Temario de oposiciones

Vicenta María Llorca Llorca

Teresa Vaello Ros
INGLÉS I
Secundaria
Teresa Vaello Ros
Vicenta María Llorca Llorca

Temario de oposiciones de INGLÉS SECUNDARIA I

Educàlia Editorial

Educàlia editorial
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email: educaliaeditorial@[Link]
[Link]

Cubierta_INGLES.indd Todas las páginas 21/08/2018 [Link]

 Temario de oposiciones
INGLÉS SECUNDARIA I
Teresa Vaello Ros
Vicenta María Llorca Llorca

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 Segunda edición, 2019
Autor: Teresa Vaello Ros, Vicenta María Llorca Llorca
Maquetación: Educàlia Editorial
Edita: Educàlia Editorial
Imprime: Grupo Digital 82, S.L.
ISBN: 978-84-947282-5-9
Depósito legal: V-2391-2018
Printed in Spain/Impreso en España.
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Educàlia Editorial
Avda de les Jacarandes 2 loft 327 46100 Burjassot-València
Tel. 963 76 85 42 - 960 624 309 - 610 900 111
Email: educaliaeditorial@[Link]
[Link]

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 INDEX
UNIT 1 Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del
inglés como lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos........................................................ 5

UNIT 2 Teorías generales sobre el aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranje-

ra. El concepto de interlengua. El tratamiento del error................................................................. 20

UNIT 3 El proceso de comunicación. Funciones del lenguaje. La lengua en uso. La nego-

ciación del significado...................................................................................................................... 33

UNIT 4 La competencia comunicativa: análisis de sus componentes....................................... 46

UNIT 5 La comunicación oral. Elementos y normas que rigen el discurso oral. Rutinas y
fórmulas habituales. Estrategias propias de la comunicación oral............................................... 65

UNIT 6 La comunicación escrita. Distintos tipos de textos escritos. Estructura y elementos

formales. Normas que rigen el texto escrito. Rutinas y fórmulas................................................... 73

UNIT 7 Sistema fonológico de la lengua inglesa (i). Las vocales. Símbolos fonéticos. Los
diptongos. Comparación con el sistema fonológico español....................................................... 79

UNIT 8 Sistema fonológico de la lengua inglesa (ii). Las consonantes. Símbolos fonéti-
cos. Comparación con el sistema fonológico español................................................................... 89

UNIT 9 Sistema fonológico de la lengua inglesa (iii). Acento, ritmo y entonación. Com-
paración con el sistema fonológico español................................................................................... 96

UNIT 10 Características de la formación de palabras en inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y

composición....................................................................................................................................... 104

UNIT 11 La palabra como signo lingüístico. Homonimia, sinonimia, antonimia. “False

friends”. Creatividad léxica.............................................................................................................. 110

UNIT 12 Concepto de gramática: reflexión sobre la lengua y su aprendizaje. De la gra-

mática normativa a la gramática en función del uso de la lengua y la comunicación............... 118

UNIT 13 La expresión de la cantidad......................................................................................... 129

UNIT 14 Expresión de la cualidad. Expresión de grado y comparación................................ 144
UNIT 15 Expresión del modo, los medios y el instrumento....................................................... 157
UNIT 16 Expresión de la posesión.............................................................................................. 163
UNIT 17 La localización en el espacio: lugar, dirección y distancia....................................... 169
UNIT 18 La localización en el tiempo: relaciones temporales. Frecuencia............................. 174
UNIT 19 Tiempo real y tiempo verbal: aspecto y modo............................................................ 180
UNIT 20 Verbos auxiliares y modales: formas and funciones.................................................. 188
UNIT 21 El infinitivo y la forma en –ing: sus usos....................................................................... 196
UNIT 22 ‘Multi-word verbs’......................................................................................................... 204
UNIT 23 Estructura de la oración en inglés: afirmaciones, preguntas, negaciones y ex-
clamaciones ...................................................................................................................................... 212

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 UNIT 24 Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción....................................................225
UNIT 25 Relaciones de causa, consecuencia y finalidad.......................................................231
UNIT 26 Expresión de la duda, condición, hipótesis y constraste..........................................236
UNIT 27 La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.............................................................................247
UNIT 28 Macrofunciones lingüísticas para expresar las intenciones comunicativas más
habituales: entablar y mantener relaciones sociales, dar y pedir información sobre objetos,
personas y acciones, expresar actitudes intelectuales y emocionales........................................255

UNIT 29 Análisis y articulación del discurso. Cohesión y coherencia. Anáfora y catáfora.

Los conectores. Deixis......................................................................................................................268

UNIT 30 Discurso directo y el discurso indirecto......................................................................275

UNIT 31 Texto y contexto. Tipos de texto. Criterios para la clasificación textual. El registro....283
UNIT 32 El texto narrativo. Estructura y características............................................................289
UNIT 33 El texto descriptivo. Estructura y características.........................................................296

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 1
UNIT 1
EVOLUCIÓN DE LA DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS. TENDENCIAS
ACTUALES DE LA DIDÁCTICA DEL INGLÉS COMO LENGUA EXTRAN-
JERA. LOS ENFOQUES COMUNICATIVOS
0. Introduction
1. Development of Language Teaching. Historical background: 19th century
2. Present day trends in the English language teaching process and communicative approaches.
3. Applications in the English classroom
4. Conclusion
5. Bibliography

0. INTRODUCTION
Topic number 1 deals with: ‘Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica
del inglés como lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos’, being this an important part of the teach-
ing-learning process of English.
To begin with, I would like to justify this topic in the English curriculum. The previous educative system mainly
focused on grammar, lexical and linguistic aspects as it was thought that the mastery of a language was based
on the degree of proficiency at a linguistic level. Hence, generally students were able to apply the grammatical
rules of the language but some of them had problems when using the language orally. Our society is suffering
significant and evident changes as globalisation and the impact of new technologies, directly affecting students
when we talk about education. These terms have become a priority and a crucial tool in the learning process
throughout life. In fact, the new organic law, LOMCE, in addition to all these features, also takes into consid-
eration the diversity in abilities; the work-organisation; helping towards its development; to encourage positive
attitudes towards the English language and culture; the students’ creativity and so on. In short, the students must
participate in their learning progress as LOMCE has established recently. For this reason, the LOMCE, Organic
Law for improvement of Quality (LOMCE) in Education 8/2013 of 9th of December, has proposed a communica-
tive approach to foreign languages. An approach which implies the consideration of not only grammatical as-
pects, but also cultural, historical and literal characteristics of the countries where the English language is spoken.
In this context, this topic number 1 has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it deals with communicative
and linguistic aspects, and it can be a tool to transmit to our students some of the basic and indispensable
competences, such as: competence on linguistic communication.
All topics about communicative concepts are interrelated and they will always be treated as a whole. For
example, to understand how the four main communicative skills are used in the report speech and discourse
components in the speech act is essential information in order to achieve a good understanding of this topic
among others, are necessary.
I will divide this topic into three general parts: starting with a distinction among the diverse methods for the
acquisition of a foreign language; how the English language develops. Secondly, I will continue with the
present trends in the teaching-learning process of a foreign language. To conclude, another relevant aspect
to be dealt with is the consolidation of the most relevant characteristics related to both communicative abili-
ties by our students and its application in an English language classroom.

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 1 In this topic, we will study one of the most outstanding linguistic speech categories in a communicative pro-
cess: the acquisition of a second language and all the didactic methods and trends in the development of
the teaching-learning process. It plays an important role within the learning of any language, and we will be
able to communicate in a successful way as soon as we control all the following steps and features.
Learning a language is a difficult and time consuming process. It is obviously not easy. There are new rules
of grammar and many exceptions. There are new sounds that are hard to make, endless lists of vocabulary
to commit to memory and so on. Despite this, people manage to learn the basics of their very first language
around the time they are two years old; no textbooks in sight.
The main objective of this topic is to provide an account of what is known about the different ways in which peo-
ple learn and acquire languages. In this way, we will use a historical background which will give us a frame-
work for general theories on learning from its origins to present-day trends, in an attempt to take into account
the major and minor approaches and theories in language learning and language acquisition. At this point,
key issues will be essential to review so as to clarify the nuances between some concepts such as acquisition
and learning, or terms such as mother, second, and foreign language within the theory of learning. The same
approach is going to be used to set the link between a language learning theory and the concept of interlan-
guage. Furthermore, the treatment of error will be described from its roots to the trends used nowadays within
a positive framework. According to the learner’s necessities, new contributions on a language learning theory
are offered through current applied linguistics journals. At the same time, for the main purpose of this topic, we
will offer an overview of the development of most influential theories on language learning.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
Language learning has been discussed and studied by many, being approached in various ways along
history. This topic, together with other issues that were dealt with by philosophers in Ancient Greece, or in the
16th century in France are still today quite relevant.
We are now going to present a brief summary of the different theories and studies that have been proposed
on the subject along history.
Plato’s theory
Western philosophy has its origin in Ancient Greece, and from this period, it is necessary to refer to the work
of Plato who, in his writings, laid out some problems that are crucial to modern linguistic discourse.
When dealing with the dichotomy nature versus nurture, Plato believed that knowledge was innate, so he
tended to support nature. Plato’s problem, as we know it nowadays, was summarised by Bertrand
Russell in the following way: ‘How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and per-
sonal and limited, are, nevertheless, able to know as much as they do know?’ The idea of an innate knowledge
that starts from the very beginning came to sort out this problem, so he understood language as something innate.
Cartesian Linguistics
In the early 17th century, it was Descartes who tackled linguistic philosophy. His consideration of language
acquisition as something very simple coming from an easy process lead him not to dedicate too much atten-
tion to the issue. In the same line as Plato, he considered that language was something innate that came to
show the rationality of human beings.

