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INGLÉS TÉCNICO II
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Año 2023

Profesora Verónica de Loredo

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1
 Los textos en inglés y en español: elementos en común

Los aspectos formales de un texto escrito

Lo primero que vamos a hacer es aproximarnos a un texto escrito en inglés con el propósito de sacar algunas
conclusiones. No se espera aquí que comprendan el contenido del mismo.

Recorra con la vista rápidamente el texto y conteste las preguntas de la derecha.

Electrical engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
1. ¿Cuál es el título del texto?
Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study ………………………………………
and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first
became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after 2. ¿De qué fuente se extrajo el
commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electric power texto?
distribution and use. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made ………………………………………….
electronics part of daily life. The invention of the transistor and, subsequently, the
integrated circuit brought down the cost of electronics to the point where they can 3. ¿Cuántos párrafos hay?
be used in almost any household object. The personal computer and information ………………………………………….
technology are the most complex electronics yet to be used in everyday life.
4. ¿Cuántas oraciones tiene el
Electrical engineering has now subdivided into a wide range of subfields including primer párrafo?
electronics, digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications, control ………………………………………
systems, RF engineering, signal processing, instrumentation, and microelectronics.
The subject of electronic engineering is often treated as its own subfield but it 5. ¿De qué se tratará el texto?
intersects with all the other subfields, including the power electronics of power ………………………………………
engineering.

Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in electrical engineering or electronic

engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be
members of a professional body. Such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).

Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required
are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management
skills required of project manager. The tools and equipment that an individual
engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top
end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software.

Para responder las primeras tres preguntas aplicamos estrategias de lectura que hemos desarrollado en nuestro
propio idioma. Nos guían los elementos formales del texto (mayúsculas, signos de puntuación, tamaño de letra,
etc.), que son similares en inglés y en español. A lo largo de este año descubriremos qué se necesita para responder
la última pregunta.

ESTRATEGIAS DE LECTURA

Antes de leer: ANTICIPACIÓN-PREDICCIÓN

a) Observar el texto.

b) A partir del título, foto, dibujo o gráfico, el epígrafe y del paratexto en general predecir cuál será el tema.

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PRIMERA LECTURA:

Seis claves para la comprensión de palabras dentro de un texto.

1) Palabras transparentes: Estas palabras, parecidas a palabras de nuestro idioma, provienen del latín o del griego
generalmente y se las llama “palabras transparentes”. La mayoría de las palabras transparentes tienen el mismo
significado en ambos idiomas.

Sin embargo, hay algunas excepciones que conviene tener en cuenta, para aplicar cuando el significado que tiene
una palabra en español no tiene sentido dentro del contexto de lo que leemos en inglés. Se la llama “falsos amigos”,
y a continuación hay algunos ejemplos:

INGLÉS ESPAÑOL
Sensible Sensato
Sensitive Sensible
Relieve Aliviar
Attend Asistir (a un lugar o evento)
Assist Atender (personas); brindar asistencia
Injuries Lesiones
Actual Real, verdadero
Exit Salida
Embarrassed Avergonzado
Library Biblioteca
Large Grande

2) Préstamos lingüísticos: Otro recurso para comprender mejor un texto en lengua extranjera consiste en detectar
vocablos, como target, web, Internet, offline, online, marketing, y asignarles el significado correcto. Este tipo de
palabras no son transparentes sino que provienen del inglés pero ya están tan incorporadas a nuestra lengua que a
veces ni siquiera notamos que no pertenecen al español. Estos términos, que se denominan préstamos lingüísticos,
suelen estar asociados con áreas específicas como el mundo de los negocios (marketing), el comercio (sale), la
informática (software), la medicina (bypass), etcétera, y es por eso que a veces resulta una tarea ardua encontrar
una palabra de nuestra lengua que sea exactamente equivalente. No obstante, también hay una cantidad de
palabras “prestadas” que se relacionan con la vida cotidiana como por ejemplo: light, delivery, personal trainer, look,
etcétera, que están incorporadas a nuestro léxico y que a menudo también hemos adaptado al español o
castellanizado como en el caso fútbol por football.

3) Palabras conocidas: Resulta también útil capitalizar nuestro conocimiento previo sobre la lengua que estamos
aprendiendo al identificar aquellas palabras conocidas a partir de la búsqueda en nuestra memoria y de la
confirmación de su valor en el contexto en el que aparecen.

4) Palabras repetidas: hay que enfocarse en las palabras que transmitan concepto, es decir, que tengan una carga de
significado. Este tipo de vocablos se denominan palabras conceptuales y está constituido por sustantivos, verbos,
adjetivos y adverbios. Podríamos decir que este es un conjunto abierto de palabras porque constantemente se van
incorporando nuevos vocablos o neologismos. Las demás palabras, denominadas estructurales, abundan en todos
los textos pero no nos ayudan a determinar el contenido de lo que leemos. Las palabras estructurales, conformadas
por los pronombres, artículos, preposiciones y conjunciones, “estructuran” o relacionan la sucesión de palabras
léxicas y pueden definirse por su función. Conforman un grupo cerrado.

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5) Indicaciones tipográficas: los números, nombres propios, viñetas, tipo de letra especial (negrita, cursiva,
mayúscula), “comillas”, etcétera, suelen ir acompañadas de información importante

6) Lectura de títulos y subtítulos

PREDICCIÓN

A) Realice una predicción (hipótesis) acerca del contenido del texto utilizando las claves anteriores y las técnicas de
skimming (lectura rápida) e intelligent guessing (adivinanza inteligente).

“SKIMMING” (LECTURA RÁPIDA)

1) Leer las primeras oraciones o el primer párrafo cuidadosamente.

2) Si el texto es largo, lea el 2º párrafo porque a veces el 1º párrafo es meramente una introducción y el 2º contiene
más información sobre el tema.

3) Luego, dar un vistazo al comienzo de cada párrafo.

4) Seleccione algunas palabras claves.

5) Generalmente la oración tópico se encuentra al comienzo, pero a veces puede estar al final.

6) Saltee las partes que no le brinden información esencial.

7) Lea el último párrafo con mayor detenimiento. El autor suele incluir la conclusión en esta parte

“SCANNING” (BÚSQUEDA INFORMACIÓN ESPECÍFICA)

Ej.: en una biografía, buscar fecha de nacimiento, nacionalidad, estudios, según el ejercicio a realizar.

El contexto

Hay otro elemento que favorece la comprensión de un texto y que va más allá de las palabras: el contexto, nuestro
conocimiento del tema. En general, la comprensión de un texto que desarrolla temas relacionados con nuestra
disciplina nos demanda menos esfuerzo que el abordaje de un tema totalmente ajeno a nuestro quehacer.

En resumen, al acercarnos a un texto en inglés, ya contamos con unos cuantos elementos que nos ayudarán:

1) Los aspectos formales

2) el vocabulario

3) el contexto.

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 Sintaxis

El español y el inglés tienen una estructura, una gramática, muy diferente. Lo que le da sentido al discurso en inglés
es el orden en el que aparecen las palabras, es decir, LA SINTAXIS. Mientras que en español podemos decir “Juan
escribe libros” o “Libros escribe Juan” sin que se altere el sentido de la información dada, en inglés sólo es posible
decir “John writes books”. “Books writes John” no es posible.

Además, un orden distinto de dos palabras, dan un sentido diferente a la frase. Por ejemplo, “the car key” significa
“la llave del auto”, mientras que “the key car” significa “el auto clave o principal”

Las oraciones tienen un sujeto y un predicado. Lo que precede al verbo en las oraciones afirmativas y negativas es
siempre el sujeto. No existe el sujeto tácito (con excepción de las imperativas). En español, es suficiente decir
“trabajan” para saber que nos referimos a “ellos” y al presente, en cambio, en inglés:

(1) trabajar = work

(2) trabajan = they work

(3) trabajamos = we work

(4) trabajo = I work

(5) trabajás = you work

(6) trabajaron = they worked

Como se puede ver en estos ejemplos, la palabra “work”, con excepción del ejemplo (6), cambia de sentido según lo
que la antecede.

Aprender a reconocer el o los verbos conjugados de la oración es fundamental para establecer de qué o quién se
habla (cuál es el sujeto) y qué se dice de él (el predicado), además de entender si lo que dice la oración se refiere al
presente, el pasado o el futuro.

