Untitled
Untitled
TESIS DOCTORAL
Presentada por:
Lina Maria Peña Saldarriaga
Director:
Dr. José Ángel Pérez Álvarez
Codirectora:
Dra. Juana Fernández López
UNIVERSIDAD MIGUEL HERNÁNDEZ DE ELCHE
TESIS DOCTORAL
Presentada por:
Lina Maria Peña Saldarriaga
Director:
Dr. José Ángel Pérez Álvarez
Codirectora:
Dra. Juana Fernández López
CARACTERIZACIÓN Y USO DE COPRODUCTOS DE LA INDUSTRIA AVÍCOLA
COMO INGREDIENTES POTENCIALMENTE FUNCIONALES EN LA
PRODUCCIÓN DE PRODUCTOS CÁRNICOS MÁS SALUDABLES
Orihuela, 2020
CARACTERIZACIÓN Y USO DE COPRODUCTOS DE LA INDUSTRIA AVÍCOLA
COMO INGREDIENTES POTENCIALMENTE FUNCIONALES EN LA
PRODUCCIÓN DE PRODUCTOS CÁRNICOS MÁS SALUDABLES
Revista: Foods
doi: [Link]
Editorial: MDPI (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2304-815
Ambito de la publicacion: Food Science & Technology
Revista: Foods
doi : [Link]
Editorial: MDPI (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2304-815
Ambito de la publicacion: Food Science and Technology
CERTIFICAN:
CERTIFICA:
Y para que conste a los efectos oportunos firmo el presente certificado en Orihuela
a veintiseis de septiembre de dos mil veinte.
Juana Fernández López y José Ángel Pérez Alvarez, por haberme brindado la
oportunidad de recurrir a su experiencia y conocimiento científico, contar con ellos
como guías y por su paciencia en todo el desarrollo de este proyecto.
ESTRUCTURA DE LA TESIS 23
RESUMEN 25
ABSTRACT 29
1. INTRODUCCCIÓN 33
1.1. El sector avícola colombiano 33
1.2. Subproductos del sacrificio del pollo 35
1.3. La grasa de pollo 38
1.4. Estrategia en la cadena de valor de los alimentos funcionales 42
y el aprovechamiento de los subproductos
1.5. Productos cárnicos 45
2. OBJETIVOS 49
2.1. Objetivo general 49
2.2. Objetivos técnicos específicos 49
3. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS 51
3.1. Diseño experimental en granja 51
3.1.1. Animales y dietas 51
3.1.2. Parámetros de productividad 52
3.2. Sacrificio y toma de muestras 52
3.3. Determinación del perfil lipídico de los subproductos grasos 53
de pollo
3.4. Evaluación de las propiedades colorimétricas de los 54
subproductos grasos del pollo
3.5. Proceso de elaboración del salchichón de pollo 55
3.6. Composición proximal del producto cárnico 57
3.7. Evaluación de los parámetros de color del producto cárnico 57
3.8. Análisis del perfil de textura del producto cárnico 57
3.9. Análisis microbiológico del producto cárnico 58
3.10. Evaluación sensorial del producto cárnico 59
3.11. Análisis estadístico 59
4. RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN 61
4.1. Parámetros productivos de los pollos “Parrilleros” 61
4.2. Perfil lipídico de las dietas y de los subproductos grasos 61
4.3. Propiedades de color de los subproductos grasos 66
4.4. Caracterización del producto cárnico 70
4.4.1. Composición proximal 70
4.4.2. Propiedades de color 71
4.4.3. Propiedades de textura 74
4.4.4. Análisis microbiológico 74
4.4.5. Evaluación sensorial 75
5. CONCLUSIONES 77
5. CONCLUSIONS 79
6. REFERENCIAS 81
ANEXO 1. PUBLICACIONES 94
Lista de tablas
La estructura de esta Tesis consta de: una introducción en el capítulo uno, en la que
se incluye una revisión bibliográfica de la industria avícola colombiana, la
caracterización de la grasa, sus criterios nutricionales y tecnológicos y su uso en la
elaboración de productos cárnicos procesados; en el capítulo dos se describen los
objetivos (general y específicos) planteados para el desarrollo de esta tesis doctoral;
se presenta un compendio de los materiales y métodos empleados en esta
investigación en el capítulo tercero; en el capítulo cuarto se recogen los principales
resultados obtenidos y la discusión de los mismos; en el capítulo quinto se
presentan las conclusiones de todos los estudios que forman parte de la presente
tesis; el capítulo sexto recopila todas las fuentes bibliográficas consultadas y por
último, el capítulo séptimo correponde al anexo donde se adjuntan las publicaciones
y otra información relevante asociada al desarrollo de esta Tesis.