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 At the time when Descartes lived, rationalism was blooming, and in spite of his personal view of language,
1
this movement was crucial for linguists. As a matter of fact - as Chomsky states - it was this movement the one
that highlighted these elements:
• Creativity: as a necessary element in the use of language every day.
• The existence of universal principles: that supported every language.
Tabula rasa
John Locke, considered the Father of Liberalism, lived mainly in the second half of the 17th century. Up until
then, as we have seen, the main foundations of knowledge were considered to be innate to human beings.
However, during the Enlightenment, which started at this time, this was not only questioned, but contradicted.
John Locke based his theory on the idea of tabula rasa, or blank slate. According to him, knowledge did not
have its origin in nature, and thus was not innate. Instead, it came from outside, and was reached through
exposure to sensory experiences (or sensory input). Furthermore, he refuted the idea of an innate logic ex-
isting behind language.
Behaviourism
In the 20th century, [Link] developed further some of Locke’s ideas about sensory input. He did it from
the perspective of behaviourism, and more specifically from the radical behaviourism that he put forward.
According to him, human beings do not come along with an innate programming in order to learn a lan-
guage. Instead, all behaviour is only a response to external stimuli.
He went further into our field, connecting behaviourism and language learning for the first time in such depth.
He suggested the term ‘operant conditioning’ when referring to the fact that language learning was the result
of a process in which there must be reinforcement as well as punishment, and therefore, people are condi-
tioned into saying what is correct. According to this, when we need something and we request it properly, our
behaviour is reinforced, as we will obtain what was requested. A process of conditioning is thus necessary
in order to succeed in language learning. And in this process, the idea of feedback is absolutely necessary,
as we need to know whether the use we make of language is or not correct by either being rewarded in the
first case, or being made aware of our mistake in the other.
Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky, contemporary with Skinner, refuted his theory on language learning. According to Chom-
sky, if learning a language was the result of being exposed to sensory input, it would be impossible for a
child to get the necessary tools to process an infinite number of sentences. On the other hand, he presented
his theory of Universal Grammar. According to it, there is an innate mechanism that origines language ac-
quisition, and there are also universal elements that are common in the way all languages are structured.
Chomsky looked back at Plato’s problem to refute Skinner’s theory. In his opinion, there is no other way to
explain why children learn their mother tongue so quickly, being able to understand and create statements
that they have never heard before.
Contrary to the postulates of Behaviourism, Chomsky (1976) developed the concept of Universal Grammar
in which human beings are equipped with the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This biological faculty is
responsible for the development of the language in its initial stages. According to this, learners of a language
do not just repeat mechanically the structures of the language that they are exposed to, but they also process
these structures.
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar has also been the subject to criticism in its 50 years of history. The main
criticism is related to the appropriacy of the theory in the case of second language acquisition, since it is
difficult to determine its importance in this case. Critics say that it may have little to do with learning a second

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 1 language, even if it’s how we learn a first language. Also, it has been criticised for being too complex for the
average language learner.
In short, Chomsky’s theory is very relevant for linguistics, but not so for language acquisition. It offers little
help for learning a second language.
Over the past half century or so, a number of other language learning theories have appeared to try to solve
the problems in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in the gaps in more specific areas of language learning.
Acculturation Model
John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new language
while being completely immersed in that language.
This theory focuses on social and psychological aspects that influence language learning, rather than deal-
ing with the process of language learning as we normally think of it.
There are several factors that influence how we acquire a target language. For instance, an immigrant is more
likely to acquire their new target language if their language and the target language are socially equal, if
the group of immigrants is small and not cohesive, and if there is a higher degree of similarity between the
immigrant’s culture and that of their new area of residence.
The idea behind this is simple. Language learning is not a subject like Physics or Maths, which can be learnt
exclusively from a book. In language acquisition, the more we do to connect with the culture on the other end
of our second language, the faster and easier it will be for us to learn that language.
Monitor Model
Stephen Krashen developed the Monitor Model which mainly focuses on second foreign language acquisi-
tion through several hypotheses. The main postulates of this model are the following:
• Language acquisition is considered a subconscious process which stems from informal, natural and
natural communication.
• The process of learning a language is conscious and can be modified through error correction in a
formal setting.
• Individuals acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order.
• Language acquisition is possible by means of comprehensible input. That is to say, when learners hear
or read things that are beyond their current level of language.
• Language can be monitored with the main aim of using communication correctly and express meaning.
For example, this could be seen when teachers correct grammatical mistakes from their students.
Despite the fact that Krashen’s Monitor Model is quite popular among scholars, some criticism and contra-
diction towards certain aspects of this theory have appeared. Especially, when referring to the way in which
grammar structures are acquired.
All in all, this theory implies that second language learning should aim at increasing the amount of input that
the learner is exposed to, at the same time as proper correction of errors is done.
Interactionism
The Interactionist theory believes that the process of language maturation is due to the exchange between
the situational environment of learners of the second language and their human faculties. Likewise, this theory
emphasises the modification in language which is made by native or more efficient speakers of the L2 when
communicating with L2 learners in order to make interaction understandable and therefore fostering their
language learning process.

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 According to this theory, there are no cases in which L2 learning can be possible without native speakers
making the necessary adjustments in order to help L2 learners understand and make progress in their learn-
1
ing process of the language. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to affirm that modified interactions alter L2
learning.
Social constructionism
Based on the postulates of Interactionism, social constructionism has also its basis on Vygotsky’s sociocultural
perspective on learning. This sociocultural approach in education reflects that ‘action is mediated and that it
cannot be separated from the milieu in which it is carried out’ (Wertsch, 1991). Additionally, the sociocultural
approach is based on two main themes:
1. Individual development: it is originated in social sources in which higher mental functioning is included.
2. Human action: it is mediated by tools and signs on a social and individual plan.
Individual development follows the Vygotskian theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which, ac-
cording to Brown, Metz and Campione (1996), can be defined as ‘the distance between the actual develop-
ment levels as determined by independent problem solving, and the level of potential development as deter-
mined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers.’ Therefore,
it is said that Vygotsky considers language acquisition and learning as a result of the interactions that learners
do with other interlocutors, such as teachers or friends who have certain fluency in the foreign language.
On the other hand, human action is related to the concept of semiotic mediation developed by Vygotsky
which claims that ‘language; various systems of counting; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol systems;
works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps and mechanical drawings; all sorts of conventional signs
and so on are all important in mediating social and individual functioning, and connecting the social and the
individual’ (Vygotsky, 1981, p.137). Conversely, this concept focuses on the knowledge which is developed
by means of ‘psychological tools’ instead of being directly incorporated. In other words, by means of inter-
active communication between individuals.
THE 19TH CENTURY
Since ancient civilisations Egyptians, Babylonians, as well as Romans and Greeks were taught by
teacher-slaves.
Later, in Middle Age period, Latin became the most important language and used as a second language
too. It was the language for education, laws and commerce. It was taught by monastic schools and it was
also used by classical writers. In the 16th and 17th, vernacular languages will replace Latin. However, in the
18th century other languages started to be introduced into the curriculum of European schools. They were
focused on Latin learning tradition and the textbooks were essentially grammar rules, vocabulary and trans-
lation exercises.

GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD OR TRADITIONAL METHOD (1840-1940)

This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. Later, the approach was generalised to
teaching modern languages.
The origin of this method is German but it was known in USA as ‘The Prussian Method’.
When this method is applied, classes are taught in the students’ mother tongue with little active use of the
target language. Besides, vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. The teacher will provide to
his/her students with elaborated explanations of grammar. Grammar instruction will incorporate our students
the rules for putting words together. Reading of difficult texts is begun early during the course.