Términos gramaticales: Definición y ejemplos

Término Definición Ej. en español Ej. en inglés

Adjetivo palabra que se agrega al sustantivo Importante Important
para designar una cualidad o Bueno Good
determinar su extensión Útil Useful
(No tienen género o número, es decir
que no hay diferencias entre
femenino/masculino singular/plural)
Adverbio Modifica el verbo, el adjetivo u otro Muy Very
adverbio. Bien Well
Delicadamente Delicately
Artículos Preceden a los sustantivos El- la- los- las The
Un – una A – an
Unos - unas ---
Conectores Palabras o frases que unen Y And
Pero But
Para que So that
Preposiciones Palabras o frases que unen De Of

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 En In
Delante de In front of
Pronombres Reemplazan al sustantivo Él He
Ellos They
Mío Mine
Le Him
Sustantivo Palabra que designa un ser, objeto o Alumno Student
lugar Computadora Computer
Lugar Place
Verbo Palabra que designa acciones (por Leer Read
extensión, palabras como “estar” o Aprender Learn
“parecer” son considerados verbos, Ser Be
aunque no denotan una acción) Estar be

(verbo) infinitivo Verbo sin conjugar Caminar- leer- Walk –read - live
vivir
(verbo) participio Caminado-leído-vivido Walked- read- lived
(verbo) gerundio (en Caminando- leyendo- viviendo Walking- Reading- living
inglés también lo
llamaremos forma “ing”)

Los números
Los números cardinales

1-one
2-two 12-twelve 20-twenty
3-three 13-thirteen 30-thirty
4-four 14-fourteen 40-forty
5-five 15-fifteen 50-fifty
6-six 16-sixteen 60-sixty
7-seven 17-seventeen 70-seventy
8-eight 18-eighteen 80-eighty
9-nine 19-nineteen 90-ninety
10-ten
11-eleven

0: el cero en inglés tiene varios nombres, según el contexto:

Zero

(en ciencias, medicina, economía)

Nil

(para el resultado de los deportes)

Oh

(al decir un número telefónico, por ejemplo)

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 Observe la terminación de los números entre el 13 y el 19.

Terminan en “-teen”. De aquí derivan las palabras “teenager” o “teen” (=adolescente).

Ahora observe la terminación de los números entre el 20 y el 90. Terminan en “y”.

Y si compara el 13 con el 30, el 14 con el 40 y así hasta llegar al 19 y el 90, verá que la única diferencia está en la
terminación.

Además, tal vez ya haya observado que existe una relación entre la mayoría de las unidades y las decenas: por
ejemplo:

six (6) – sixteen (16) – sixty (60).

Los números entre el 21 y el 99

Los números del 21 al 99 se forman combinando la decena con la unidad:

21: twenty-one

32: thirty-two

99: ninety-nine

45: forty-five

etc.

Desde 100 hasta el [Link].000

100: a hundred o one hundred

110: a hundred and ten o one hundred and ten

400: four hundred 700: seven hundred 300: three hundred

885: eight hundred and eighty-five 251: two hundred and fifty-one

1,000: a thousand o one thousand

2,000: two thousand 6,000: six thousand 7,000: seven thousand

2,135: two thousand one hundred and thirty-five

1,000,000: a million o one million

1,200,560: a million two hundred thousand five hundred and sixty

En Estados Unidos un billón (a billion) es equivalente a mil millones.

En Estados Unidos 1,000,000,000 = a billion

La coma separa las unidades de mil y millón.

El punto separa decimales. Justo al revés de lo que ocurre en español.

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 Números y Palabras

Al igual que en español, en inglés se puede hablar figuradamente de “hundreds of articles” (cientos de artículos),
“thousands of people” (miles de personas), “millions of years” (millones de años).

Números ordinales

En español En inglés (en letras) En inglés (en números)

1.º First 1st
2.º Second 2nd
3.º Third 3rd
5.º Fifth 5th
12.º Twelfth 12th

Todos los demás números ordinales se forman agregando “th” al número cardinal.

En las decenas, la “y” cambia por “ie”.

twentieth

thirtieth

fiftieth

Por ejemplo, ahora estamos en el “twenty-first century” (el siglo 21).

Fracciones

Ejemplos:

1/3: one third

1/5: one fifth

etc.

½: half

¼: a quarter

Las fechas

En la forma de escribir la fecha, se percibe una diferencia entre el inglés británico y el norteamericano

En Estados Unidos: 06/09/22 = 9 de junio de 2022

Es decir, en inglés norteamericano, el orden es: mes – día – año.

Los británicos escriben la fecha igual que nosotros.

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 Formación de palabras
Formación del plural de los sustantivos

+s +es
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Trial Trials Tomato Tomatoes
Computer Computers Potato Potatoes
Generator Generators Gas Gases

y es is es
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Body Bodies Analysis Analyses
Study Studies Diagnosis Diagnoses
Category Categories Thesis Theses

Plurales irregulares Otros plurales irregulares

Singular Plural Singular Plural
Life Lives Basis Bases
Man Men Datum Data
Woman Women Criterion Criteria
Foot Feet Matrix Matrices
Tooth Teeth Larva Larvae
Child Children

Formación de palabras mediante prefijos y sufijos

Los prefijos se añaden al principio de una palabra y cambian su significado, por ejemplo: un + happy se convertiría
en unhappy, que significaría not happy (infeliz). Los sufijos, por su parte, se añaden al final de las palabras y cambian
su significado, y también pueden cambiar la categoría gramatical (es decir, cambiar si es sustantivo, adjetivo,
adverbio, etc.). Por ejemplo: beauty + ful se convierte en beautiful, que significa full of beauty (lleno/a de belleza).
Beauty es un sustantivo, pero beautiful es un adjetivo.

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 Sufijos usados con mayor frecuencia

-able / -ible sustantivo + able = adjetivo reason = razón;

reasonable = razonable
rely = confiar;
reliable = confiable

-ee verbo + ee = persona que employ = emplear;

recibe la acción employee = empleado

-en adjetivo/sustantivo + en = wide = ancho;

verbo widen = ensanchar

-er verbo + er = persona que employ = emplear;

realiza la acción employer = empleador
read = leer;
reader = lector
research = investigar;
researcher = investigador
adjetivo + er = grado long = largo;
comparativo longer = más largo
easy = fácil;
easier = más fácil
cheap = barato;
cheaper = más barato
-est adjetivo + est = grado big = grande;
superlativo biggest = el más grande
small = chico;
smallest = el más chico
-fold número + fold = multiplicado twofold = doble
por threefold = triple
-ful sustantivo + ful = adjetivo power = poder;
“que tiene” powerful = poderoso
-less sustantivo + less = adjetivo; powerless = sin fuerza / sin
“carente de” potencia
-ly adjetivo + ly = adverbio slow = lento;
terminación “-mente” slowly = lentamente
-ment verbo + ment = sustantivo develop = desarrollar
development = desarrollo
invest = invertir
investment = inversión
ship = barco
shipment = embarque
-ness adjetivo + ness = sustantivo bright = brillante; brightness
abstracto = brillantez
-ward en dirección a forward = hacia delante
backward = hacia atrás
downward = descendente
-ship Estado o condición Member: miembro
Membership: membresía
-like Que tiene las cualidades de Childlike

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 Prefijos usados con mayor frecuencia

Counter Transforman a la palabra en counteract = contrarrestar

su contrario u opuesto counterclockwise = en
sentido contrario a las agujas
del reloj
De- Dis- dehydrate = deshidratar
dismantle = desmontar
In- Il- Im- Ir inefficient = ineficiente
immature = inmaduro
irresponsible
inconsiderate =
desconsiderado
Un- unfair = injusto/deshonesto
Cross- Trans- : a través de Transcultural
Ill- Mal illdefined = mal definido
Mis- misunderstanding =
malentendido
Over- Por encima / excesivo Overprotection=
sobreprotección
Under- Por debajo / insuficiente Underestimate= subestimar
Self- Auto- Self-service= autoservicio
Re- Nuevamente Rewrite= reescribir
Pre- Anteriormente Predate= antedatar
Post- Posteriormente Postwar= posguerra

Otros: anti (antisocial / antifreeze / antidepressant) / bi / mono / tri / ex / multi / mega / super (superstar-superclass)
extra (extraordinary – extracurricular Ejercicio.

