequence of
points, using appropriate linking words.
• Describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions.
• Learn how to use reasonably accurately a repertoire of conditional sentences
and prepositions.

1.3. Unit 6 outline

2. Learning activities
2.1. Introduction
This chapter will start by providing a definition and characteristics of effective
learning activities. Then, we will address what different types of learning activities
can be used inside the classroom, which are: didactic, individual and collaborative.

2.2. Learning activities

In this unit, we will refer to those activities that teachers plan and design with the
purpose of using them in the classroom, that is in a formal context, with a clear
didactic intention. We will not cover learning activities to be done outside the
classroom. The following quote offers a first approach to the concept of learning
activities:
Notice that this definition does not refer to learning new content, but to how
students understand it –make sense of the new information–, how they develop skills
and attitudes. These three elements need to be kept in mind when designing an
activity. Besides, activities must help learners to achieve specific learning goals. It is
the teacher’s responsibility to communicate and guide knowledge and skills with a
view to bringing about learning.

Wasserman, Davis & Astrab (2009: 5-6) propose ten characteristics for learning
activities to be effective:

1. Align with course outcomes: learning activities need to be connected to course

outcomes or objectives.
2. Focus on student learning: any activity should support and ensure students’
learning, they should have a clear didactic purpose.
3. Have a compelling purpose: teachers need to communicate the purpose of the
activity so that students understand their value and importance. When
students understand the purpose and value of the activity, they get more
engaged.
4. Have clear objectives: teachers need to set specific objectives and
communicate them to students. These objectives should include content, skills
and/or attitudes.
5. Support the type of learning desired: not all types of activities are appropriate
for all learning objectives. For example, if one of the objectives is that students
practise turn-taking, the activity needs to be done in groups.
6. Balance content and skill development: teachers need to reflect and balance
the content and the skills to be carried out by students in a learning activity.
As Wasserman, Davis & Astrab (2009: 5) explain: “When a learner is exposed
to something for the first time, content will typically receive most of the
attention. Later, the learner will want to focus on developing skills by applying
this new content.”
7. Support the needs of diverse learning styles: teachers need to consider inclusive
learning when planning activities. It is important to address the students’
preferences through multiple learning styles.
 8. Include assessment of student learning: student learning should be the focus
of any activity. So, it is necessary to assess if the activity succeeds in achieving
the targeted student learning. It is important that the teacher assesses the
expected learning outcome to reflect on the efficiency of an activity.
9. Include assessment of the activity: in addition to assessing student learning,
the teacher and the students should also assess the activity itself. The analysis
derived from this reflection will be useful to make any necessary adjustments
to improve it or to adjust it to other learning styles.
10. Result from an explicit design methodology: some activities follow
predetermined teaching sequences and structures that a teacher can follow.
For example, a teacher may use a jigsaw activity, which follows cooperative
learning methodology, or an activity of 3-2-1 bridge, which is a thinking
routines.

Figure 1 summarises these ten features of effective learning activities.

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2.3. Types of learning activities

There is a wide range of learning activities that can be performed in the classroom,
such as reading activities, web quests, games, instructional videos, lecturing,
workshops, thinking routines, debates, mind maps, or role-plays. It is difficult to come
up with a classification that encapsulates all these types of learning activities. In this
section, we will follow the typology proposed by Boise State University (n.d.), which
divides learning activities into three broad categories: didactic, active and
collaborative. There is no clear frontier to each category, so one learning activity can
have features of one, two or even three categories. However, the features of one of
the categories are usually more prominent, more obvious, than the characteristics of
the other categories. Figure 2 conveys a definition of each category as well as some
sample activities.

The choice of the type of learning activity will be determined by the learning
outcomes that the teacher wants to achieve. A combination of all types should be
considered when designing a course, as each type of learning activity adds something
different to the learners’ development. Figure 3 below offers some examples for
each type of learning activity, as well as some advantages and disadvantages for each
of them.
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3. Elements in the design of learning activities

3.1. Introduction
In the third chapter of this learning unit, we will address the different elements that
teachers need to take into account when designing or planning learning activities,
namely: activity title, learning objectives, content, skills involved, interaction patterns
(grouping), procedure or sequence/steps of learning events and resources. We have
already seen some of these elements in the preceding chapters, so we will focus here
on learning goals, content and skills.
It goes beyond the scope of this unit to cover how to do a lesson plan, that is, the
teacher's guide for running one lesson, or a course plan, which refers to planning a
much longer scheme of work, in other words, the content, objectives, activities that
students will do during the whole course.

3.2. Learning goals

One of the guiding principles when designing a classroom activity is what learning
objectives we want students to accomplish. For example: do students want students
to memorise or repeat new content? Do they need to apply the acquired content to
solve a problem? Do we want them to evaluate their partner’s answer to a question?