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 1 Often, the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the
mother tongue, and vice versa. Here, little or no attention is given to pronunciation, intonation or stress patterns.
Although its usage has been criticised by many linguists, grammar and concretely translation, continues
being used nowadays as a learning strategy in whatever teaching-learning process. So, it is considered as
an efficient procedure in the acquisition of a foreign language. Moreover, when studying literary works, its
usage becomes absolutely necessary in order to know them.
On the other hand, this method also provides our students with some particular grammar-structures and rules
which should be memorised and studied by them, giving them many examples together with the grammatical
structures. One of our main objectives consists of elaborating a list with new words, expressions and sen-
tences in their mother tongue which the students will translate into the foreign language learnt. This method
will progress from an easy to a more difficult way; that is, starting with isolated words and expressions, and
finishing with the translation of coherent texts as a whole.
Unfortunately, some problems could be found out when employing it. Our students tend to understand in
a literary way and in many cases this is a mistake. When translating not only the selection of the suitable
meaning of each word is totally necessary, but also to compare them within a context, thus, in a real com-
municative situation.
Hence, we will take into account linguistic aspects such as the degree of formality, the objective of the mes-
sage, the register used, dialects, etc. In short, this method will present our students some limitations in the
learning of a foreign language and they will not trust completely when making use of it.

THE DIRECT METHOD

This approach was developed initially as an opposite reaction to the grammar- translation approach.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Activities are
first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is never used. There is no translation. The
most practiced type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an
anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules
are generalised from the practice and experience with the target language. Literary texts are not analysed
grammatically. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
Its main goal is the usage of the oral language as a vehicle of communication in the English language class-
room. It was thought that language had to be based on scientific knowledge starting with the speaking skill
and later to other communicative skills.
From 1880, due to the industrialisation and the international trade, some linguistics had the necessity of
reaching a more productive way of language learning. To achieve it, one innovation in the teaching-learning
process will be taken into consideration, that is, the Phonetics in a foreign language. This implies the introduc-
tion of the spoken language as an essential communicative skill.
It transmitted the necessity of avoiding literary works to base the language on the everyday language acqui-
sition, a practical and useful method of learning.
This method mainly consists of paraphrasing and the use of synonyms in order to guess or explain a text
or expression. By means of a text or conversation, our students will find out by themselves the grammatical
concepts or structures proposed.
This technique involves a set of useful exercises, such as substitutions, narrative, dictation, free compositions…

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 On the other hand, it is also characterised by the usage of pronunciation, stress and intonation. However, in
1
early stages of learning, the direct method could be considered by our students too difficult. We will always
provide them with the suitable patterns to obtain a perfect dominion of a spoken language.
All these ideas were defended in America by Berlitz School who promoted the usage of oral interaction in
the English language classroom, and Sauveur who carried out the Natural method, where the students will
learn by oral interaction without using their mother tongue.
This method was used in private schools and by native-speaking teachers, and of course, without any
translation.
THE 20TH CENTURY
Since 1900, many theories and methods have resulted taking into consideration that language is a part of
our society, we can find a relationship between linguistics and other fields such as sociology and psychology.
During these years, there was a need to teach adults as many languages as possible in order to get a better
education and a way of communication.
In the 1960s, a great amount of scholars, Halliday, Hymes, Labov and of course the American linguist Noam
Chomsky will introduce to the society some ideas such as language is creative –not to memorise it by means
of repetitions or imitation– and rule governed.
Undoubtedly, each linguistic has his own principles about language:

HYMES To provide a communicative competence within a context.

HALLIDAY To emphasise the functions of language.
Identification of 4 communicative competences:
CANALE & SWAIN
Grammatical – Sociolinguistics – Discourse – Strategic
CHOMSKY Creativity.
Structuralism: language follows a series of structures and
BLOOMFIELD
regular patterns.

Since ancient times, linguists worked in the improvement of the quality of language teaching, creating meth-
ods and theories. Scholars such as Chomsky, Palmer, Halliday, among others, have contributed to this
development.
Regarding psychology, the behaviourism method had an influence on language teaching doing experiments
with animals, trying to understand how animals behaved in concrete and controlled situations. Hence, ac-
cording to it, languages consist of a set of habits and the students will try to develop them and then, they will
speak the language correctly.
According to Crystal, 1985, who states psycholinguistics, defends the analysis of the acquisition of a foreign
language by children. Furthermore, Chomsky’s opinion of linguistics will imply the study of the human mind as a
branch of cognitive psychology: when and how children carry out their ability to speak in a syntactically way.
Throughout the study of language teaching, different methods and theories have resulted due to different
approaches as answers to a variety of historical factors.
Hence, in the development of the learning of a foreign language three theoretical views could be found:

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 1 Structuralist analysis It is the most traditional and it is focused on phonological, grammatical and
lexical features. Linguists like Sapir and Bloomfield followed these patterns.
Functional analysis Language is understood as the means for the semantic meaning: the content will
play an important role.
Interactional analysis Language is considered as a means of interpersonal relations, social relations
among people, which include gestures, negotiation and interaction.
Eclectic approach It is the usage of the four communicative skills at all stages of learning giving an
especial emphasis on the oral skills always taken into account the need of ha-
ving a creative teacher, the main goal of our current educational system, LOE.

THE READING METHOD

This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons, for specific uses of the language in graduate
or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable
skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical
knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading
comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation and other oral variations.
From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in second language lessons. The vocabulary used in
the texts is controlled by the teacher. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition
of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this method be-
cause of its connection with the comprehension of the written text.
Many strategies were adopted from the native language reading practice. Here, two different techniques
will be taken into account:

INTENSIVE READING For a detailed study.

EXTENSIVE READING A rapid reading for a general comprehension or view.

Consequently, this method deals with other important elements which will provide a better understanding of
the Teaching-Learning process:
• To acquire new vocabulary.
• To employ graded readers for different stages.
• To read different types of texts: magazines, press, e-mails, sms, letters…

AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

This method is based on the principles of behaviour psychology. It adapted many of the principles and pro-
cedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
The origin of this method was in the United States in the World War II times. It was established for military
people, in 1942, in American universities. It is based on Structuralism and Behaviourism theories. It teaches
the language skills – Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing – focusing on using drills and other strategies
to achieve the better language habits. Material resources are introduced to our students in spoken form and
it is emphasised the spoken language in everyday situation.

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 Leonard Bloomfield’s theory dealt with a relationship between oral procedures and behaviourist habit in a
1
concrete context and time.
It was born in the 1960s and the usage of oral speech such as dialogues will be its main tool. Here, we will
emphasise the development of activities in the Lab, to elaborate certain activities such as drills, role plays,
dramatisations, etc.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit
formation, memorisation of set phrases and over-learning. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading
and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading pe-
riod at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Successful
responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner mistakes.
Hence, two communicative skills will be considered as the premises of this method: Listening and Speaking
– one productive skill and one receptive skill. One of the most important fact in the treatment of this method
is to avoid the mother tongue.

NOAM CHOMSKY: GENERATIVISM

There was a time when Noam Chomsky was one of the leading linguistic theorists in America and his most
important scholarly contribution was called ‘Transformational Generative Grammar’. It is focused on the
creativity term, on which every native speaker will perform as many sentences and expressions as possible
without having heard them before.
When making use of this method with our students, we will permit them to make mistakes in the learning pro-
cess given more importance to the free expression and creativity.
The goal of this study to reintegrate the theory of generative grammar into the cognitive sciences. Generative
grammar was to focus on the child’s acquisition of language as its central problem, leading to the hypothesis
of an innate Universal Grammar.

THE SILENT WAY

This method involves the following:

• To avoid the use of the vernacular language. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the
complete control of the teacher. It consist of permitting the teacher to concentrate on what the students say
and how they are saying it, paying attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words.
• To generate a serious game-situation in which the rules are implicitly giving meaning to the gestures of
the teacher and his mime.
This set of materials for the language learning progress include:
A set of coloured wall charts containing words of a ‘functional’ vocabulary and some additional ones; CDs
and DVDs, as required; films drawings and pictures, and a set of worksheets Transparencies, texts, a Book
of Stories, worksheets, etc.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response method as one that combines information and skills
through the use of the kinaesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate

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 1 information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this produces a high level of motivation. The basic compo-
nents are:
They will be able to understand the spoken language before the treatment of the speaking skill. The imper-
ative form is the main structure to transfer or communicate information. It is not compulsory for the students
to speak but reading skill is less useful here. The speaking skill will be spontaneous and the students will start
speaking and understanding by themselves.