Intentar traducir las siguientes palabras sin usar el diccionario

Shorten understaffed Usefulness usefulness Fourfold impracticality

Thicken underdevelopment Quietness oversimplification skillful unpredictable

Punishment playful Payer dictatorship illegality disagreement

Government badness caller Friendship jobless refugee

oversized misspell reasonableness overdose northward underclothes

tireless oversleep underestimate driverless overestimate sharpen

overcrowded skilful worthless immeasurable overcharge thankful

mispronounce hopeful undersized

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Completamos la oración usando “prefijo + palabra base (entre paréntesis)”

1. I'm sorry I her message completely. I simply didn't pay attention

(UNDERSTAND)
2. We as soon as we got to the hotel, then we went for a walk (PACK)
3. She was here a minute ago but then she . I don't know where she went .
(APPEAR)
4. We usually have similar opinions but I totally with him on this subject (AGREE)
5. My homework was so bad that I had to it (WRITE)
6. Her alarm clock didn't go off and she (SLEEP)
7. It's to bring those things with you on a plane (LEGAL)
8. She finally managed to the door and we were able to go in (LOCK)
9. I the movie but everyone else enjoyed it (LIKE)
10. I don't think I will pass the exam but I can it in September (TAKE)

11. He wrapped my present so well that it took me five minutes to it (WRAP)

12. I was so tried that I fell asleep without getting (DRESS)
13. My spell checker corrects a mistake whenever I a word (SPELL)
14. That bill can't be right. I think he me (CHARGE)
15. This handwriting is impossible to read. It's (LEGIBLE)
16. I thought it was very of him to treat her in such a brutal way (POLITE)
17. He has been for over two years now and there is no sign of him getting any work
(EMPLOY)
18. She can never wait for five minutes. She's so (PATIENT)
19. The store closed down but it will next month (OPEN)
20. You can get a bad stomach from (EAT).

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 La Frase Sustantiva (FS)
¿Qué es una frase sustantiva?

Son dos o más palabras de las cuales una es el núcleo (o tema del que se habla) y la otra u otras son modificadores,
es decir que modifican o restringen o califican el sentido de la palabra núcleo.

El núcleo es el sustantivo, un nombre común o propio o cualquier otra categoría de palabras que cumplan la función
del sustantivo.

Es una frase en la que no intervienen verbos conjugados en su formación. Para traducirla se debe identificar primero
el núcleo de la misma (sustantivo) y luego describir sus características en base a los pre-modificadores. Cabe
destacar el orden fijo de esta estructura, es decir que el núcleo o sea el sustantivo de la frase nominal en el idioma
inglés va a tener la posición de último elemento a la derecha y sus modificadores estarán a la izquierda de este
núcleo siempre.

Ejemplos de Frase sustantiva

1) Computer

2) Computer systems

3) Computer systems engineering

4) Computer systems engineering Journal

5) Computer engineer

7) Children’s computer

8) Children’s computer class

Estructura de las Frases sustantivas anteriores

Pre-modificadores Núcleo
XXX computer
computer systems
Computer systems Engineering
Computer systems engineering journal
computer Engineer
Children´s Computer
Children´s Computer class

Pre-modificadores de la FN

Hay grupos de pre-modificadores que pertenecen a categorías cerradas, es decir, son esos y nada más que esos.

Categorías cerradas

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 a. Artículos

Determinante (singular y plural, masculino y Indeterminante (singular, masculino y

femenino) femenino)
the A -an

b. Ausencia de artículos: Cuando se habla de una categoría en general, en inglés no se antepone un artículo al
sustantivo.

people Las personas

computers Las computadoras
Research La investigación

c. Adjetivos posesivos

Singular Plural
1ª persona My Our
2ª persona Your Your
3ª persona His Their
Her
Its

d. Adjetivos/ Pronombres demostrativos

Singular (masculino y Plural (masculino y femenino)

femenino)
Señala lo que está cerca This These
Señala lo que está lejos That Those

e. Otros pre-modificadores

De orden De posición De alternativa

First upper – lower another
Second back – front other
Third left – right either
Etc. inner - outer

f. Cuantificadores

(Palabras que dan idea de cantidad)

La tabla los presenta en sentido decreciente, de “gran cantidad” de algo a “nada”.

a lot (of)
a great number of
a great amount of
a great deal of
Many Much

14
Some
A few A little
Any
Few Little
No

“many/much” y “few/little” acompañan distintos tipos de sustantivos:

“many” y “few” van seguidos de sustantivos en plural

“much” y “little” van seguidos de sustantivos que no denotan algo que se cuente por la unidad (por ejemplo,
“money”, “dinero”; no decimos 1 dinero, 2 dineros).

Cuando “any” se usa en la forma afirmativa, no indica cantidad, sino cualquiera.

Es decir:

There is not any evidence (oración negativa) → No hay pruebas/evidencia

Is there any evidence? (oración interrogativa) → ¿Hay pruebas?

Any evidence will be enough (oración afirmativa) → Cualquier prueba será suficiente.

g. “all” versus “every”

Cómo funcionan estas palabras:

On Saturdays I’m busy all day. → Los sábados estoy ocupado/a todo el día.

I’m busy every day. → Estoy ocupado/a todos los días (o cada día de la semana)

“all” al igual que “the whole” significa “todo”, “entero”

“every” significa “cada” o “todos”

El “Caso posesivo”

Ejemplos:

1. the students of Mr. Black

2. the jobs of women

3. an association of engineers

Si bien los ejemplos citados son gramaticalmente correctos en inglés, la frecuencia con la que se usan es mucho
menor que las formas que aparecen a continuación:

1. Mr. Black’s students

2. Women’s jobs

3. An engineers´ association
15
4. Ohm's law and Kirchho's laws

Formación del “Caso posesivo”

Poseedor Nexo Lo poseído Ejemplo

Sustantivo singular ‘s Sustantivo Mr. Brown’s wife
a country’s economy
Sustantivo plural no ‘s Sustantivo men’s hobby
terminado en “s” children’s games

Sustantivo plural ‘ sustantivo Engineers’ associations

terminado en “s” boys’ games

Post – modificadores de la FN

a) Post-modificadores introducidos por “which” – “that” – “who” – “whose” – “where” – “when” (pronombres
relativos)

Ejemplos:

1. Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity,
electronics, and electromagnetism.

2. An electrical engineer is someone who works in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise
variable.

5. Elsner d.o.o. is a company which deals with lifting, loading, unloading and transferring of heavy cargoes, such as
different machines and equipment.

4. Al Schoenbrunn was an engineer whose career involved the construction of nuclear reactors.

5. Chapman is a university where professors know your name and want to know what you are thinking.

6. This will show the time when you last rebooted the computer.

Núcleo de la FN, post- Pronombre relativo Verbo conjugado de la

modificado proposición que post-modifica
Branch That Deals with
Electrical engineer Who works
Company Which Deals with
Al Schoenbrunn Whose (career) involved
Chapman Where (professors) know
Time When (you) rebooted

Estas oraciones tienen siempre un mínimo de dos verbos conjugados: uno en la parte principal de la oración y otro
en el post-modificador:

Los pronombres relativos también pueden aparecer detrás de una coma o detrás de una preposición.

Normalmente se los traduce al español por: que, quien, el cual, los cuales, cuyo, donde.

16
 b) La forma “-ing” como post-modificador

1. Courses containing a lot of units are hard to study.

2. Young people studying a career need to make a big effort.

3. Our university has 500 professionals, offering complex knowledge to students.

4. Information including phone numbers is necessary in every course.

Núcleo de la FN, post- Forma “ing” Objeto de la forma “ing”

modificado
courses containing A lot of units
Young people studying A career
professionals offering Complex knowledge
information including Phone numbers

Normalmente se traducen al español por “que + verbo en presente” (por ejemplo, “los cursos que contienen …”)

c) El participio pasado como post-modificador

1. Get a consent from students admitted to an international course.

2. Students graduated in 2009 are present at the ceremony.

3. A mechanical engineer is a person trained and educated to provide efficient solutions to the development of
processes and products.

Núcleo de la FN, post- Participio pasado

modificado
Students admitted To an international course
Students graduated In 2009
Person Trained and educated To provide…

Ejemplos de frases sustantivas

 New technologies that can reduce our dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas

 energy sources that are readily available all over the world

 the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that humans create

 their carbon footprint

 other sources of green energy

 Renewable energy sources

17
  the biggest market share

 our increasing energy demands

 Major structural changes in the production of renewable energy

 emerging technologies

 investors who choose to "go green"

 Computer-aided design

 Computer-aided design systems

 Control unit

 Unit control

 Digital integrated circuits

 Global positioning system (GPS)

 Graphics processing unit

 Real-time processing

 Signal processing

 Unwanted disturbances

 Random Access memory

 General purpose high performance computer

EJERCICIO

What is the circular economy?