Do these verbs (remember, memorise, apply, evaluate) sound familiar to you? They
probably do. They are part of what is familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956).
This Taxonomy is a framework for categorising educational goals which teachers
use to create or define learning outcomes they want students to achieve. These
objectives are clearly expressed and constitute a shared framework that students
understand, so it facilitates communication between teachers and students.

Bloom’s Taxonomy was revised in 2001 by Krathwohl & Anderson, which is the one
that is used nowadays. Bloom’s Taxonomy comprises six levels of cognitive skills:
remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create.

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According to their creators, these levels are hierarchical. This means that:

The fact that these cognitive skills are hierarchical does not imply that a teacher has
to go through each of them when planning a course for every new content they want
to teach. It is enough if we take them into account and use a variety of learning
activities involving different levels to provide students with a range of activities that
will help them to achieve the proposed learning outcomes.

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The lower levels of thinking skills in this Taxonomy are known as ‘LOTS’ (Lower Order
Thinking Skills), that is: remember, understand, apply; whereas the other three skills
are known as ‘HOTS’ (Higher Order Thinking Skills), which are: analyse, evaluate,
create. If we connect this to the previous section, it can be said that LOTS are useful
for didactic learning activities, while HOTS apply to active and collaborative learning
activities. Figure 4 depicts graphically the hierarchy and the division of cognitive
levels into LOTS and HOTS.

This theory sounds good, but how does it really connect with the day-to-day at
school? Bloom’s Taxonomy offers teachers a clear framework to set learning
objectives for students so that they understand the purpose of a learning activity. To
facilitate this task, we attach below (Figure 5) a toolbox to guide teachers on specific
learning objectives for each cognitive level. This toolbox is not all-inclusive, but it is
a starting point to start designing learning activities. Click on the figure to download
a pdf with the toolbox.
As you will see, it has a set of verbs for each thinking skill. For example, for
“remember”, the lowest level, one of the verbs is ‘recall’. A teacher would use this
verb as a starting point for defining a learning objective. We will illustrate this through
the following examples in Table 1:
3.3. Content and language skills

As in any profession, teachers need to comply with the existing legislation. Although
it is not our purpose to discuss the educational law at this point, we need to refer to
some elements on it: the evaluation criteria, contents and language skills.
The evaluation criteria describe the overall result of the learning that is intended to
be evaluated in the students, at the same time as they offer guidelines to facilitate a
teaching practice that guarantees the acquisition of competence learning. Therefore,
they should be the starting point and the reference point for planning the teaching
process, for the design of learning situations and for their evaluation, as they connect
the elements of the curriculum: objectives, content, competences, assessable learning
standards and methodology. In this section, we will only focus on the component of
content.

The contents of a subject are embedded in the table for each evaluation criteria of
any curriculum. Let us take as an example the curriculum of the English subject for
Primary Education of the Canary Islands Autonomous Community, which comprises
8 evaluation criteria for each Year
([Link]
s/descargas/curriculo-primaria/AnexoI_Primaria_Lengua_Extranjera.pdf). As the new
curriculum of the Ley Orgánica de Modificación de la LOE (LOMLOE) has not been
developed yet, we will take as a reference the current Education law, Ley Orgánica
para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa (LOMCE) from 2013. Figure 6 shows the third
evaluation criterion for the English subject for Year 5, which is related to oral and
written interaction.

A sample activity for this is shown in Table 2, which includes the title, learning goal
and contents of this collaborative learning activity.
As you can observe, the learning goal is to interview students, which corresponds to
the third level of cognitive skills in Bloom’s taxonomy: apply. In this case, students
would have to apply prior knowledge to carry out this activity. In other words,
students would have done some activities to remember and understand the content
included in the table and would use that knowledge to successfully complete this
learning activity.

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People who have a skill demonstrate the ability to do something well; for example,
a skilled tennis player wins matches. We are not necessarily born with a skill to do
something well. Usually, skills are developed during life and they need to continue to
be consolidated and practised or we can easily lose those skills. For example, if a
tennis player stopped practising, would he continue to be a skilled tennis player?

Language is a skill:
To be completely effective in a language we need to be competent in the language
skills as well as in thinking about language. Language skills are classified into three
main types, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR, [Link]
reference-languages/home), launched in 2001 by the Council of Europe. Language
skills can be productive, receptive or interactive. Production skills, also known as
active skills, and reception skills, also called passive skills can be described as
follows:

As expressed in this quote, production and reception skills are intimately related and
they are both necessary for effective communication. The way we assimilate a second
or foreign language is similar to the natural process when we acquire our mother
tongue. We first need to be exposed to the language before we actually start
producing the language.