2. PRESENT DAY TRENDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TEACHING PROCESS AND COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES
Taking into account all the theories previously seen, the Common European Framework of Reference for
languages makes reference to an action oriented approach. In this way, a comprehensive, transparent and
coherent frame of reference for language learning, teaching and assessment must relate to a very general
view of language use and learning.
The approach adopted is an action-oriented one because it views users and learners of a language primarily
as ‘social agents’, i.e. members of society who have tasks to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a
specific context and within a particular field of action. While acts of speech occur within language activities,
these activities form part of a wider social context, which alone is able to give them a full meaning.
We speak of ‘tasks’ when the actions are performed by one or more individuals strategically using their own
specific competences to achieve a given result. According to the CEFR, the action-based approach also
takes into account the cognitive, emotional and volitional resources and the full range of abilities specific to
and applied by the individual as a social agent. Accordingly, any form of language use and learning could
be described as follows: Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed
by persons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in
particular communicative language competences. They draw on the competences at their disposal in various
contexts under various conditions and under various constraints to engage in language activities involving
language processes to produce and/or receive texts in relation to themes in specific domains, activating
those strategies which seem most appropriate for carrying out the tasks to be accomplished. The monitoring
of these actions by the participants leads to the reinforcement or modification of their competences. Here, it
is interesting to take into account the following concepts:
• Competences: the sum of knowledge, skills and characteristics that allow a person to perform actions.
• General competences: those competences which are not specific to language, but which are called
upon for actions of all kinds, including language activities.
• Communicative language competences: those competences which empower a person to act using
specifically linguistic means.
• Context: it refers to the constellation of events and situational factors (physical and others), both internal
and external to a person, in which acts of communication are embedded.
• Language activities: activities involving the exercise of one’s communicative language competence in a
specific domain in processing (receptively and/or productively) one or more texts in order to carry out a task.
• Language processes: they refer to the chain of events, neurological and physiological, involved in the
production and reception of speech and writing.
• Text: any sequence or discourse (spoken and/or written) related to a specific domain and which in the
course of carrying out a task becomes the occasion of a language activity, whether as a support or as
a goal, as product or process.

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 • Domain: it refers to the broad sectors of social life in which social agents operate. A higher order cat-
1
egorisation has been adopted here limiting these to major categories relevant to language learning/
teaching and use: the educational, occupational, public and personal domains.
• Strategy: organised, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by an individual to carry out a task
which he or she sets for himself or herself or with which he or she is confronted.
• Task: any purposeful action considered by an individual as necessary in order to achieve a given result
in the context of a problem to be solved, an obligation to fulfil or an objective to be achieved.
As we can deduce from all this, any act of language learning or teaching is in some way concerned with
each of these dimensions: strategies, tasks, texts, an individual’s general competences, communicative lan-
guage competence, language activities, language processes, contexts and domains. At the same time, it is
also possible in learning and teaching that the objective, and assessment, may be focused on a particular
component or sub-component (the other components then being considered as means to an end, or as
aspects to be given more emphasis at other times, or as not being relevant to the circumstances). Learners,
teachers, course designers, authors of teaching material and test designers are inevitably involved in this
process of focusing on a particular dimension, and deciding on the extent to which other dimensions should
be considered and ways of taking account of these. It is immediately clear, however, that although the often
stated aim of a teaching/learning programme is to develop communication skills, certain programmes strive
to achieve a qualitative or quantitative development of language activities in a foreign language, others
stress performance in a particular domain, yet others the development of certain general competences,
while others are primarily concerned with refining strategies. The claim that ‘everything is connected’ does
not mean that the objectives cannot be differentiated.
When teaching a foreign language, all the methodological trends will be led to a unique way: the commu-
nicative one.
However, when talking about communication in the classroom our role as teachers of foreign language
should be not only to introduce current trends, but also to use grammar, literature, phonetics methods.
One of the most outstanding methodological resources, nowadays, would be the usage of the internet where
our students will practice and widen their knowledge acquired. Here, our students will feel integrated and
will learn in a motivating way, avoiding barriers in the students with physical disabilities. It is a very useful tool
when our didactic objective is to achieve that our students learn by themselves.
To talk about didactic methodology implies to talk about the current educational system: LOE. If we take into
consideration this educational method, we will highlight one of the communicative competences introduced
by this system: Learning to learn, where our students will be trained to be autonomous in the learning of a
foreign language. We will also orientate our students in the selection of the adequate materials and methods
in order to reach our didactic objectives.
Not only is absolutely necessary the correct application of these strategies in the language learning tasks, but
also to teach them how to think, solve problems by themselves, memory techniques, organising, autonomy,
to identify structures-patterns, etc.
Following all the most remarkable linguists, we could highlight as well the following:

‘Communicative competence is the term which involves the ability of transmit-

HYMES
ting verbally in a successful way.’
‘Communicative competence is the successful usage of the following commu-
CANALE & SWAIN nicative strategies: grammatical, socio- linguistic, discourse and strategic.’ But
later the socio-cultural competence will be also incorporated with the LOGSE.

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 1 Language is an important tool in today society. As globalisation takes off, it will become even more important.
One key trend in the English teaching profession linked to the growing interest in global education is a re-
thinking of basic educational goals, the ‘why’ of English education.
Perhaps most people know the old joke about English teaching acronyms which says that, of all the different
types of English teaching:

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language

TESL Teaching Language as a Second Language
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TENOR Teaching English for No Obvious Reason

In other words, English has always been on the syllabus, so that is why we teach it. Because it is so common
to contact with the teaching of grammar, literature and communication or with the daily routine of class-
rooms, textbooks and tests.

3. APPLICATIONS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Nonetheless, the CEFRL recommends the Communicative Language Approach as the most natural and the
way we learn our mother tongue.
The Content and Language Integrated Learning approach (CLIL) consists of teaching other different subjects
through the foreign language. This way, students will gain knowledge of other teaching areas such as Arts,
History or Science while learning specific vocabulary and structures in the target language. Therefore, the
main principles which should be taken into account are the following:
Language is not only used as a learning tool, but as a way of communication among students.
Language contents being learned are determined by the subject matter.
According to this, it is said that the CLIL classroom should combine certain features in order to integrate
content through the foreign language. Scholars such as Coyle (1999) developed the 4Cs in a CLIL lesson:
1. Content: The subject matter the teacher is going to deal with in a lesson. For example, Maths problems,
Spanish history in the late 20th century or the water cycle in Science class.
2. Communication: Through the subject content, the students are using the foreign language as way to
communicate their ideas, doubts and opinions concerning the subject matter. Therefore, linguistic skills
such as writing and speaking are improved in the lesson.
3. Cognition: While understanding the content, students are developing thinking skills on their own in order
to solve problems and to link the target language to the subject matter.
4. Culture: Learners are exposed to other understandings and different cultures which allow them to devel-
op students’ cultural awareness of the world.
In a linguistic sense, the CLIL Approach combines the five linguistic skills through the teaching of the subject
matter. They are covered as follows:
• Listening: it is an input activity which is actively dealt with in classroom situations and it is considered
important in order to understand the content and language.
• Reading: using meaningful material such as texts, journalistic articles, textbooks or digital presentations.

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 • Speaking: it deals with fluency by means of the development of students’ interaction, the expression of
1
the content’s knowledge in a presentation, etc.
• Writing: it is developed by means of activities or tasks which integrate specific lexicon and content.
• Interacting: it refers both to oral (Speaking) and written (Writing) interaction.
To sum up, it is seen that the CLIL Approach supports language learning through teaching content. For in-
stance, all linguistic skill are integrated through a subject matter in which the teacher also develops the
content by means of oral and written tasks. Therefore, it could be said that the CLIL teacher seeks the devel-
opment of linguistic skills in the FL through the teaching-learning process of other types of content.
To conclude this section, only to state that some learning applications in the English language classroom are
totally necessary in the acquisition of a foreign language.
Communicative activities will be divided into three main steps of learning:

Pre-communicative activities
Structural practice: audio-drills, substitution drills. Quasi-communicative practice: it requires a context.
Functional practice: cue drills (provides the cue to modify the structure), situational drills with pictures.
Social context: in open dialogue, role-cards dialogue, cue dialogues.
Communicative activities
Functional communication practice: identification of pictures, descriptive texts, discovering differences, fo-
llowing directions, drawing pictures, to reconstruct story- sequences, problem-solving, taking decisions…
Social interaction practice: discussions, role-play, simulations…

Language is an integral part of learning, and plays a key role in classroom teaching, and learning – students’
confidence and proficiency as talkers and listeners are vital.
Often, speaking and listening is merely used as a tool to support and guide reading and writing, and is un-
likely to be actually taught and assessed.
Moreover, conversations can often be dominated by the teacher and students have limited opportunities for
productive speaking and listening. The aims for speaking and listening are linked to the objectives for reading
and writing in that they reinforce and extend students’ developing reading and writing skills.