The circular economy is a model of production and consumption, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing,
refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products as long as possible. In this way, the life cycle of products is
extended.

In practice, it implies reducing waste to a minimum. When a product reaches the end of its life, its materials are kept
within the economy wherever possible thanks to recycling. These can be productively used again and again, thereby
creating further value.

This is a departure from the traditional, linear economic model, which is based on a take-make-consume-throw away
pattern. This model relies on large quantities of cheap, easily accessible materials and energy.

Also part of this model is planned obsolescence, when a product has been designed to have a limited lifespan to
encourage consumers to buy it again. The European Parliament has called for measures to tackle this practice.

18
Benefits: why do we need to switch to a circular economy?

To protect the environment

Reusing and recycling products would slow down the use of natural resources, reduce landscape and habitat
disruption and help to limit biodiversity loss.

Another benefit from the circular economy is a reduction in total annual greenhouse gas emissions. According to the
European Environment Agency, industrial processes and product use are responsible for 9.10% of greenhouse gas
emissions in the EU, while the management of waste accounts for 3.32%.

Creating more efficient and sustainable products from the start would help to reduce energy and resource
consumption, as it is estimated that more than 80% of a product's environmental impact is determined during the
design phase.

A shift to more reliable products that can be reused, upgraded and repaired would reduce the amount of waste.
Packaging is a growing issue and, on average, the average European generates nearly 180 kilos of packaging waste
per year. The aim is to tackle excessive packaging and improve its design to promote reuse and recycling.

Actividades

Todas las frases subrayadas en el texto son frases sustantivas. ¿Cómo las traduciría?

19
 Referencia contextual

Tipos de REFERENCIA ENDOFÓRICA:

1. REFERENCIA ANAFÓRICA: un elemento del texto remite a otro que apareció anteriormente.
a) Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig proceeded to publish, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, becoming
one of the leading textbooks in the study of AI. In it, they delve into four potential goals or definitions of AI.
b) Many mobile devices incorporate speech recognition into their systems to conduct voice search—e.g. Siri—
or provide more accessibility around texting.
2. REFERENCIA CATAFÓRICA: una unidad del texto remite a otra que aparece posteriormente.
c) After he received her questions by email, the engineer immediately sent back the results to Alice.
3. “ANTICIPATORY IT”. Con este recurso se introduce o “anticipa” el sujeto u objeto de una oración, especialmente
cuando el sujeto u objeto es una SENTENCIA introducida por un infinitivo precedido por “to” o por un “that”. Este
“it” es un sujeto sustituto, pues el sujeto real está más delante en la oración.
d) It’s remarkable that so few of the patients suffered side effects.
e) It is important to study English grammar.
f) It is nice to see you again.

4. LA SUSTITUCIÓN propiamente dicha se da cuando en un texto se utiliza un elemento no idéntico para no repetir,
o para diferenciar o redefinir a otro antes utilizado. de
• Sustitución nominal: cuando el término que se sustituye es el núcleo de una frase sustantiva.
This is the old edition; I think I will buy the new one next week.

• Sustitución verbal: los sustitutos verbales en español son los verbos hacer y ser, generalmente
acompañados por el pronombre complemento “LO”. En inglés son los verbos DO y BE, acompañados por
SO/EITHER.
I don´t know the meaning of half of those words and I don´t believe you do either.
I am pretty sure I will pass the exam and so will you.
20
REFERENCIA EXOFÓRICA
Por otra parte, usualmente encontramos la REFERENCIA EXOFÓRICA: La referencia exofórica es el mecanismo por el
que una expresión lingüística alude a una entidad o acontecimiento de la realidad extralingüística. El referente se
encuentra, pues, «fuera del texto».
g) As conversations emerge around the ethics of AI, we can begin to see the initial glimpses of the trough of
disillusionment.
h) Let me explain the concept to you.

MARCADORES DE TRANSICIÓN MÁS FRECUENTES

Pronombres Adjetivos posesivos Pronombres Pronombres

personales objetivos posesivos
I My Me Mine
You (singular) Your You Yours
He His Him His
She Her Her Hers
It Its It Its
We Our Us Ours
You (plural) Your You Yours
They Their Them Theirs

Pronombres relativos
That
Which
Who
Whose
Where
When
Why

Deleted nouns
One
Some
Another
These
The other
Those
Others
All

Sequence of two items

The former …. The latter

21
Ejemplos:

A. In March 2020, the European Commission presented the circular economy action plan, which
aims to promote more sustainable product design, reduce waste and empower consumers
B. The new action plan announces initiatives along the entire life cycle of products. It targets how
products are designed, promotes circular economy processes, encourages sustainable
consumption, and aims to ensure that waste is prevented and the resources used are kept in
the EU economy for as long as possible.
C. In a circular economy, products and the materials they contain are highly valued. This
contrasts with the traditional, linear economic model, which is based on a 'take-make-
consume-throw away' pattern.
D. Chemistry energy: It is the one obtained from the chemistry reaction derived from the
electrons flow between two poles of different polarity placed within an electrolyte, for
example, a pile.
E. DELPHIE´S Hobby Shop is an online service which has two special-interest areas: one is classic
vehicles and one is new cars and technology.
F. Most programs are user-friendly but some are very complicated.
G. Price is important to some people, while quality is important to others.
H. Some students read slowly and know it; others read slowly and don’t know it. The former can
be helped more easily than the latter.
I. There are two technologies at work in a PC: one allows raw data to get into the computer and
the other allows the computer to figure out what the data mean.
J. There is a struggle between “web-services” and the “semantic web”. The former was thought
to be rooted in the W3C and academia, the latter in IBM-Microsoft-Sun & Industry.
K. There is no best answer to the question which online service is the best. Rating a potential
online service over another is entirely subjective. Price is important to some people, while the
number of files available for download is important to others.
L. When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The
former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the latter refers to the programs that control
and coordinate the activities of the hardware.
M. Customer service: Online virtual agents are replacing human agents along the customer
journey. They answer frequently asked questions (FAQs) around topics, like shipping, or
provide personalized advice, changing the way we think about customer engagement across
websites and social media platforms.
N. It is relatively easy to install new programs in this computer.
22
O. An operating system is a master control program which controls the functions of the computer
system as a whole and the running of application programs.
P. Everyone uses computers for many different purposes. These smart machines make their lives
easier and more pleasant.
Q. Telecommunications is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of
communication. In modern times, this process almost always involves the sending of
electromagnetic waves.
R. All computers do not use the same operating system. Therefore, it is important to assess the
operating system used on a particular model before initial commitment because some software
is only designed to run under the control of specific operating systems.
S. Bill Gates knew that PCs would be big business and he imagined Microsoft playing a center role
in this industry.
T. For this purpose, we need to provide a broad background for the topic of the study and place
the study within the large context of the scholarly research.
U. Here are a few simple steps that will help you frame the perspective of your research: (….).
V. The life experience and the knowledge readers bring to a text play a significant role in their
interpretation of the text.
W. Physics is the branch of science that deals with the structure of matter and how the
fundamental constituents of the universe interact. It studies objects ranging from the very
small using quantum mechanics to the entire universe using general relativity.
X. Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its motion and behavior through space and
time, and the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental
scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves.

23
 Los tiempos verbales en voz activa
Todos los tiempos verbales se forman con sujeto + verbo.

Con excepción del Imperativo, no hay “sujeto tácito”, como en español.

El sujeto de una oración puede ser una frase nominal o un pronombre.

Pronombres con función de sujeto

Singular Plural
1ª persona I We
2ª persona You You
3ª persona He
She They
It

“He” se refiere exclusivamente a persona masculina

“She”, a persona femenina

“It”, a lugar, objeto, idea, concepto, etc.

En el plural se pierde esta distinción, el único pronombre de 3ª persona es “they”.

El Presente Simple del verbo “to be”

Este verbo tiene un régimen propio. Generalmente se traduce al español como “ser” o “estar”, y en algunas
instancias como “tener”.

a. Forma Afirmativa

I am We are
You are You are
He is
She is They are
It is

b. Forma negativa

Para formar el negativo se agrega “not”: Sujeto + am/is/are + not (am not/ isn´t/ aren´t)

c. Forma interrogativa

Para formar la pregunta, se invierte el orden: Am/is/are + sujeto

24
Ejemplos:

 This is a reading comprehension course. It is for students of engineering.