Would you like to read some examples for these types of skills? Click on the links
provided below.

[Link]

[Link]

Regarding interaction skills, according to the CEFR:

Interactive language skills can be considered as ‘secondary’ skills in the sense that
they are really a modality of productive skills, that is, of speaking and writing skills.
Interaction involves the participation of two or more individuals and during the
interaction, all four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) take place. In this
sense, they involve communication among individuals.

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The language skills that are included in the curriculum of Primary Education converge
with the language skills in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (Council of Europe 2001a). These language skills are visually presented
in Figure 8, which does not include the new language skills in the last update of the
CEFR (2020, [Link]
languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4), which will presumably be also incorporated
in the new curriculum for the English subject in Primary Education in the LOMLOE.

As a way of example, the collaborative learning activity shown on Table 2 above

would include the following skills, as shown on Table 3. Notice that we have added
another learning goal to make it explicit which language skills students will address
in this activity.
The CEFR includes a selection of activities for each skill that can be used for each
skill. Figure 9, Figure 10 and Figure 11 convey a mind map with a range of types
of activities for each skill, adapted from the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001b).
Would you like to read more about teaching language skills? Click on the links
provided below.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
genuine-tasks

[Link]

[Link]
classroom-problems

We will conclude this section by putting together all the elements that have to be
included when designing an activity: namely: activity title, learning objectives,
content, skills involved, interaction patterns (grouping), procedure or sequence/steps
of learning events and resources. We will continue with the same collaborative
activity as we have been using so far, adding the missing elements in Table 4.
Notice that we have added one more learning goal. Since the main interaction
pattern for this activity is pair work, students will also develop social skills that are
necessary for group work. In this case, the teacher will ask students to respect their
partner’s turn without interrupting them. As regards resources, as this activity focuses
on speaking interactive skills, no specific materials are needed. They will use their
notebooks and the course textbook to review useful vocabulary and expressions
before carrying out the activity.
 4. Use of English
4.1. Linking words
Linking words and phrases are used to join sentences together to create a cohesive
paragraph. In the following video, you can learn different linking words:

[Link]

4.1.1. Sequencing linking words

First, firstly, second, secondly, third, thirdly
Next, last, finally
In addition, moreover
Furthermore
Also
Henceforth
Whenever
Eventually
Further
During
Prior to
Forthwith
In time
Until now
Now that
Instantly
Presently
Occasionally
Straightaway
In conclusion
To summarise
One...another
An additional

Meanwhile

4.1.2. Reason linking words

Because

We cancelled the session because it was raining

Because it was raining, we cancelled the session

As

We cancelled the session as it was raining

As it was raining, we cancelled the session

So

It was raining, so we cancelled the session

Since

We cancelled the session since it was raining

Since it was raining, we cancelled the session

For

We cancelled the session, for it was raining

Because of + noun

We cancelled the session because of the rain

Because of the rain, we cancelled the session

Due to + noun

We cancelled the session due to the rain

Due to the rain, we cancelled the session

Owing to + noun

We cancelled the session owing to the rain

Owing to the rain, we cancelled the session

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4.2. Prepositions
Prepositions are explained in the following videos:
[Link]

[Link]
grammar/prepositions-time
Some verbs are followed by prepositions:

ABOUT

Think about

Talk about

Laugh about

FOR

Wait for

Apologise for

Apply for

Ask for

Prepare for

FROM

Protect from

Recover from

Save from

Suffer from

IN

Believe in

Specialize in

Succeed in

OF

Approve of

Die of
Smell of

Consist of

Fond of

ON

Depend on

Base on

Concentrate on

Rely on

Work on

Count on

TO

Listen to

Introduce to

Refer to

Respond to

Apologise to

WITH

Agree with

Provide with

Deal with

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4.3. Conditional sentences

There are four types of conditional sentences in English:

a) Zero conditional

It is used to express general truths and general habits

FORM

If + present simple, present simple

Example: If you drink too much coffee, you can't sleep at night

b) First conditional

It is used to express possible or likely things in the future

FORM

If + present simple, will + infinitive

Example: If you arrive late, the library will close

c) Second conditional

It is used to express impossible things in the present and unlikely things in the
future

FORM

If + past simple, would + infinitive

Example: If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world

d) Third conditional

It is used to express things that did not happen in the past and their imaginary
results

FORM

If + past perfect, would + present perfect (have + past participle)

Example: If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam

4.3.1. Mixed conditionals

Sometimes there are unreal conditional sentences which are mixed:

a) Past condition, present result

FORM

If + past perfect, would + infinitive

Example: If we had not lost the train, we would be at home now

b) Present condition, past result

FORM

If + past simple, would + have + past participle

Example: If you were more diligent, you would have passed the exam

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