4. CONCLUSION
Finding a solid answer to the problem of language acquisition is far from being over. Our current under-
standing of the developmental process is still immature. Investigators of Universal Grammar are still trying to
convince that language is a task too demanding to acquire without specific innate equipment, whereas the
constructivist researchers are fiercely arguing for the importance of linguistic input.
The biggest questions, however, are yet unanswered. What is the exact process that transforms the child’s
utterances into grammatically correct, adult-like speech? How much does the child need to be exposed to
language to achieve the adult-like state?
What can explain variation between languages and the language acquisition process in children acquiring
very different languages to English? The mystery of language acquisition is granted to keep psychologists
and linguists alike astonished decade after decade. Over the centuries, many changes have taken place
in language learning theory with the same specific goal, the search of a language teaching method or

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 1 approach that proves to be highly effective at all levels. In the preceding sections, we have examined the
main features of language learning proposals in terms of approach and theories from the most traditional
approaches to the present-day trends.
We have been concerned in this presentation about the approach to second language learning on adults
following language learning theories on children. One set of schools notes that first language acquisition is
the only universally successful model of language learning we have, and thus that second language peda-
gogy must necessarily model itself on first language acquisition. An opposed view observes that adults have
different brains, interests, timing constraints, and learning environments from those of children, and that adult
classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions
how first languages are learned by children.
Another key distinction turns on general theories on language learning, and language acquisition, pay-
ing special attention to those theories that have developed into present-day methods for second language
acquisition, such as the Natural Approach. The concept of interlanguage has been approached in order
to understand its current importance in the field of language teaching, and hence, the treatment of error
as an important part in the process of learning. Chomsky challenged the behaviourist model of language
learning with a cognitive approach. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar,
according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations, which
can be used over and over again. For Chomsky, behaviourism could not serve as a model of how humans
learn language, since much of that language is not imitated behaviour but is created a new from underly-
ing knowledge of abstract rules. In his own words, language is not a habit structure. Chomsky’s theory of
transformational grammar proposed that the fundamental properties of language derive from innate aspects
of the mind and from how humans process experience through language (Richards & Rodgers, 1992). His
theories brought about the mental properties on language use and language learning existing within the
learner’s competence, that is, his ability to generate sentences from abstract rules.
All in all, what is clear is that we, as teachers, may follow any of the different existing theories as long as we
study them in depth and use them in order to help our students achieve communication in the target language
(English, in our case). Doing so, we will all have achieved our goals.
To conclude, I will highlight the idea that learning English is not just learning a second language, but discov-
ering a practical usage of it. In this way, it is very useful for our students to be aware of the most important of
having a communicative competence in a foreign language, in this case, English language making use of all
the discursive aspects which can be suitable for our students.
In this study, we have attempted to take a fairly view of the distinction among the different methods in the ac-
quisition of a foreign language since we can see a connection between its learning and the communicative
process. Here, we will present our students the whole set of techniques in English language regarding to their
usage and correct application.
To teach them implies not only to widen their academic knowledge, but also to deal with linguistic, psycho-
logical, sociological and semantic fields in order to achieve a successful level of communicative competence.
According to the educational point of view, we must not forget that it will be present in the teaching-learning
process from the lowest levels in the first cycle of CSE since second of Bachillerato, where our students will
be completing their knowledge in a progressive way.
Therefore, this topic is of great importance in the current foreign language curriculum. Since a language
cannot be separated from its speakers, it is through the acquisition of communicative skills not only recep-
tive skills, but also productive skills that our students will be able to understand and communicate in English
achieving a proper accuracy of the language.

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 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
• Brown, A. L., Metz, K. E., & Campione, J. C., ‘Social interaction and individual understanding in a com-
munity of learners: The influence of Piaget and Vygotsky.’ In A. Tryphon & J. Vonèche (eds.), Piaget–Vy-
gotsky: The social genesis of thought, Psychology/Erlbaum (Uk) Taylor & Fr., Oxford, 1996
• Council of Europe, Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, as-
sessment, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, 2001
• Chomsky, N., On the Nature of Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976
• Lemetyinen, H., Language acquisition, 2012, Retrieved from [Link]/language.
html
• Lightbown, P. and Spada, N., How languages are learned, OUP, Oxford, 2006
• Mitchell, R. and Myles, F., (2004). Second Language Learning Theories, Hodder Arnold, London, 2004
• Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S., Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, 1999
• Sáenz Barrio et alii., Tecnología educativa, Edelvives, Zaragoza, 1991
• Vygotsky, L.S., Thought and Language, MIT, Massachusetts, 1978
• Vygotsky, L.S., ‘The genesis of higher mental functions.’ In J.V. Wertsch (ed.), The Concept of Activity in
Soviet Psychology, Sharpe, New York, 1981
• Wertsch, J. V., Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action, MA: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, 1991
• Bloomfield, Language, MsGraw-Hill, New York, 1933
• Corder, S., The significance of learners’ errors. International review of applied Linguistics, 1967
• Chomsky, N., Syntactic Structures. Mouton, The Hague, 1957
• Ellis, R., Understanding second language acquisition. O.U.P, Oxford, 1986
• Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V., A practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1969
• Organic Law of Education (LOE), 2/2006, of May 3rd (BOE number 106, May 4th 2006) and its de-
velopment for CSE.
• Organic Law on the improvement of the quality of Education (LOMCE), 8/2013, of December 9th,
(BOE number 295, December 10th 2013) and its development for CSE.
• Royal Decree 1105/2014, of 26th December, which establishes CSE and Post-secondary basic
curriculum.
• Order ECD/65/2015, January 21st, by which the relationships between competences, contents and
evaluation criteria of Primary Education, Secondary and Post-secondary Education are described.
Dictionaries:
Fowler, H.W., A dictionary of Modern English Usage, Oxford, 1927 Jones, D., An English Pronunciation
Dictionary, London, 1972.4
The Oxford English Dictionary [Link] [Link]

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 2
UNIT 2
TEORÍAS GENERALES SOBRE EL APRENDIZAJE Y LA ADQUISICIÓN
DE UNA LENGUA EXTRANJERA. EL CONCEPTO DE INTERLENGUA. EL
TRATAMIENTO DEL ERROR
0. Introduction
1. General theories on Second Language acquisition
2. Interlanguage concept
3. Error Analysis
4. Application in the English classroom
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography

0. INTRODUCTION
Topic number 2 deals with: ‘Teorías generales sobre el Aprendizaje y la Adquisición de una Lengua Extran-
jera. El concepto de Interlengua. El Tratamiento del Error’, being this an important part of the teaching-learn-
ing process of English.
To begin with, I would like to justify this topic in the English curriculum. The previous educative system mainly
focused on grammar, lexical and linguistic aspects as it was thought that the mastery of a language was
based on the degree of proficiency at a linguistic level. Hence, generally students were able to apply the
grammatical rules of the language but some of them had problems when using the language orally. Our soci-
ety is suffering significant and evident changes as globalisation and the impact of new technologies, directly
affecting students when we talk about education. These terms have become a priority and a crucial tool in
the learning process throughout life. In fact, the new organic law, LOMCE, in addition to all these features,
also takes into consideration the diversity in abilities; the work-organisation; helping towards its develop-
ment; to encourage positive attitudes towards the English language and culture; the students’ creativity and
so on. In short, the students must participate in their learning progress as LOMCE has established recently.
For this reason, the LOMCE, Organic Law for improvement of Quality (LOMCE) in Education 8/2013 of 9th of
December, has proposed a communicative approach to foreign languages. An approach which implies the
consideration of not only grammatical aspects, but also cultural, historical and literal characteristics of the
countries where the English language is spoken.
In this context, this topic number 2 has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it deals with communicative
and linguistic aspects, and it can be a tool to transmit to our students some of the basic and indispensable
competences, such as: competence on linguistic communication.
All topics about communicative concepts are interrelated and they will always be treated as a whole. For ex-
ample, to understand how the four main communicative skills are used in the reported speech and discourse
components in the speech act is essential information in order to achieve a good understanding of this topic
among others, are necessary.
I will divide this topic into three general parts: starting with a distinction among the diverse theories which
involve the acquisition of a second language. Secondly, I will continue with the interlanguage concept and
its contribution to the learning process. Thirdly, to take into account the error analysis and how to classify and