23
La primera publicación lleva por título “Quality of chicken fat by-products: lipid profile
and colour properties” y ha sido publicada en la revista Foods, en donde se
caracteriza la grasa abdominal, por medio de su perfil lipídico, procedente de tres
granjas, que a pesar de factores asociados a sus diferentes ubicaciones geográficas
y climáticas, fueron alimentadas con dietas similares, presentaron un
comportamiento homogéneo, que hace viable esta aplicacion por la disponibilidad
del producto. Los ácidos grasos predominantes fueron los ácidos oleico, palmítico y
linoleico, mostrando una mayor cantidad de ácidos grasos insaturados que los
registrados para las fuentes tradicionales de grasa utilizadas para fabricar productos
cárnicos.
24
RESUMEN
Cada día los colombianos consumen más huevo y más carne de pollo, convirtiendo
estas dos proteínas en la base fundamental de su dieta. Así lo demuestran las cifras
de la Federación Nacional de Avicultores de Colombia, que indican que para 2019
el sector avícola tuvo un crecimiento del 4% con respecto a 2018. Para 2019 se
alcanzó la cifra récord de 1.693.178 toneladas. El consumo per cápita de pollo fue
de 36,47 kilogramos en 2019 y se espera que en 2020 esta cifra siga aumentando.
25
Esta investigación evalúa la influencia de la dieta en el perfil lipídico de la grasa
abdominal y de molleja de pollos "parrilleros" de gran consumo en Colombia. Todo
ello para generar una estrategia de valor en la cadena agroindustrial avícola
nacional, para la aplicación de la grasa de pollo como ingrediente funcional en
formulaciones de embutidos cárnicos que permitan potenciar su consumo, logrando
así la obtención de productos que aporten un alto valor nutricional. Los trabajos se
realizaron de acuerdo a la normativa colombiana de bienestar animal, utilizando
procedimientos industriales de sacrificio, manejo de canales y obtención de
vísceras, todo ello siguiendo las normas técnicas e higiénicas estipuladas en las
normativas sanitarias colombianas que regulan el sacrificio de aves.
26
diferencias significativas en luminosidad (L*), coordenada rojo/verde (a*) y
amarillo/azul (b*) respecto a los embutidos control. Estas diferencias también se
detectaron mediante análisis sensorial. Los panelistas detectaron diferencias entre
ambos embutidos en otros atributos importantes como olor / olor y sabor a carne.
Los embutidos con 40% de grasa mostraron diferencias de color, respecto a las
salchichas control, solo para la coordenada b*, pero estas diferencias no se
apreciaron sensorialmente.
27
28
ABSTRACT
Every day Colombians consume more eggs and more chicken meat, making these
two proteins the fundamental basis of their diet. This is shown by the figures from
the National Federation of Poultry Farmers of Colombia, which indicate that for 2019
the poultry sector had a growth of 4% compared to 2018. For 2019 the record figure
of 1,693,178 tons was reached. Per capita chicken consumption was 36.47
kilograms in 2019 and this figure is expected to continue increasing in 2020.
The by-products generated in the slaughter processes in the poultry industry are
composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, water, salts, minerals, vitamins, etc., of
high biological value and interesting techno-properties for the food industry in
general and industry. meat especially. As the poultry industry in Colombia expands,
the amount of by-products / co-products generated increases and it is necessary to
think about new and innovative waste processing systems that do not affect the
environment, resulting in the development of new technologies and processes to
handle poultry by-products that preserve water quality and promote a sustainable
environment considering both animal welfare, hygiene and food safety as well as the
social environment and well-being of the Colombian population.
29
This research assesses the influence of diet on the lipid profile of abdominal fat and
gizzard fat in "parrilleros" chickens for mass consumption in Colombia. All this to
generate a value strategy in the national poultry agroindustrial chain, for the
application of chicken fat as a functional ingredient in formulations of meat sausages
that allow to enhance their consumption, thus achieving the obtaining of products
that provide high nutritional value. The work was carried out in accordance with
Colombian animal welfare regulations, using industrial procedures for slaughter,
carcass management and viscera obtaining, all following the technical and hygienic
standards stipulated in the Colombian sanitary regulations that regulate the
slaughter of birds.
The bromatological and fatty acid composition analyses of the fatty by-products of
the chicken, as well as of the processed product, were carried out following the
guidelines of the Colombian technical standards. The physico-chemical parameters
of the fatty by-products of the chicken and sausages were carried out following the
protocols of internationally accepted standards. Microbiological and sensory
analyses of the products produced were carried out following the guidelines of the
Colombian technical standards
For the lipid profile of the fatty by-products of chicken, no statistical differences were
found between farms despite the factors associated with the ten different
geographical locations, the birds were always fed with a similar diet
30
sausages. These differences were also detected by sensory analysis. The panelists
detected differences between both sausages in other important attributes such as
smell / smell and taste of meat. Sausages with 40% fat showed color differences,
compared to the control sausages, only for the b* coordinate, but these differences
were not detected sensorially.