 Dr. Macdonald is a professor of mathematics at our University. She is from
Scotland.
 Günter Blobel is the winner of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physiology. He is a doctor
in NY.
 I am a student of Mechanical Engineering at a private university.

La estructura “there + be”: Existencia de algo/alguien en un lugar (= “hay”)

Ejemplos:

1. There is an interesting book about this subject in the library.

2. In the International System of Units (SI), there are six principal units from which the
units of all other physical quantities can be derived.

3. There are 2 types of elements found in electrical circuits, active and passive.

El verbo “be”, en la frase “there + be” concuerda con lo que sigue:

Para formar preguntas, se invierte el orden:

4. Is there information about this issue in the journal?

5. Are there any new books in the library?

Para formar el negativo se agrega “not”

6. There is not time for that.

7. There are not any students today.

is + singular

are + plural

La palabra “there” es invariable.

25
El Presente Simple de los demás verbos.

a. Presente Simple, Afirmativo

Sujeto Verbo
I
You
We Infinitivo
They
He
She Infinitivo + “s”
It
Ejemplos:

 I study 4 hours a day.

 You live on the university campus.
 As engineers, we deal with measurable quantities.
 Voltage source provides the circuit with a specified voltage
 The general public sometimes confuses computer science with other areas that
deal with computers, such as information technology (IT).
 General Electric manufactures nearly 400 appliances from refrigerators to
dryers.
 Water boils at 100°C.
 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

Recordar

La terminación “s” o “es” en los verbos indica

tercera persona singular, afirmativo, presente.

El verbo “have” (tener),

en tercera persona singular, afirmativo, es “has”

b. Presente Simple, Interrogativo

Verbo Sujeto Verbo principal

auxiliar
I
Do You
We Infinitivo?
They

He
Does She

26
 It

Ejemplos de preguntas:

 Do you have a Master’s Degree in Electrical Engineering?

 Does the professor have an exam today?

Al aparecer el auxiliar “does”

en la tercera persona del singular,

el verbo principal no tiene “s” o “es”

(como en la forma afirmativa).

c. Presente Simple, Negativo

Sujeto Verbo Verbo

auxiliar Principal

I
You do not
We (don´t)
They Infinitivo
He
She does not
It (doesn´t)

Ejemplos de negaciones:

 Our students do not have classes on Saturday.

 Mr. Hunt does not work on Sundays.
 Computers don´t think, but they solve complicated operations.

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Simple

Indicadores de frecuencia

De SIEMPRE a NUNCA Always

Usually/generally
Often
Sometimes
Rarely/occasionally/hardly ever/seldom
Never
Cada (8 horas) / todos (los años) Every 8 hours
Every day
Every week
Every month
Every year
X vez / veces por día / semana / etc. Once day
Twice week
Three times a month
Four times year

27
 e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Simple

• Definiciones

• Descripciones

• Leyes (de alguna ciencia)

• Actividades cotidianas

• Enunciados de verdades que se consideran indiscutibles

El presente Continuo: am/is/are + forma –ing

a. Presente Continuo, Forma afirmativa

I am
You are conducting
He developing
She is lecturing
It increasing
We doing
You are studying
They

Ejemplos:

 We are conducting research on artificial intelligence.

 Mr. Howel is lecturing on the advantages of the newly discovered system.
 I am finishing my report on binary numbers.
 Are you working on a grant?
 These professionals are not developing a new technique, they’re improving it.

b. Presente Continuo, Forma interrogativa

Am I conducting?
Are you developing?
he lecturing?
Is she increasing?
it doing?
Are you studying?

c. Presente Continuo, Forma negativa

I am not
You are not (aren´t) conducting

28
 He developing
She is not (isn´t) lecturing
It increasing
We doing
You are not (aren´t) studying
They

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Continuo

now – at present – these days – nowadays – currently

e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Continuo

• Descripción de una actividad que se está llevando a cabo en el momento en que se la nombra

• Acción futura que se llevará a cabo de acuerdo con una agenda o plan

El Pasado Simple del verbo “to be”

Ejemplo:

Two Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were for two Argentinean scientists. In
1947, the Prize was for Dr. Housay and in 1984, it was for César Milstein. Dr. Milstein
shared the prize with Niels K. Jerne and Georges Köhler.

Presente Pasado
Am Was
Is
Are Were

Al igual que en el presente, se agrega “not” para formar el negativo y se invierte el orden para formar la pregunta:

sujeto + was/were + not

was/were + sujeto

Ejemplos:

 Niels K. Jerne and Georges Köhler were not from Argentina.

 I was not in the laboratory at 5.00 yesterday.
 Was he from Buenos Aires?
 When were those students absent?

29
El Pasado Simple de los demás verbos

Ejemplos:

Dr. Milstein shared the prize with Niels K. Jerne and Georges Köhler.

The students practised for one hour every day last month.

Los verbos se dividen en regulares o irregulares, de acuerdo a la manera en que forman el pasado (afirmativo) y el
participio.

Los verbos regulares agregan “ed” o solamente “d” al infinitivo. En algunos infinitivos terminados en “y”, la “y”
cambia por “i”.

Los verbos irregulares, como su nombre lo indica, no siguen ninguna regla para formar el pasado o el participio.

El verbo “have” (tener), en pasado, es “had”

Ejemplos de verbos irregulares:

The Head of the Laboratory came to our Institution last week.

Mr. Chair made a speech.

Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the

1960s, with the creation of the first computer science department and degree
programs.

a. Pasado Simple, Afirmativo

Sujeto Verbo
I
You went…
He saw…
She skied…
It wrote…
We had…
You Etc…
They

b. Pasado Simple Interrogativo

Verbo auxiliar Sujeto Verbo principal

Did I
You
He go….?
She see…?
It ski….?
We write…?
They have…?
etc…?
30
Ejemplos de preguntas:

Did you visit the research centre when you were there?

Did the teacher have a meeting today?

When did the first voice-controlled computer appear?

c. Pasado Simple, Negativo

Sujeto Verbo auxiliar Verbo principal

I
You go
He did not (didn´t) see
She ski
It write
We have
They etc…

Ejemplos de negaciones:

Our students did not (didn´t) come to classes on Saturday last year.

Dr. Hunt did not (didn´t) lecture yesterday.

He did not (didn´t) understand the importance of the topic.

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Pasado Simple

yesterday = ayer an hour ago = hace una hora

last week = la semana pasada 3 weeks ago = hace tres semanas

last month = el mes pasado 6 months ago = hace seis meses

last year = el año pasado 2 years ago = hace dos años

e. Usos más frecuentes del Pasado Simple

• Relatar hechos ocurridos en el pasado

• Describir situaciones pasadas

• En oraciones condicionales, o después del verbo “wish” se traduce al español como pretérito del subjuntivo (if I
had the chance: Si tuviera/tuviese la oportunidad)

31
El Pasado Continuo - was/were + forma –ing

Ejemplos

 What were the faculty members doing when the news from the Nobel Prize
arrived?
 The students were not using the lab at that time.
 It was not raining when we arrived here.
 They were analyzing the results.

Como se puede observar en los ejemplos, la forma interrogativa se forma anteponiendo ‘was’ o ‘were’ al sujeto y la
forma negativa, agregando ‘not’ detrás del verbo ‘be’.

a. Usos más frecuentes del Pasado Continuo

• Para enfatizar la continuidad de una acción en el pasado.

• Para dar un marco dentro del cual tuvo lugar otra acción.

Generalmente se traduce al español como pretérito imperfecto (usaban, fermentaban, llovía) o como “estaba
lloviendo/ haciendo / usando”, etc.).

El Presente Perfecto - have/has + participio

Ejemplos

 We have been members of the Association for ten years.

 The students have not completed their studies yet.
 Professor Weis has not taught here since January.
 I have investigated this.
 Virtual reality has been widely used for entertainment purposes.