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 distinguish errors from mistakes. To conclude, another relevant aspect to be dealt with is the consolidation of
2
the most relevant characteristics related to both communicative abilities by our students and its application
in an English language classroom.
In this topic, we will study one of the most outstanding linguistic speech category in a communicative process:
the acquisition of a second language and its teaching- learning process. It plays an important role within the
learning of any language, and we will be able to communicate in a successful way as soon as we control
all the following steps and features.
Learning a language is a difficult and time consuming process. It is obviously not easy. There are new rules
of grammar and many exceptions. There are new sounds that are hard to make, endless lists of vocabulary
to commit to memory and so on. Despite this, people manage to learn the basics of their very first language
around the time they are two years old; no textbooks in sight.
The main objective of this topic is to provide an account of what is known about the different ways in which peo-
ple learn and acquire languages. In this way, we will use a historical background which will give us a frame-
work for general theories on learning from its origins to present-day trends, in an attempt to take into account
the major and minor approaches and theories in language learning and language acquisition. At this point,
key issues will be essential to review so as to clarify the nuances between some concepts such as acquisition
and learning, or terms such as mother, second, and foreign language within the theory of learning. The same
approach is going to be used to set the link between a language learning theory and the concept of interlan-
guage. Furthermore, the treatment of error will be described from its roots to the trends used nowadays within
a positive framework. According to the learner’s necessities, new contributions on a language learning theory
are offered through current applied linguistics journals. At the same time, for the main purpose of this topic, we
will offer an overview of the development of most influential theories on language learning.

Introduction
• Presentation
• Justification
• Laws
• Topics related

1. GENERAL THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

The acquisition of a second language is focused on the studies of diverse theories dealing with linguistic,
psychological, sociologic, as well as neurolinguistic field.

Linguistic Field
Bloomfield
As language consists of conditioned habits, so learning a language consists of the acquisition of a new set
of habits.

Psycholinguistics
Corder’s theory
He introduces the error analysis and the concept of transitional competences: L2 learner’s competence
changes when it is added more knowledge to his knowledge system.

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 2 Selinker’s theory
He introduces the concept of interlanguage in order to define the notion of stages in language learning. It is
the set of rules acquired by any particular learner at any particular point of learning.

Sociolinguistics
Labov’s theory
Language can vary systematically depending on the social context and the speakers

Neurolinguistics
Two importance elements involve this field:
• The hemisphere dominance: right (informal language)//left hemisphere formal learning as school
learning)
• Age hypothesis: it is suggested the age between 9 to 12 in the learning of a second language. It is sup-
posed that after this age language learning will be very difficult.
Many years ago, Latin was the dominant language in education, commerce, religion and law. Later, English
became the international language.
The importance of learning a foreign language and to know how children learn languages will be taken as
a model.
Among many outstanding specialists, Gouin was a Frenchman who focused on the observation of children
in speaking and built a methodology around the topic.
Many attempts based on the child’s use of the language but until the end of 19th century, teachers and lin-
guists were capable of showing interest.
Nowadays, when trying to explain the necessity of learning a language, the following theories appeared:

BEHAVIOURISM Emphasises the role of the environment in the process of language

learning.
MENTALIST Emphasises the learners’ innate characteristics from the cognitive and
psychological field.
NATIVE SPEAKER
For students who want to get a new language.
INTERACTION

Chomsky considered the mental process very essential in the language teaching process. His theory carried
out the eclecticism in teaching. In the 1960s/1970s, Jean Piaget among others developed a great progress
in cognitive science and educational psychology, and later this implied the new natural and communicative
approaches: once Chomsky’s Generativism was established, new trends focused on humanistic opinions and
social interaction devoted the Natural (USA) and Communicative (England) approaches.
Finally, nowadays, all the four communicative skills will perform the communicative interaction.
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language learning has been discussed and studied by many, being approached in various ways along
history. This topic, together with other issues that were dealt with by philosophers in Ancient Greece, or in the
16th century in France are still today quite relevant.

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 We are now going to present a brief summary of the different theories and studies that have been proposed
2
on the subject along history.
1. Plato’s theory.
Western philosophy has its origin in Ancient Greece, and from this period, it is necessary to refer to the work
of Plato who, in his writings, laid out some problems that are crucial to modern linguistic discourse.
When dealing with the dichotomy nature versus nurture, Plato believed that knowledge was innate, so he
tended to support nature. Plato’s Problem, as we know it nowadays, was summarised by Bertrand Russell in
the following way: ‘How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal
and limited, are, nevertheless, able to know as much as they do know?’ The idea of an innate knowledge that
starts from the very beginning came to sort out this problem, so he understood language as something innate.
2. Cartesian Linguistics
In the early 17th century, it was Descartes who tackled linguistic philosophy. His consideration of language
acquisition as something very simple coming from an easy process lead him not to dedicate too much atten-
tion to the issue. In the same line as Plato, he considered that language was something innate that came to
show the rationality of human beings.
At the time when Descartes lived, rationalism was blooming, and in spite of his personal view of language,
this movement was crucial for linguists. As a matter of fact - as Chomsky states - it was this movement the one
that highlighted these elements:
• Creativity: as a necessary element in the use of language every day.
• The existence of universal principles: that supported every language.
3. Tabula rasa
John Locke, considered the Father of Liberalism, lived mainly in the second half of the 17th century. Up until
then, as we have seen, the main foundations of knowledge were considered to be innate to human beings.
However, during the Enlightenment, which started at this time, this was not only questioned, but contradicted.
John Locke based his theory on the idea of tabula rasa, or ‘blank slate’. According to him, knowledge did
not have its origin in nature, and thus was not innate. Instead, it came from outside, and was reached through
exposure to sensory experiences (or sensory input). Furthermore, he refuted the idea of an innate logic ex-
isting behind language.
4. Behaviourism
In the 20th century, B.F. Skinner developed further some of Locke’s ideas about sensory input. He did it from
the perspective of behaviourism, and more specifically from the radical behaviourism that he put forward.
According to him, human beings do not come along with an innate programming in order to learn a lan-
guage. Instead, all behaviour is only a response to external stimuli.
He went further into our field, connecting behaviourism and language learning for the first time in such depth.
He suggested the term ‘operant conditioning’ when referring to the fact that language learning was the result
of a process in which there must be reinforcement as well as punishment, and therefore, people are condi-
tioned into saying what is correct. According to this, when we need something and we request it properly, our
behaviour is reinforced, as we will obtain what was requested. A process of conditioning is thus necessary
in order to succeed in language learning. And in this process, the idea of feedback is absolutely necessary,
as we need to know whether the use we make of language is or not correct by either being rewarded in the
first case, or being made aware of our mistake in the other.

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 2 5. Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky, contemporary with Skinner, refuted his theory on language learning. According to Chom-
sky, if learning a language was the result of being exposed to sensory input, it would be impossible for a
child to get the necessary tools to process an infinite number of sentences. On the other hand, he presented
his theory of Universal Grammar. According to it, there is an innate mechanism that origins language acqui-
sition, and there are also universal elements that are common in the way all languages are structured.
Chomsky looked back at Plato’s problem to refute Skinner’s theory. In his opinion, there is no other way to
explain why children learn their mother tongue so quickly, being able to understand and create statements
that they have never heard before.
Contrary to the postulates of Behaviourism, Chomsky (1976) developed the concept of Universal Grammar
in which human beings are equipped with the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This biological faculty is
responsible for the development of the language in its initial stages. According to this, learners of a language
do not just repeat mechanically the structures of the language that they are exposed to, but they also process
these structures.
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar has also been the subject to criticism in its 50 years of history. The main
criticism is related to the appropriation of the theory in the case of second language acquisition, since it is
difficult to determine its importance in this case. Critics say that it may have little to do with learning a second
language, even if it is how we learn a first language. Also, it has been criticised for being too complex for
the average language learner.
In short, Chomsky’s theory is very relevant for linguistics, but not so for language acquisition. It offers little
help for learning a second language.
Over the past half century or so, a number of other language learning theories have appeared to try to solve
the problems in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in the gaps in more specific areas of language learning.
6. Acculturation Model
John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new language
while being completely immersed in that language.
This theory focuses on social and psychological aspects that influence language learning, rather than deal-
ing with the process of language learning as we normally think of it.
There are several factors that influence how we acquire a target language. For instance, an immigrant is more
likely to acquire their new target language if their language and the target language are socially equal, if
the group of immigrants is small and not cohesive and if there is a higher degree of similarity between the
immigrant’s culture and that of their new area of residence.
The idea behind this is simple. Language learning is not a subject like Physics or Maths, which can be learnt
exclusively from a book. In language acquisition, the more we do to connect with the culture on the other end
of our second language, the faster and easier it will be for us to learn that language.
7. Monitor Model
Stephen Krashen developed the Monitor Model which mainly focuses on second foreign language acquisi-
tion through several hypotheses. The main postulates of this model are the following:
• Language acquisition is considered a subconscious process which stems from informal, natural and
natural communication.
• The process of learning a language is conscious and can be modified through error correction in a
formal setting.