In view of these results, chicken fat by-products could be used as a fatty ingredient
in sausage formulations to partially or totally replace the solid fat sources traditionally
used for their higher concentrations of saturated fatty acids. The results of this study
show that fatty by-products from chicken could be used as substitutes for chicken
skin in chicken emulsion type sausages
31
32
1. INTRODUCCIÓN
33
Tabla 1. Principales países latinoamericanos productores de carne de ave.
34
De acuerdo con la Federación Nacional de Avicultores (FENAVI), el consumo per
cápita de pollo (kg/año) ha tenido un incremento importante pasando de 14 kg en el
año 2000 a 36,47 kg en el año 2019, esta tendencia muestra la importancia de esta
industria en Colombia y su constante crecimiento (FENAVI, 2020). Por otra parte,
según el Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar (ICBF), el pollo juega un papel
muy importante en la alimentación de los colombianos, ya que actualmente existe
una amplia demanda por el consumo de este producto por su fuente importante de
proteínas, grasas, minerales y vitaminas, además por su precio más económico
respecto de la carne de bovino (Angarita, 2018).
35
alimentación humana, tras un adecuado procesamiento adaptado a las
características particulares de cada uno de ellos, contribuyendo al desarrollo de una
industria alimentaria sostenible e incrementando el valor asociado a la producción
avícola. Con todo ello, este aprovechamiento de los subproductos no sería solo un
tema nutricional, sino económico y de desarrollo sostenible, prioritario, en la cadena
de valor en la industria alimentaria.
Sin embargo, esta distribución del peso que cada uno de los distintos subproductos
representa sobre el peso del animal vivo (Tabla 2) puede variar dependiendo de
muchos factores como sexo, edad, raza y alimentación, entre otros (Belloir et al.,
2019; Okrathok y Khempaka, 2020).
36
Tabla 2. Subproductos generados durante el sacrificio de pollo.
37
restaurantes se han especializado en preparaciones como pollo asado, pollo
broaster y pollo frito. Los asaderos de pollo cada vez demandan más producto,
siendo el principal nicho de las marcas de pollo fresco en Colombia.
Es por ello que, en las últimas décadas, una parte importante de las investigaciones
relacionadas con la nutrición animal se han dirigido a mejorar el valor nutritivo de la
carne y grasa, para ofrecer a los consumidores, productos de acuerdo a sus
demandas y necesidades, con valor añadido y una mayor vida útil. En concreto, la
38
carne de animales monogástricos, especialmente la de las aves, tiene una
composición lipídica rica en ácidos grasos poliinsaturados y, además, es fácilmente
modificable a través de diversas estrategias nutricionales (Chiu et al., 2002; Kanakri
et al., 2018; Carmona et al., 2019; Okrathok y Khempaka, 2020). Concretamente en
Colombia, el Centro Colombiano de Nutrición Integral realizó un estudio para
conocer el contenido de grasas presente en la carne de pollo con piel, demostrando
que las grasas que se encuentra en mayor proporción son los ácidos grasos
insaturados, conocidos como las más beneficiosos para el organismo, siendo los
monoinsaturados los mayoritarios. Estos ácidos llegan a ser hasta cinco veces más
altos que los poliinsaturados, y su distribución depende de la pieza anatómica. En
orden de mayor a menor, dicha distribución seguiría el siguiente orden: alas,
contramuslo, muslo y pechuga (Angarita, 2018).
39
por acumular grasa que ya no utiliza en su metabolismo, que se ve reflejado en
pérdidas para los productores al convertirse en un desorden alimentario.
La grasa de la canal del pollo está constituida no solo por aquella contenida en los
músculos, sino también por la acumulada en intestinos, riñones, pulmones, tejido
conjuntivo y otros depósitos lipídicos, como se puede observar en la Tabla 3. Esta
fracción constituye el 40% de la grasa total, seguida de la grasa contenida en los 5
depósitos lipídicos diseccionados (abdominal, molleja, sartorial, cuello y mesenterio)
y la piel, que representan el 20% del total de la grasa presente en el pollo (Tabla 3)
(Cahaner et al., 1986).