Ver recuadro sobre verbos regulares e irregulares

a. Presente Perfecto, Forma afirmativa

Sujeto Auxiliar Verbo principal

(participio)
I
We searched
You have made
They seen
He collected
She has etc.
It

32
 b. Presente Perfecto, Forma Interrogativa

Auxiliar Sujeto Verbo principal

(participio)
I
Have you searched?
we made?
they seen?
he collected?
Has she etc.
it

c. Presente Perfecto, Forma Negativa

Sujeto Auxiliar Verbo principal

(participio)
I
We searched
You have not (haven´t) made
They seen
He collected
She has not (hasn´t) etc.
It

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Perfecto

already – yet – just – always – never – since – for

e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Perfecto

i) Para indicar que una acción ocurrió antes de ahora. Lo importante no es cuándo ocurrió, sino que haya ocurrido,
por sus implicancias en el presente. Generalmente se traduce al español por un tiempo pasado.

Controlled trials have proved that … = Los estudios comprobaron que…

ii) Para indicar una acción que se ha desarrollado durante un período que llega hasta el presente.

We have been members of the Association for ten years = Hace diez años que somos
socios de la Asociación.

El Pasado Perfecto had + participio

Ejemplos

 No scientist had reviewed before whether the system worked or not.

 By 5.00 p.m., students had finished their practice.

33
  Had you already submitted your paper when you got the invitation?
 When we got there, they had already finished the project.

a. Usos más frecuentes del Pasado Perfecto

• Para indicar la anterioridad de una acción con respecto a un momento en el pasado o a otra acción, también
pasada.

Normalmente se traduce como “había revisado/terminado/enviado/perdido”,etc.

Los tiempos futuros

Futuro simple - will + infinitivo

Futuro continuo - will be + forma -ing

Futuro perfecto - will have + participio

Ejemplos

 All faculty members will attend the meeting.

 When will the Dean arrive?
 The new system will not be ready until next week.
 The staff will be working on this issue all winter.
 We will have completed the research by November.

a. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Futuro

tomorrow – next week – next month – next year

El condicional - would + infinitive

would be + forma –ing

would be + participio

Ejemplos

 We would appreciate it if you could tell us…

 The new candidates would be arriving tomorrow if weather conditions got
better.

34
 El Modo Imperativo
Usos

Suelen expresarse a través del Modo Imperativo:

• Instrucciones • Recetas

• Consignas • Órdenes

• Consejos • Publicidad

Ejemplos:

 Come on!
 Discover your ancestry with DNA.
 Check with your professor before you start the exercise.

Como este tipo de oraciones le dicen a quien las lea u oiga lo que tiene que hacer, el sujeto no se nombra, está
implícito, es “you”, es decir “tú”, “usted”, “vos”, “ustedes”.

Cuando la instrucción, consejo, etc., es negativo, es decir, de “no hacer” algo, se lo expresa por medio de “Don’t”.

Ejemplo:

 Don’t do that anymore

 Don´t arrive late.

Formación

Infinitivo FN como complemento del Complemento de modo,

verbo tiempo o lugar
Come on X X
Study your lesson regularly
Check with your professor before starting the exercise
Don´t do that anymore X

35
 Los verbos modales

Ejemplos:

36
 Verbos preposicionales
El verbo está acompañado por un adverbio o preposición y cambia de significado.:

1. Get on | Subir: The bus was full. We couldn’t get on.

2. Come back | Volver a algún lugar: Sally is leaving tomorrow and coming back on Saturday.
3. Break down | Dejar de funcionar, dejar de operar (romperse): Sorry I’m late. The car broke down.
4. Look out | Ser cuidadoso, estar atento, permanecer atento: Look out! There’s a car coming
5. Take off | Despegar: It was my first flight. I was nervous as the plane took off.
6. Get by | Arreglárselas: My french isn’t very good, but it’s enough to get by.
7. Run away (from) | Escaparse, huir, alejarse: Why did you run away from me?
8. Keep up (with) | Llevar el ritmo: You’re walking too fast. I can’t keep up with you.
9. Look forward (to) | Estar pendiente/emocionado por algo que va a pasar, esperar algo, mirar hacia adelante:
Are you looking forward to your holiday?
10. Fill in (U.K) – Fill out (U.S.A) | Escribir, rellenar un formulario o documento: Please fill in the application form
and send it to us.
11. Take somebody in | Engañar, ser engañado: The man said he was a policeman and I believed him. I was
completely taken in.
12. Drop out |Dejar de hacer algo justo antes de terminar: Gary went to university but dropped out after a year.
13. Work out | Hacer ejercicio físico.: Rachel works out at the gym three times a week.
14. Work out | Desarrollarse, progresar, elaborar: Good luck for the future. I hope everything works out well for
you.
15. Work something out | Calcular, pensar acerca de un problema y hallar la respuesta: 345 x 76? I need to do
this on paper. I can’t work it out in my head.

37
 La voz pasiva – Tiempo presente

Estructura

Verbo “to be” Participio pasado

Is Based
Is used
Is built

Comparación: Voz activa y Voz pasiva

Voz pasiva Voz activa

Programming are used by engineers… Engineers use Programming
languages languages.
Many cars are built by computers. Computers build many cars.

La voz pasiva en los demás tiempos

Tiempo “to be” Participio pasado

Present continuous Is being done
Are being seen
Present perfect Have been produced
Has been known
Past simple Was found
Were written
Past continuous Was being read
Were being elaborated
Past perfect Had been made
Future Will be investigated

Voz pasiva con verbos modales

Verbo modal “to be” Pasado participio

Must done
Should be seen
May produced
Might have been known
Could found
Ought to etc

38
39
 La Comparación
Comparación de dos elementos: (más / menos … que)

-er (than)

more … (than)

less … (than)

Comparación de un elemento con todos los demás de su clase: (el más…)

the –est

the most …

the least …

Adjetivo / Adverbio Comparación entre dos Comparación de un

elementos elemento con el resto
old – young – tall older – younger – taller oldest – youngest – tallest
short –large – big shorter – larger – bigger shortest – largest – biggest
small – fast – smaller – faster – smallest – fastest – hardest -
hard - soft – etc harder - softer softest
easy – early – heavy easier – earlier – heavier easiest – earliest – heaviest

difficult more difficult most difficult

expensive – etc. more expensive most expensive

FORMAS IRREGULARES

Bad-badly Worse Worst

Far Farther - Further Farthest -furthest
Good - Well Better Best
Little Less Least
Much - Many More Most

40
Comparación en términos de igualdad: (tan … como)

as … as

not so … as

Ejemplos:

 This system is as fast as that one.

 The new system is not as expensive as the last one.

La doble comparación: (cuanto más / menos …, más /menos)

the more, the better

Ejemplos:

 The larger the carrying capacity, the more power that can be put into the
software application.
 The more RAM your computer can hold, the better.
 The more RAM and the more powerful the processor, the more expensive it will
be.

41
 Conectores o nexos
Conectores

Los conectores son nexos o enlaces gramaticales cuya función es explicitar las relaciones semánticas
que existen entre dos o más enunciados o bien entre elementos que componen un mismo enunciado.
Es necesario destacar que el conector no establece la relación (la que existiría a pesar de que el
conector no estuviera), sino que la explicita.

Ejemplo:

Observa atentamente los enunciados A y B:

• A: Carla salió de su casa con tiempo de sobra para llegar a clases a la hora.
• B: Llovía a cántaros y llegó atrasada.

A pesar de que los enunciados A y B se nos presentan por separado y sin conectores entre ellos, somos
capaces de inferir que la relación entre ambos es de oposición, pues lo esperable cuando una persona
sale con tiempo suficiente para trasladarse, es que llegue a tiempo a su destino, por lo tanto, el que
Carla haya llegado atrasada implica algo opuesto a lo esperado.

Ahora bien si tomamos los enunciado A y B e insertamos entre ellos un conector que dé cuenta de lo
que acabamos de decir, lo que estaremos haciendo es explicitar esta relación de
oposición semántica ya existente.

Observa atentamente:

Carla salió de su casa con tiempo de sobra para llegar a clases a la hora pero, como llovía a cántaros,
llegó atrasada.

¿Qué otros conectores pudieron aparecer en el lugar de “pero”?

Se pudieron emplear conectores como sin embargo y no obstante, entre otros; esto se debe a que
cumplen la misma función: explicitar una relación de contraste/oposición entre el sentido de los
enunciados.