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 • Individuals acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order.
2
• Language acquisition is possible by means of comprehensible input. That is to say, when learners hear
or read things that are beyond their current level of language.
• Language can be monitored with the main aim of using communication correctly and express meaning.
For example, this could be seen when teachers correct grammatical mistakes from their students.
Despite the fact that Krashen’s Monitor Model is quite popular among scholars, some criticism and contra-
diction towards certain aspects of this theory have appeared. Especially, when referring to the way in which
grammar structures are acquired.
All in all, this theory implies that second language learning should aim at increasing the amount of input that
the learner is exposed to, at the same time as proper correction of errors is done.
8. Interactionism
The Interactionist theory believes that the process of language maturation is due to the exchange between
the situational environment of learners of the second language and their human faculties. Likewise, this theory
emphasises the modification in language which is made by native or more efficient speakers of the L2 when
communicating with L2 learners in order to make interaction understandable and therefore fostering their
language learning process.
According to this theory, there are no cases in which L2 learning can be possible without native speakers
making the necessary adjustments in order to help L2 learners understand and make progress in their learning
process of the language. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to affirm that modified interactions alter L2 learning.
9. Social constructionism
Based on the postulates of Interactionism, social constructionism has also its basis on Vygotsky’s sociocultural
perspective on learning. This sociocultural approach in education reflects that ‘action is mediated and that it
cannot be separated from the milieu in which it is carried out’ (Wertsch, 1991). Additionally, the sociocultural
approach is based on two main themes:
a) Individual development: it is originated in social sources in which higher mental functioning is included.
b) Human action: it is mediated by tools and signs on a social and individual plan.
Individual development follows the Vygotskian theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which, ac-
cording to Brown, Metz and Campione (1996), can be defined as ‘the distance between the actual develop-
ment levels as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as deter-
mined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers’. Therefore,
it is said that Vygotsky considers language acquisition and learning as a result of the interactions that learners
do with other interlocutors such as teachers or friends who have certain fluency in the foreign language.
On the other hand, human action is related to the concept of semiotic mediation developed by Vygotsky
which claims that ‘language; various systems of counting; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol systems;
works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps and mechanical drawings; all sorts of conventional signs
and so on are all important in mediating social and individual functioning, and connecting the social and the
individual’ (Vygotsky, 1981, p.137). Conversely, this concept focuses on the knowledge which is developed
by means of ‘psychological tools’ instead of being directly incorporated. In other words, by means of inter-
active communication between individuals.
To define this concept implies a natural process based on the learning of a different language, not mother
tongue, sometimes in an individual and sometimes led by a tutor/teacher. It consists of the treatment of many
linguistic applications: phonology, lexis, grammar, pragmatics and morphosyntax.

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 2 Linked to many attempts of acquiring a second language, six new theories take place:

Acculturation Process of becoming adapted to a new culture: to be conscious of the degree

model of acquisition of the second language.

Accommodation Use of language in multilingual societies. They are as subgroup-uses of

model language.

Halliday, 1975. It is influenced by Hymes’s theory. How a child acquires lan-

Discourse model guage and develops the formal linguistic devices for his/her interpersonal
uses.

It is based on five main hypothesis:

1. Two terms are defined as subconscious and conscious study of language.
2. The grammatical structures possess an order.
Monitor model 3. Monitor = Device used by the learners to edit their language performance.
4. The input hypothesis = the learners understand their current level of
competence.
5. The affective filter hypothesis = motivation, self-confidence, factors
which will affect the progress in the acquisition of a language.

To take into account two different items: the process of language use and
Variable compe- the product. Here, the process of language will depend on the rules and
tence model procedures; that means, the linguistic knowledge and the ability to use this
knowledge.

There exists a Universal Grammar that is linked to the acquisition of the first
Universal
language: Chomsky’s Universal Grammar response – the way children are
hypothesis
capable of learning their mother tongue-.

D. Krashen, in 1982, introduced a new theory based on five hypotheses:

• The acquisition/learning hypothesis: for him, there exist two different ways of acquisition of a language:
one conscious learning and the other subconscious acquisition. Here the error correction is not important.
• The monitor hypothesis: to be effective the three following elements must be achieved:
1. The learners must know the rules.
2. The error correction is used by the learner.
3. The concept of time is essential in order to operate it.
• The natural-order hypothesis: when studying morphemes, there exist a natural order of acquisition: ‘-ing’
present continuous, plural form ‘–s’, the/a…
• The input hypothesis: when learners are acquiring a second language, sometimes messages could be
understood by context and not in isolation.
• The affective filter hypothesis: based on the learner’s attitudes and emotions. If in the acquisition of a sec-
ond language adults do not become as competent as children in the acquisition of their first language,
it will be due to some affective difficulty.

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 Considering all these varied linguistic methods, the term interlanguage was established in the teaching of a
2
second language closely related to interlanguage is the origin of the errors.

2. INTERLANGUAGE CONCEPT
In 1972, Selinker was the precursor of this concept and this involves the systematic knowledge of a second
language, how a learner builds up knowledge of a language.
As we have already stated before, if language was a set of habits, then learning a new language was learn-
ing a new set of habits. Example:
A baseball player learning cricket, a skater learning to ski.
Generally speaking, Interlanguage means the learner’s system at a single point in time.
It is also considered as a set of styles, which depend on the context of use. Learners’ utterances can vary at
least in two ways:

Learners’ phonological and syntactical structures may differ because of the linguistic context.

The production of such structures may vary due to the task used for eliciting data from learners, and
it can be added a sociolinguistic dimension.

Another outstanding figure in the development of this term is Noam Chomsky with his Universal Grammar,
which consists of a set of innate linguistic principles which help to control the formation of different utterances.
Regarding Selinker’s theory three basic concepts should be distinguished:

Dynamic: is always
changing Systematic: a rule
Permeable: rules are
system to archive the
not fixed but open to
learner's performan-
amendment
ce objectives

INTERLANGUANGE

Selinker makes a distinction between teaching and learning situations. Teaching implies that someone ap-
plies some type of method to help a learner achieve learning.
Another interesting point in the analysis of interlanguage theory is the role of L1. We can see that in spite of
its regularity, interlanguage varies. Looking at the L1 means examining between-subject variability and how
the L1 influences the interlanguage. Studies involving children with L1’s belonging to different linguistic fam-

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 2 ilies have brought evidence that all the children acquired the English interrogative in the same way, but that
it took longer time for one of them because of a lack of correspondence between L1 and L2 structures. Thus,
although the result –product– is the same, differences in L1 imply differences of process.

3. ERROR ANALYSIS
Error analysis is a field that has been widely investigated over the past 40 years. Why learners make errors
is both an interesting and an important issue.
Concerning the task of writing in the classroom, it can be of interest to name Linnarud – 1993 – who has
claimed that it can sometimes be easier for a learner to write in a second language than in his/her language.
Since writing is a good way to improve in a language, it should be used as a training method and not as a
testing one, which is not exactly attractive.
In 1988, Ellis has investigated SLA and noticed that it is a complex process with many interrelated factors
involved. Hence, different learners in different situations acquire an L2 in different ways. Concerning errors,
he points out that they are an important source of information about SLA, since they are the evidence that L2
rules are not just simply memorised and then reproduced.
The problem is that errors are not systematic, they differ according to learners and contexts. However, it is
possible to predict how learners will perform in specific situations. There are both situational contexts (errors
occur when the learner is not given enough time to monitor his output carefully) and linguistic contexts (errors
occur in one type of sentence but not in another).
Nevertheless, five general factors have been found:

Age
Aptitude/intelligence
Cognitive style
Motivation/needs
Personality

In 1974, Corder brings up the importance of interference in the learning of an L2.

Inevitably, we learn our mother tongue, and we always succeed in this task because of some kind of innate
internal mechanism, but things are different for SLA. A problem is tied to motivation. Another one is that the
age of 12 seems to be the absolute limit to acquire any language at all.
Anyhow, it has been found that L2 learners use similar strategies that children use with the L1.
In 1981, Corder suggests that L1 and L2 learners make errors in the acquisition of a Foreign Language. He
considered it as a strategy. On the contrary, other opinions state that L2 errors are the result of the distinction
between the learner’s First language and the target language.
In the early stages of the language learning, children only had the grammar schools where they were taught
Latin grammar as their first language and errors were solved by using punishment.
However, in the 1970s, the objectives of the Error Analysis were considered as pedagogic, giving informa-
tion and remedial lessons.
There exist both systematic errors (errors of competence) and non-systematic errors (errors of performance), and
the first are called just errors and the second mistakes. Mistakes have no significance in the learning process.