Aporte al
Aporte a la grasa
Tejido* peso vivo
corporal total (%)
(%)
TA abdominal 1,67 -
TA mollejas 0,52 -
TA sartorial 0,32 20
TA cuello 0,7 -
TA mesenterio 0,25 -
Hígado 2,5 2,5
Plumas 4,5 2,5
Piel 6,5 18
Huesos 20 15
Resto de carcasa 50 40
40
de desinfección comunes, utilizados en la industria avícola se les puede dar una
calidad microbiológica apta para su uso.
molleja.
Las mollejas hacen parte de las vísceras comestibles del pollo, las cuales tienden
a ser desechadas, pero que antiguamente eran clave en la alimentación popular en
la cocina tradicional. Esta víscera está cubierta por una capa de grasa la cual es
retirada antes de abrir y procesarla para su comercialización. En Colombia, las
41
mollejas tiene un mercado importante y toda la producción es aprovechada para su
comercialización, por lo tanto retirar y desechar la grasa es una práctica normal en
las plantas de sacrificio en el país.
42
Figura 2. Cadena de los alimentos balanceados
(Martinez y Mojica, 2005).
Granjas
Alimentos
avícolas
funcionales
Residuos
Materia prima agroindustriales
(Subproductos)
43
El aprovechamiento integral de los residuos generados en las granjas avícolas se
valora nutricional y ambientalmente, brindando para las industrias de alimentos un
desarrollo sostenible que soporta la cadena de valor en este sector (Herrera, 2008).
La alta actividad de oleínas de la grasa abdominal del pollo sugiere que esta fracción
pueda ser utilizada como aceite de frituras y también se mezcla con las grasas
sólidas para aumentar su plasticidad, y debido a su alto contenido en ácido oleico
puede ser utilizado como suplemento dietario de ácidos grasos monoinsaturados
(AGMI) o en la producción de estructuras lipídicas (Lee y Foglia, 2000).
44
1.5. Productos cárnicos
En Colombia los embutidos escaldados como las salchichas tienen una variedad de
producto muy típico del país llamados salchichones, los cuales tienen como
característica diferencial, su diámetro de embutido el cual está entre 45 a 80 mm.
Ahora, casi todas las culturas tienen su propia versión de salchicha dependiendo no
solo de los ingredientes, sino también de los métodos de procesamiento y
conservación. Las salchichas son productos cárnicos emulsionados (de pasta fina),
en la que la grasa se dispersa de manera más o menos uniforme en una matriz
proteica continua altamente hidratada. Las propiedades deseables de este tipo de
productos están determinadas en gran medida por la estabilidad de la humedad y
la unión de la grasa en la matriz proteica gelificable altamente hidratada. Además,
la desnaturalización moderada de las proteínas musculares durante el proceso
térmico confiere una textura y un sabor finos al embutido tipo emulsión. En este tipo
de embutidos, la grasa es un componente esencial porque mejora la terneza, la
jugosidad y la palatabilidad general (Giese,1996; Ospina-E et al., 2010, 2012).
Tradicionalmente, en la mayoría de las salchichas de pollo, la fuente de grasa
utilizada no proviene del pollo sino principalmente del cerdo (tocino y panceta) o, en
algunos casos, de la carne vacuna (sebo) (Araujo et al., 2019; Glorieux et al., 2019;
45
Utama et al., 2019) debido principalmente a sus características tecnológicas
superiores (Ospina-E et al., 2010, 2012) y también a su mayor disponibilidad. Sin
embargo, la calidad nutricional de estas fuentes grasas (en cuanto a su alta
composición en ácidos grasos) y también algunas exigencias religiosas son los
principales inconvenientes en la actualidad. Por esta razón, la piel de pollo se utiliza
como principal fuente de grasa en las salchichas de pollo.
Según la Norma Técnica Colombiana NTC 1325 (Quinta actualización, 2008) los
productos cárnicos procesados son aquellos elaborados a base de carne, grasa,
víscera u otros subproductos comestibles de animales de abasto y sometido a
procesos tecnológicos adecuados algunos pueden ser embutidos dentro de tripas
naturales o artificiales. Estos productos pueden ser crudos, ahumados, curados,
fermentados o sometidos a tratamiento calórico; y que generalmente, incluyen
dentro de su composición aditivos y condimentos que contribuyen junto con los
diversos tratamientos a la obtención de distintas variedades de productos cárnicos.
46
Tabla 4. Requisitos de composición y formulación para productos
cárnicos cocidos según la Norma Técnica Colombiana
47
48
2. OBJETIVOS
49
• Desarrollar una fórmula óptima a nivel industrial que permita el máximo
porcentaje de substitución de la materia prima grasa tradicional por los
subproductos grasos del pollo, con la mínima modificación en los atributos
característicos del producto.
• Validar la vida útil del producto al hacer uso de esta nueva materia prima.