Tipos de relaciones semánticas más importantes

Los conectores pueden explicitar diversos tipos de relaciones entre los enunciados o entre partes de
un enunciado. Las más frecuentes e importantes son los siguientes:

 ADICIÓN-AGREGADO:

in addition (to) as well as furthermore moreover

(and) aside from apart from besides
also and also both … and along with

42
 CAUSA-EFECTO:
o CAUSA

because (of) [since] [as]

due to in view of for
owing to on account of
o EFECTO

so therefore hence
thus as a consequence as a result
for this reason [then] with the result that
and so consequently

 CONDICIÓN-PREDICCIÓN: Introducen la condición que debe cumplirse para que se cumpla lo

expresado en la proposición principal.

if unless as long as / so long as

provided / providing or else should (sintaxis invertida)
but for [when] have / be (sintaxis invertida)

 SECUENCIA EN EL TIEMPO: Establecen una relación de tiempo, indicando un suceso anterior,

simultáneo o posterior.
as earlier at the same time
after next in the beginning
[when] before at this point / up to this point
[while] later / on first/ly
lately ultimately [then]
at last meanwhile eventually
since then from … to [since]

 CONTRASTE: vinculan frases cuyos contenidos son opuestos, adversos, contrarios.

though (but) nevertheless

although however yet
even though in contrast [while]
whereas instead on the other hand
despite conversely in spite of

 EJEMPLIFICACIÓN:

e.g. For instance Such as

For example Namely (enumeración)

43
 PROPÓSITO, INTENCIÓN, FINALIDAD:

To + infinitivo In order to + infinitivo For + ~ ing

So that So as to

 RESÚMEN, RECAPITULACIÓN, CONCLUSIÓN:

In conclusion In summary To summarize

 DISYUNCIÓN O ALTERNANCIA:

Either … or Neither … nor Whether … or

 REPETICIÓN O ÉNFASIS:

Above all Particularly Actually

In other words In particular Indeed
Most importantly In fact Really

 ACLARACIÓN:

That is That is to say i.e.

Ejemplos: Identificar el tipo de relación que introducen los siguientes conectores y traducir las oraciones.
1) Green energy is any energy type that is generated from natural resources, such as
sunlight, wind or water. It often comes from renewable energy sources although there
are some differences between renewable and green energy.
2) In order to be deemed green energy, a resource cannot produce pollution, such as is
found with fossil fuels. This means that not all sources used by the renewable energy
industry are green. For example, power generation that burns organic material from
sustainable forests may be renewable, but it is not necessarily green, due to the CO2
produced by the burning process itself.
3) Most IEEE members are electrical and electronics engineers, but the organization's wide
scope of interests has attracted people in other disciplines as well (e.g., computer
science, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, biology, physics, and mathematics).
4) Green energy is important for the environment as it replaces the negative effects of
fossil fuels with more environmentally-friendly alternatives).
5) The technology was developed by Italian physicist Federico Faggin in 1968, who later
joined Intel in order to develop the very first Central Processing Unit (CPU) on one chip
(Intel 4004).
6) Both commercial and free tools exist in various languages.
7) Debugging is a methodical process of finding and reducing the number of bugs, or
defects, in a computer program or a piece of electronic hardware thus making it behave
as expected.
8) Early computers such as Colossus and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100
operations per second.
9) If you click on that, that opens it up and shows you all your folders.

44
 10) In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to
memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may
be part of legitimate programs.
11) Input/output: the communication between an information processing system (such as a
computer) and the outside world possibly a human, or another information processing
system.
12) Green energy is that which comes from natural sources, such as the sun. Clean energy
are those types which do not release pollutants into the air, and renewable energy
comes from sources that are constantly being replenished, such as hydropower, wind
power or solar energy.

Conectores. Indicar qué tipo de conexión implican los siguientes conectores y las dos ideas que conectan
(en ESPAÑOL)

Electric field

The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in
the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field
acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like
it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important
difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either
attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance
is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.

An electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that
would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a 'test charge',
must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to
prevent the effect of magnetic fields. As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is a vector, so it
follows that an electric field is also a vector, having both magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field.

Conector Tipo de relación Ideas conectadas

Idea 1:______________________________________________
However
Idea 2:______________________________________________

Idea 1:______________________________________________
While
Idea 2:______________________________________________

Idea 1:______________________________________________
Since
Idea 2:______________________________________________

45
 Idea 1:______________________________________________
Despite
Idea 2:______________________________________________

Idea 1:______________________________________________
So
Idea 2:______________________________________________

Idea 1:______________________________________________
Both…and
Idea 2:______________________________________________

Engineering

Engineering (from Latin ingenium, meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise") is the
application of scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to(1) invent, design, build, maintain, and
improve structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes. The discipline of engineering is extremely
broad, and encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on
particular areas of applied science, technology and types of application. One who practices engineering is called an
engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as(2) Professional Engineer,
Designated Engineering Representative, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European
Engineer.

History

Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as(3) the pulley, lever,
and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic
mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects.

The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which(A) itself
dates back to 1300, when an engine'er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to "a constructor of
military engines." In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e.(4), a mechanical
contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to
the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning
"innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."

Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term
civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such
non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering.

46
Engineering is a broad discipline which(B) is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines
concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although(5) initially an engineer will usually be trained
in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked
in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:

Chemical engineering – The application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to(6) carry
out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and
biomolecule production.

Civil engineering – The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads,
railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.

Electrical engineering – The design and study of various electrical and electronic systems, such as electrical circuits,
generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers,
optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and electronics.

Mechanical engineering – The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems,
aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains,
kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation equipment.

Methodology

Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make
improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant
sciences for their(C) design projects. As a result, they may keep on learning new material throughout their career.

If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their(D) merits and choose the solution that
best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret
the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically
successful product; it must also(7) meet further requirements.

Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future
modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility,
and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a
viable object or system may be produced and operated.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important
role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications
(computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of
fundamental physical processes, which(E) can be solved using numerical methods.

One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software like(8) Autodesk
Inventor, DSS SolidWorks, or Pro Engineer which(F) enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and
schematics of their designs. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element
method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed
without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.

Translate the following phrases

47
+…the application of scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge
+…an increasingly important role.
+…computer-aided design (CAD) software…
+…expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.

Contextual reference. Find the referents for the following words.

A. Which:__________________________________
B. Which:_________________________________
C. Their:___________________________________
D. Their:___________________________________
E. Which:__________________________________
F. Which:___________________________________

Connectors. Complete the chart.

Conector Traducción Tipo de relación Ideas que relaciona

1)

In order to
2)

1)

Such as
2)

1)

Such as
2)

1)

48
i.e.
2)

1)

Although 2)

1)

In order to
2)

1)
Also

2)

Source Code

Source code is the fundamental component of a computer program that is created by a programmer.
It can be read and easily understood by a human being. When a programmer types a sequence of C
language statements into Windows Notepad, for example, and saves the sequence as a text file, the text
file is said to contain the source code.

Source code and object code are sometimes referred to as the "before" and "after" versions of a compiled
computer program.

Programmers can use a text editor, a visual programming tool or an integrated development
environment to create source code. In large program development environments, there are often
management systems that help programmers separate and keep track of different states and levels of
source code files.

49
Licensing of source code

Source code can be proprietary or open, and licensing agreements often reflect this distinction.

When a user installs a software suite like Microsoft Office, for example, the source code is proprietary,
and Microsoft only gives the customer access to the software's compiled executables and the associated
library files that various executable files require to call program functions.

By comparison, when a user installs Apache OpenOffice, its open source software code can be
downloaded and modified.

Typically, proprietary software vendors like Microsoft don't share source code with customers for two
reasons: to protect intellectual property and to prevent the customer from making changes to source
code in a way that might break the program or make it more vulnerable to attack. Proprietary
software licenses often prohibit any attempt to discover or modify the source code.

Open source software, on the other hand, is purposely designed with the idea that source code should
be made available because the collaborative effort of many developers working to enhance the
software can, presumably, help make it more robust and secure. Users can freely take open source code
under public licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.

Purposes of source code

Beyond providing the foundation for software creation, source code has other important purposes, as
well. For example, skilled users who have access to source code can more easily customize software
installations, if needed.

Meanwhile, other developers can use source code to create similar programs for other operating
platforms -- a task that would be trickier without the coding instructions.

Access to source code also allows programmers to contribute to their community, either through
sharing code for learning purposes or by recycling portions of it for other applications.