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 Errors are, in fact, a learning strategy. By producing errors, learners test alternative hypothesis. Teachers
2
have to adapt themselves to the learners’ needs, and not the contrary.
Furthermore, the process of Fossilisation is found when language acquisition is finished at a point long before
the achievement of TL; that means, the continuous usage of errors by the learner.
According to Krashen (1983), errors are no seen as unwanted forms but as an active learner’s contribution to
second language acquisition. This is one of the LOE principles giving our students an active role on language
learning process.
The error theory includes a collection of examples of learner language, identification of errors, their descrip-
tion and classification, and to evaluate them in order to establish teaching decisions.
The fact that Krashen was against grammar, based methods has proved to have a positive effect in the field
of language teaching, because he has made teachers and learners aware that there is more to a language
than knowledge of its grammar.
He distinguishes between acquisition and learning:
• The first was a natural process that caused grammars to grow in the same way as they did with children
acquiring their L1.
• The second was a more artificial, technical kind of learning which could only be used in limited ways
and which has absolutely no effect on the natural course of development. The effects of conscious learn-
ing would never be reflected in the learner’s spontaneous behaviour.
When dealing with language teaching methodology, some changes were shown. We must not forget now
audiolingualism or grammar-translation was criticised because of the usage of more communicative ap-
proaches. This implied the emphasis on an interaction on the part of the students called the interlanguage
development and given special importance to the social context.
Another current concern on the learning and acquisition of languages is how bilingualism on children cogni-
tive development are affected by childhood. Definitely, there is a remarkable interest in the curriculum design
and language teaching approaches within the classroom context.

4. APPLICATIONS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

To conclude this section, only to state that some learning applications in the English language classroom are
totally necessary in the error analysis correction:
When dealing with ORAL SKILL:

Procedures Finger correction, asking, mime, flashcards, repetition…

Who corrects Students’ correction Teacher’s correction

When dealing with WRITTEN SKILL:

Using a code, reference grammar textbooks, to list the most common and important
Procedures
errors after correcting them in class, using games…
How we must In groups, self-correction, pairs, teacher
correct them

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 2 Language is an integral part of learning, and plays a key role in classroom teaching and learning – students’
confidence and proficiency as talkers and listeners are vital.
Often, speaking and listening is merely used as a tool to support and guide reading and writing, and is un-
likely to be actually taught and assessed.
Moreover, conversations can often be dominated by the teacher, and students have limited opportunities for
productive speaking and listening. The aims for speaking and listening are linked to the objectives for reading
and writing in that they reinforce and extend students’ developing reading and writing skills.

5. CONCLUSION
Finding a solid answer to the problem of language acquisition is far from being over. Our current under-
standing of the developmental process is still immature. Investigators of Universal Grammar are still trying to
convince that language is a task too demanding to acquire without specific innate equipment, whereas the
constructivist researchers are fiercely arguing for the importance of linguistic input.
The biggest questions, however, are yet unanswered. What is the exact process that transforms the child’s
utterances into grammatically correct, adult-like speech? How much does the child need to be exposed to
language to achieve the adult-like state?
What can explain variation between languages and the language acquisition process in children acquiring
very different languages to English? The mystery of language acquisition is granted to keep psychologists
and linguists alike astonished decade after decade. Over the centuries, many changes have taken place
in language learning theory with the same specific goal, the search of a language teaching method or
approach that proves to be highly effective at all levels. In the preceding sections, we have examined the
main features of language learning proposals in terms of approach and theories from the most traditional
approaches to the present-day trends.
We have been concerned in this presentation about the approach to second language learning on adults
following language learning theories on children. One set of schools notes that first language acquisition is
the only universally successful model of language learning we have, and thus that second language peda-
gogy must necessarily model itself on first language acquisition. An opposed view observes that adults have
different brains, interests, timing constraints, and learning environments from those of children, and that adult
classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions
how first languages are learned by children.
Another key distinction turns on general theories on language learning, and language acquisition, pay-
ing special attention to those theories that have developed into present-day methods for second language
acquisition, such as the Natural Approach. The concept of interlanguage has been approached in order
to understand its current importance in the field of language teaching, and hence, the treatment of error
as an important part in the process of learning. Chomsky challenged the behaviourist model of language
learning with a cognitive approach. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar,
according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules, but limited set of transformations which
can be used over and over again. For Chomsky, behaviourism could not serve as a model of how humans
learn language, since much of that language is not imitated behaviour but is created a new from underly-
ing knowledge of abstract rules. In his own words, language is not a habit structure. Chomsky’s theory of
transformational grammar proposed that the fundamental properties of language derive from innate aspects
of the mind and from how humans process experience through language (Richards & Rodgers, 1992). His
theories brought about the mental properties on language use and language learning existing within the
learner’s competence, that is, his ability to generate sentences from abstract rules.

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 All in all, what is clear is that we, as teachers, may follow any of the different existing theories as long as we
2
study them in depth and use them in order to help our students achieve communication in the target language
(English, in our case). Doing so, we will all have achieved our goals.
To conclude, I will highlight the idea that learning English is not just learning a second language, but discov-
ering a practical usage of it. In this way, it is very useful for our students to be aware of the most important of
having a communicative competence in a foreign language, in this case, English language making use of all
the discursive aspects which can be suitable for our students.
In this study, we have attempted to take a fairly view of the distinction among the different theories in the ac-
quisition of a foreign language since we can see a connection between its learning and the communicative
process. Here, we will present our students the whole set of techniques in English language regarding to their
usage and correct application.
To teach them implies not only to widen their academic knowledge, but also to deal with linguistic, psycho-
logical, sociological and semantic fields in order to achieve a successful level of communicative competence.
According to the educational point of view, we must not forget that it will be present in the teaching-learning
process from the lowest levels in the first cycle of CSE since second of Bachillerato, where our students will
be completing their knowledge in a progressive way.
Therefore, this topic is of great importance in the current foreign language curriculum. Since a language
cannot be separated from its speakers, it is through the acquisition of communicative skills not only recep-
tive skills, but also productive skills that our students will be able to understand and communicate in English
achieving a proper accuracy of the language.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Brown, A. L., Metz, K. E., & Campione, J. C., ‘Social interaction and individual understanding in a com-
munity of learners: The influence of Piaget and Vygotsky.’ In A. Tryphon & J. Vonèche (eds.), Piaget–Vy-
gotsky: The social genesis of thought, Psychology/Erlbaum (Uk) Taylor & Fr., Oxford, 1996
• Council of Europe, Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, as-
sessment, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, 2001
• Chomsky, N., On the Nature of Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976
• Lemetyinen, H., Language acquisition, 2012, Retrieved from [Link]/[Link]
• Lightbown, P. and Spada, N., How languages are learned, OUP, Oxford, 2006
• Mitchell, R. and Myles, F., (2004). Second Language Learning Theories, Hodder Arnold, London, 2004
• Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S., Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, 1999
• Sáenz Barrio et alii., Tecnología educativa, Edelvives, Zaragoza, 1991
• Vygotsky, L.S., Thought and Language, MIT, Massachusetts, 1978
• Vygotsky, L.S., ‘The genesis of higher mental functions.’ In J.V. Wertsch (ed.), The Concept of Activity in
Soviet Psychology, Sharpe, New York, 1981
• Wertsch, J. V., Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action, MA: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, 1991
• Bloomfield, Language, MsGraw-Hill, New York, 1933
• Corder, S., The significance of learners’ errors. International review of applied Linguistics, 1967
• Chomsky, N., Syntactic Structures. Mouton, The Hague, 1957

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 2 • Ellis, R., Understanding second language acquisition. O.U.P, Oxford, 1986
• Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V., A practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1969
• Organic Law of Education (LOE), 2/2006, of May 3rd (BOE number 106, May 4th 2006) and its de-
velopment for CSE.
• Organic Law on the improvement of the quality of Education (LOMCE), 8/2013, of December 9th, (BOE
number 295, December 10th 2013) and its development for CSE.
• Royal Decree 1105/2014, of 26th December, which establishes CSE and Post-secondary basic curriculum.
• Order ECD/65/2015, January 21st, by which the relationships between competences, contents and
evaluation criteria of Primary Education, Secondary and Post-secondary Education are described.
Dictionaries:
Fowler, H.W., A dictionary of Modern English Usage, Oxford, 1927
Jones, D., An English Pronunciation Dictionary, London, 1972.4
The Oxford English Dictionary
[Link]
[Link]

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