50
3. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS
51
Todos los pollos fueron alimentados inicialmente con la misma dieta balanceada:
una dieta “pre-iniciación” hasta alcanzar los 150 g de peso y una dieta de “iniciación”
hasta 900 g (aprox. 16 días); A esto le siguió una dieta de “finalización” basada en
formulaciones estándar utilizadas en diferentes períodos de engorde, hasta el
sacrificio a los 45 días de edad.
A los 45 días, trece pollos por granja, con un peso vivo cercano a la media de todo
el grupo, fueron trasladados a matadero y sacrificados (aturdimiento eléctrico
previo) con licencia del Instituto Nacional de Vigilancia de Medicamentos y
Alimentos de Colombia. Una vez realizado el faenado, se separó de las canales la
grasa abdominal y de molleja (subproductos grasos).
Las muestras de grasa se refrigeraron y se enviaron al laboratorio del Instituto de
Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos (Medellín, Colombia) para su análisis y
caracterización.
52
Tabla 5. Formulación, contenido en nutrientes y ácidos grasos de las 9
dietas de finalización utilizadas en la alimentación de los pollos parrilleros.
Dietas de finalización
Ingredientes (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sorgo 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00
Aceite de soja 2,95 2,92 3,24 3,20 4,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 3,50
Maíz amarillo 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 10,00
Maíz blanco 43,68 43,79 44,45 44,30 45,00 44,95 45,03 34,84 32,84
Gluten de maíz 4,16 4,26 4,38 4,85 4,72 4,09 4,11 - -
Trigo - - - - - - - 10,00 10,00
Harina de huesos 3,18 3,00 3,06 2,87 2,89 3,23 3,19 4,50 3,45
Harina de soja 7,61 7,61 11,17 11,01 14,94 14,68 14,77 11,77 11,51
Soja entera 1,50 12,50 10,00 10,00 4,49 5,6 5,03 10,00 14,99
Harina de girasol 2,00 2,00 - - - - - - -
Nutrientes (% de la
dieta)
Proteína 18,56 18,51 18,54 18,57 18,58 18,70 18,59 18,46 18,45
Lípidos 8,46 8,97 8,41 8,97 8,30 8,24 8,16 8,28 8,25
Fibra 3,90 3,88 3,90 3,89 3,63 3,62 3,57 3,58 3,58
Minerales 3,32 3,37 3,26 3,26 3,26 3,20 3,22 3,34 3,33
Ácidos grasos (% grasa
total)
C14:0 0,19 0,19 0,18 0,17 0,15 0,16 0,16 0,22 0,20
C16:0 11,51 11,48 11,45 11,41 11,27 11,35 11,34 11,70 1,54
C16:1 0,86 0,84 0,91 0,89 1,04 1,05 1,05 1,06 0,90
C18:0 4,04 4,00 4,01 3,97 3,97 4,04 4,03 4,32 4,15
C18:1 24,90 24,86 24,93 24,88 24,97 25,03 25,03 24,85 24,36
C18:2 52,29 52,42 52,34 52,48 52,47 52,22 52,24 51,36 52,12
C18:3 5,62 5,62 5,57 5,57 5,43 5,46 5,45 5,81 6,09
C>19 0,59 0,59 0,63 0,62 0,71 0,70 0,70 0,69 0,64
Muestras de grasa (200 g; 65% de grasa abdominal y 35% de grasa de molleja, las
proporciones normales de grasa de canal) se secaron y extrajeron siguiendo el
procedimiento de Soxhlet y utilizando éter dietílico como disolvente de extracción
(AOAC, 2005). Los ésteres metílicos de los ácidos grasos (AGEM) se prepararon
utilizando BF3 en metanol y se almacenaron a -80 ºC hasta su análisis
cromatográfico.
53
Los AGEM se analizaron mediante un cromatógrafo de gases (cromatógrafo de
gases GC-2014, Shimadzu, Chiyoda-ku, Tokio, Japón) equipado con un detector de
ionización de llama, un inyector split/splitless, y una columna capilar de sílice fundida
que contiene polietilenglicol como fase estacionaria (db-wax, 60 m × 0,25 mm, J&W
Scientific, Santa Clara, CA, EE. UU). La temperatura del inyector se fijó en 230 °C.
La temperatura inicial de la columna fue de 80 °C durante 2 min a una velocidad de
3 °C por minuto, se elevó a 180 °C a 30 °C por minuto y se mantuvo a esta
temperatura durante 30 min. Pasado este tiempo, la temperatura se aumentó a 200
°C a una velocidad de 3 °C por minuto y permaneció a esta temperatura durante
108 min.