Completar el siguiente cuadro de conectores.

conector traducción Tipo de relación Idea uno Idea dos

que establece
Or Entorno de
desarrollo
integrado

Like Como Ejemplificación

Like Como Ejemplificación

And Para evitar que el

cliente realice
cambios que
50
 puedan dañar el
programa o hacerlo
vulnerable a los
ataques.
On the other hand Por otro lado

Because Causa/consecuencia

Such as Licencia pública

If Si Si es necesario

Either…or Ya sea ……o Alternativa

Buscar en el texto todas las palabras encerradas en círculo y determinar su

referente.

51
La forma –ing
La partícula –ing del inglés es una flexión que se agrega a la base de un verbo léxico:

Visit + ING = visiting

Drop + p + ING = dropping

create + ING = creating

Las palabras terminadas en –ing pueden tener distintas funciones dentro de la oración.

1) Para formar todos los tiempos continuos o progresivos

Am
Is
Are
Was
Were
Have
Has Been Forma “ing”
Had
Will
Would
Can Be
May
Might
Should

En este caso se traduce con terminación -ANDO /-ENDO

He’s working for a small company these days. (Actualmente está trabajando para una pequeña empresa).

2) Premodificador de un sustantivo, en este caso su traducción corresponde a la de un adjetivo o frase preposicional.

We have received discouraging news. (Hemos recibido noticias desalentadoras).

The impact of raising prices. (El impacto de los precios en alza).

Competing activities = actividades que compiten

Counseling sessions = sesiones de consejería

The living cell = la célula viva

3) Posmodificador de un sustantivo, la traducción en este caso es “QUE” + verbo conjugado.

The boxes containing the applicants’ forms are in this office. (Las cajas que contienen las solicitudes de los aspirantes
están en esta oficina).

4) Después de verbos copulativos, las formas –ing se traducen como adjetivos.

The film was boring. (La película fue aburrida).

52
5) Con función adverbial o en combinación de cláusulas, se traduce con terminación –ANDO / –ENDO:

He broke his leg skiing in the Alps. (Se quebró la pierna esquiando en los Alpes).

Walking to the bus stop, I ran into Peter. (Caminando rumbo a la parada del colectivo, me encontré con Peter).

6) Como sujeto de la oración o núcleo de una frase nominal.

Swimming is a healthy activity. (La natación / nadar es una actividad saludable).

The reading of the will took place in doctor Green’s office. (La lectura del testamento se llevó a cabo en la oficina del
doctor Green)

Strategic planning = Planeamiento estratégico

Change in training = Cambio en el entrenamiento

The latest findings = Los últimos hallazgos

Reading is important = El leer o la lectura es importante

7) Como complemento u objeto de un verbo. En este caso se suelen traducir como vebos en infinitivo.

That is lying. (Eso es mentir).

We like watching films. (Nos gusta mirar películas).

I call that cheating (A eso lo llamo hacer trampa).

8) Como objeto de una preposición. El equivalente es un verbo en infinitivo o un sustantivo.

Thank you for returning the book I lent you. (Gracias por devolver el libro que te presté)

Tips for improving = recomendaciones para mejorar

Strategies for overcoming barriers = estrategias para superar barreras

Sound advice in achieving optimal results = buenos consejos para lograr resultados óptimos

The importance of analyzing these results = La importancia de analizar estos resultados.

Para resumir, al trasladar la palabra que tiene –ing al español, esta podrá tomar cualquiera de las siguientes formas:

1) Verbo terminado en -ando o -endo.

2) Verbo en infinitivo.

3) Verbo conjugado para los tiempos pasado, presente o futuro, generalmente con la palabra “que” antepuesta.

4) Sustantivo.

5) Adjetivo o frase preposicional

53
 Ejemplos:

 Ampere: Standard unit for measuring an electric current.

 Another function of the operating system is executing and providing services for
application software.
 Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being

soldered to a printed circuit board.

 Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and

technology, which deal with the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and

conversion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms using wires,

motors, generators, batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors, and

other passive components.

 Problem solving.

 Soon after that he published his findings, proving that an electric current

produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire.

 The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information

processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards,

electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication

infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed

components into a regular working system.

 The electromagnetic force plays a major role in determining the internal

properties of most objects encountered in daily life.

 There are four main effects resulting from these interactions, all of which have

been clearly demonstrated by experiments.

 To represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors.

 Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits.

 We now address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when

given a system with known internal losses.

 In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or

transferring energy from one point to another.

 When considering the results, we must be very objective.

54
  Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A closed path is formed by starting
at a node, passing through a set of nodes and returning to the starting node
without passing through any node more than once.

INFINITIVO PASADO SIMPLE PARTICIPIO PASADO TRADUCCIÓN

Be/ am, are, is Was / Were Been Ser / Estar
Beat Beat Beaten Golpear
Become Became Become Llegar a Ser
Begin Began Begun Empezar
Bend Bent Bent Doblar
Bet Bet Bet Apostar
Bite Bit Bitten Morder
Bleed Bled Bled Sangrar
Blow Blew Blown Soplar
Break Broke Broken Romper
Bring Brought Brought Traer Llevar
Build Built Built Edificar
Burn Burnt /Burned Burnt / Burned Quemar
Burst Burst Burst Reventar
Buy Bought Bought Comprar
Catch Caught Caught Atrapar
Come Came Come Venir
Cost Cost Cost Costar
Cut Cut Cut Cortar
Choose Chose Chosen Elegir
Deal Dealt Dealt Tratar
Do (Does) Did Done Hacer
Draw Drew Drawn Dibujar
Dream Dreamt / Dreamed Dreamt / Dreamed Soñar
Drink Drank Drunk Beber
Drive Drove Driven Conducir
Eat Ate Eaten Comer
Fall Fell Fallen Caer
Feed Fed Fed Alimentar
Feel Felt Felt Sentir
Fight Fought Fought Luchar
Find Found Found Encontrar
Fly Flew Flown Volar

55
Forbid Forbade Forbidden Prohibir
Forget Forgot Forgotten Olvidar
Forgive Forgave Forgiven Perdonar
Freeze Froze Frozen Helar
Get Got Got / Gotten Obtener
Give Gave Given Dar
Go (Goes) Went Gone Ir
Grow Grew Grown Crecer
Hang Hung Hung Colgar
Have Had Had Haber o Tener
Hear Heard Heard Oir
Hide Hid Hidden Ocultar
Hit Hit Hit Golpear
Hold Held Held Agarrar Celebrar
Hurt Hurt Hurt Herir
Keep Kept Kept Conservar
Know Knew Known Saber Conocer
Lay Laid Laid Poner
Lead Led Led Conducir
Leap Leapt Leapt Brincar
Learn Learnt / Learned Learnt / Learned Aprender
Leave Left Left Dejar
Lend Lent Lent Prestar
Let Let Let Permitir
Light Lit Lit Encender
Lose Lost Lost Perder
Make Made Made Hacer
Mean Meant Meant Significar
Meet Met Met Encontrar
Pay Paid Paid Pagar
Put Put Put Poner
Read Read Read Leer
Ring Rang Rung Llamar
Rise Rose Risen Levantarse
Run Ran Run Correr
Say Said Said Decir
See Saw Seen Ver
Seek Sought Sought Buscar
56
Sell Sold Sold Vender
Send Sent Sent Enviar
Set Set Set Poner(se)
Shoot Shot Shot Disparar
Show Showed Shown Mostrar
Shut Shut Shut Cerrar
Sing Sang Sung Cantar
Sink Sank Sunk Hundir
Sit Sat Sat Sentarse
Sleep Slept Slept Dormir
Smell Smelt Smelt Oler
Sow Sowed Sowed / Sown Sembrar
Speak Spoke Spoken Hablar
Speed Sped Sped Acelerar
Spell Spelt Spelt Deletrear
Spend Spent Spent Gastar
Spill Spilt / Spilled Spilt / Spilled Derramar
Split Split Split Partir /
Spoil Spoilt / Spoiled Spoilt / Spoiled Estropear
Spread Spread Spread Extender
Stand Stood Stood Estar en pie
Steal Stole Stolen Robar
Stick Stuck Stuck Pegar
Sting Stung Stung Picar
Swell Swelled Swollen Hinchar
Swim Swam Swum Nadar
Take Took Taken Tomar
Teach Taught Taught Enseñar
Tell Told Told Decir
Think Thought Thought Pensar
Throw Threw Thrown Arrojar Tirar
Understand Understood Understood Entender
Undergo Underwent Undergone Sufrir
Wake Woke Woken Despertarse
Wear Wore Worn Llevar puesto
Win Won Won Ganar
Write Wrote Written Escribir

57
58