Los ácidos grasos se cuantificaron utilizando el éster metílico del ácido graso C11:0
como patrón interno. La identificación de los ácidos grasos se realizó comparando
los tiempos de retención con los de ácidos grasos conocidos, y los resultados se
expresan como porcentaje del área de cada ácido graso sobre el área total de
ácidos grasos (%).
54
subproductos de grasa de pollo en su forma sólida original y también después de
calentarlos a 78 ◦C durante 3 min y resolidificarlos a temperatura ambiente (grasa
fundida y resolidificada), simulando el tratamiento térmico aplicado durante el
procesamiento de productos cárnicos cocidos.
55
Se sometieron a un tratamiento térmico de cocción en un horno (CI Talsa, Medellín,
Colombia) hasta alcanzar los 75 ºC en el centro del embutido (30 min aprox.).
Posteriormente se enfriaron inmediatamente en un baño de hielo y se almacenaron
a 4 ºC hasta su análisis. El procesamiento se repitió tres veces con cada
formulación.
56
3.6. Composición proximal del producto cárnico
Para las medidas de color del salchichón se siguió el mismo procedimiento descrito
para los subproductos grasos del pollo (apartado 3.4). Para las medidas de color se
procedió a cortar los salchichones en lonchas de aprox. 2,5 cm de espesor (sólido
infinito) y las medidas se realizaron directamente en la parte interna del embutido.
Para evaluar qué efecto tiene el porcentaje de sustitución de la piel de pollo sobre
el color, se calcularon las diferencias de color (∆E* = (∆L*2 + ∆a*2 + ∆b*2)1/2) con
respecto a los salchichones control.
Se aplicó un Análisis del Perfil de Textura (TPA) para evaluar las propiedades
texturales del embutido. Las muestras se cortaron en secciones cúbicas de 25 mm
(altura x longitud x grosor). Las propiedades texturales de cada muestra se midieron
utilizando una sonda cilíndrica (35 mm de diámetro) unida a un analizador de textura
(TA-XT2i, Stable Micro System Ltd., Surrey, Reino Unido). Se aplicaron las
siguientes condiciones de ensayo: velocidad de ensayo, 4 mm/s; distancia, 10 mm
(40% de compresión). Aunque del TPA se obtienen los valores de 7 parámetros, los
más comúnmente discutidos en referencia a la gelificación de proteína cárnica son
los siguientes: dureza [fuerza máxima en la primera compresión (N)], cohesividad
[relación entre el trabajo activo realizado bajo la segunda curva fuerza-
desplazamiento y el realizado bajo la primera curva de compresión], elasticidad
[relación entre la muestra recuperada después de la primera compresión],
gomosidad [cohesión x dureza], y masticabilidad [dureza x cohesividad x elasticidad
(N)]. Los análisis se realizaron por triplicado.
57
3.9. Análisis microbiológico del producto cárnico
58
3.10. Evaluación sensorial de los productos cárnicos
Para determinar el muestreo de grasa de pollo, considerando el peso vivo del pollo
y la granja de origen, se usó el intervalo de confianza para una proporción -intervalo
de confianza Ross Lenth’s Piface-. El número de muestras a analizar para evaluar
el perfil lipídico según el análisis estadístico aplicado sobre el muestreo de grasa en
la planta fue de trece, para una varianza de 6,6, obtenido de la suma de los dos
tipos de subproductos de grasa de pollo.
59
sobre las propiedades químicas, fisicoquímicas, microbiológicas y sensoriales. Se
analizaron por triplicado tres muestras de cada una de las tres réplicas del
experimento. La prueba de Tukey se realizó cuando el ANOVA reveló diferencias
significativas (P <0,05) entre los tratamientos.
60
4. RESULTADOS Y DISCUSION
4.1. Parámetros productivos de los pollos “Parrilleros”
Los resultados del rendimiento productivo de los pollos (peso corporal final,
promedio diario de ganancia de peso, consumo de alimento e índice de conversión
alimenticia) en las tres granjas sometidas a estudio, se presentan en la Tabla 7.
repeticiones (25 aves por corral). PCF: peso corporal final; PAD: promedio diario
de ganancia de peso corporal; CA: consumo de alimento; ICA: índice de
conversión alimenticia.
61
elaboradas considerando la composición y contenido de los ingredientes utilizados
en cada fórmula, de tal forma que, aunque se variase el porcentaje de los diferentes
ingredientes, el valor nutricional de las dietas fuese similar. Con ello se pretende dar
flexibilidad a los productores para variar el porcentaje de los ingredientes en función
de su disponibilidad y precio, en vistas de reducir los costos económicos asociados
a la alimentación de los pollos, sin modificar el valor nutritivo de la dieta. En todas
las dietas, los ácidos grasos linoleico (52,22%), oleico (24,87%) y palmítico
(11,45%) fueron identificados como los ácidos grasos predominantes (Tabla 8).
Los ácidos grasos predominantes en los subproductos de grasa de pollo fueron los
ácidos oleicos (C18:1), palmítico (C16:0) y linoleico (C18:2) (Tabla 8), lo que
concuerda con el perfil lipídico de las dietas suministradas (Tabla 5). Los
subproductos de grasa de pollo mostraron un mayor contenido de grasas
insaturadas (65,5%) que de grasas saturadas (30,3%), lo que también refleja los
valores de las dietas (Tabla 5).
62
Tabla 8. Perfil de lípidos (% de lípidos totales) de subproductos de grasa de
pollo de las tres granjas en estudio.
Ácidos Coeficiente
Nombre
Grasos Granjas de
Común
Variación
Villa La (%)
La Nirvana
Rita Goleta
C14:0 Ácido mirístico 0,52 0,50 0,50 3,9
C16:0 Ácido palmítico 24,18 23,63 23,81 4,0
C16:1 Ácido 3,6
palmitoleico 5,01 4,3 5,16
C18:0 Ácido esteárico 5,69 6,0 5,92 5,4
C18:1w9 Ácido oleico 36,15 3,.83 35,31 6,0
C18:2w6 Ácido linoleico 22,55 2,.22 23,75 0,6
C18:3w3 Ácido linolénico 1,46 1,49 1,64 1,0
∑ SFA 30,4 30,1 30,2 3,6
∑ MUFA 41,2 41,7 40,5 5,4
∑ PUFA 24,0 23,7 25,4 0,5
∑ PUFA/∑ SFA 0,8 0,8 0,8
63
El hecho de que el perfil lipídico de los subproductos de grasa de pollo de las 3
granjas en estudio no mostrase diferencias estadísticamente significativas,
probablemente se deba a la estabilidad del alimento utilizado en cada granja. Dado
que la alimentación y las rutinas de manejo de los pollos fueron las mismas en las
tres granjas, y por lo tanto la única diferencia entre ellas era su respectiva ubicación
geográfica y condiciones climáticas, parece seguro concluir que ninguno de estos
factores fueron lo suficientemente importantes como para modificar esta
composición. Esto es muy importante porque si los subproductos de grasa de pollo
se van a utilizar como ingredientes grasos en la industria cárnica, cuanto mayor sea
la homogeneidad en su composición, más fácil será formular productos cárnicos.
64
coronarias (Ospina-E et al., 2010; Da Silva Martins et al., 2018). Los ácidos grasos
esenciales incluyen las familias w3 y w6, que no son sintetizados biológicamente
por los humanos, pero que son necesarios para los procesos biológicos y, por lo
tanto, deben incluirse en la dieta humana (Da Silva Martins et al., 2018).
Ácidos
Nombre Común Sebo de Grasa de
Grasos Piel de pollo (3)
vacuno (1) cerdo (2)
C14:0 Ácido mirístico 1-1,5 1-1,5 -
C16:0 Ácido palmítico 24-28 24-28 20-24
C16:1 Ácido palmitoleico 2-3 2-3 5-9
C18:0 Ácido esteárico 20-24 13-14 4-6
C18:1w9 Ácido oleico 40-43 43-47 33-44
C18:2w6 Ácido linoleico 2-4 8-11 18-20
C18:3w3 Ácido linolénico <1 <1 1-2
∑ SFA 46-55 38-43,5 25-31
∑ MUFA 42-46 45-50 38-53
∑ PUFA 2-4 8-11 19-22
∑
PUFA/∑ SFA <0,1 0,3 0,8
SFA: ácidos grasos saturados; MUFA: ácidos grasos monoinsaturados; PUFA:
ácidos grasos poliinsaturados
(1) Mottram et al. (2001); Alm (2019); (2) Mottram et al. (2001); Ospina-E et al.
(2010); Alm (2019), (3) Sheu y Chen (2002); Feddern et al. (2010); Alm (2019).
65
que el papel de las grasas saturadas en las enfermedades cardíacas es complejo
debido a los efectos biológicos heterogéneos de los diferentes ácidos grasos
saturados y la diversidad de fuentes de alimentos (Mozaffarian et al., 2010; Liu et
al., 2017), por lo que no todos los ácidos grasos saturados deben considerarse
hipercolesterolémicos. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la matriz específica de
diferentes alimentos, incluidos otros ácidos grasos, nutrientes y bioactivos, puede
modificar biológicamente el efecto de las grasas saturadas en las enfermedades
cardiovasculares. Según French et al. (2002), el ácido graso más perjudicial es el
ácido mirístico, que sólo representa el 1,3% en los subproductos de la grasa de pollo
(Tabla 3), el 3% en el sebo bovino y el 3,5% en la grasa de cerdo (Tabla 5). Varios
autores han informado que el ácido palmítico tiene un efecto hipercolesterolémico
bajo y el ácido esteárico no tiene ningún efecto porque se transforma en ácido oleico
en el cuerpo (Sinclair,1993) y, por lo tanto, no influye en los niveles de colesterol en
sangre.
Estos resultados sugieren que los subproductos grasos de pollo se pueden utilizar
como materia prima grasa en la formulación de salchichones, por ejemplo, como un
sustituto parcial o total de las fuentes tradicionales de grasas sólidas, con sus
concentraciones más altas de SFA, o junto con la piel de pollo, aumentando así la
cantidad de grasa que puede obtenerse de aves de corral. Además, los altos niveles
de ácidos grasos insaturados en los subproductos de la grasa de pollo podrían
permitir su uso como aceite para freír, así como mezclarse con otras grasas sólidas
para aumentar su plasticidad.
66
anteriormente, se utiliza como un criterio de valoración de la idoneidad o no de un
ingrediente en el desarrollo o innovación de productos cárnicos (Pérez-Alvarez y
Fernández-López, 2007; Font i Furnols y Guerrero, 2014).
Los colores característicos generalmente asociados con las grasas se deben a la
presencia de sustancias liposolubles, procedentes de la alimentación, depositadas
en el tejido adiposo (Irie, 2001). En el caso de los pollos, cuando se incluye maíz
(rico en carotenos y xantofilas) en su dieta, los depósitos grasos adquieren un color
amarillo. Otro factor que influye en el color de la grasa es la concentración de
hemoglobina retenida en los capilares del tejido adiposo y también en el tejido
conectivo que se incluye (Swatland, 1995). Según este autor, las células adiposas
maduras o los adipocitos pueden alcanzar fácilmente un diámetro de un micrómetro
y están casi llenos por una sola gota grande de triglicérido y los compuestos
liposolubles responsables del color. La gota de triglicéridos que llena la mayor parte
de la célula no está unida directamente por una membrana, sino que está restringida
por una red citoesquelética de filamentos de 10 nm, que es más notoria en las
células adiposas de las aves de corral.
67
Tabla 10. Parámetros de color [luminosidad (L*), coordenada roja/verde (a*),
coordenada amarilla/azul (b*), croma (C*) y tono (H*)] de los subproductos de
grasa de pollo (grasa sólida y grasa fundida y resolidificada).
Subproductos
grasos de L* a* b* C* H*
pollo
Sólida 71,52±2, 22ª 3,44±0,09a 24,65±1,56b 24,89±1,47b 82,06±1,25b
Fundida y re
40,26±1,03b 0,96±0,03b 65,89±1,02a 65,9±2, 4a 89,17±1, 22a
solidificada
*a-b: letras diferentes indican diferencias significativas (P<0,05).
68
longitudes de onda estudiadas, la grasa sólida mostró porcentajes de reflectancia
más altos (P<0,05) que la fundida y resolidificada. La grasa fundida y resolidificada
no mostró porcentaje de reflexión entre las longitudes de onda de 400 a 480 nm
(correspondiente principalmente a la parte del espectro visible en el rango de los
colores violeta y azul), mientras que de 480 a 540 nm (color verde) los valores de
reflectancia mostraron el mayor incremento (aproximadamente 13%),
permaneciendo estos valores de reflectancia constantes para el resto de longitudes
de onda analizadas (correspondientes a los colores amarillo, naranja y rojo).
70
60
50
Reflectancia (%)
40
30
20
10
0
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Longitud de onda (nm)
69
Con base en las diferencias en los espectros de reflectancia obtenidos para los
subproductos de grasas sólidas, y fundidas y resolidificadas (Figura 4), parece
evidente que el calor aplicado para fundir la grasa provocó cambios severos en su
ultraestructura, que no se revirtieron, cuando la grasa se solidificó de nuevo.
70
insaturados (65,5%) sobre los ácidos grasos saturados (30,3%) y que se ha
reportado que dicho perfil no presenta diferencias significativas entre las diferentes
partes de la canal de pollo (piel, tejido adiposo y carne) (Chiu et al., 2008; Feddern
et al., 2010; Carrillo-Fernández et al., 2011; Peña-Saldarriaga et al., 2019) no se
esperarían diferencias en el perfil lipídico de estos salchichones.
71
de sustitución, solo los valores de la coordenada b* y el tono se vieron afectados
significativamente (P<0,05). Las modificaciones en la luminosidad y en las
coordenadas a* y b* en los productos cárnicos se han relacionado con el contenido
de grasa; cuanto mayor es la cantidad de grasa, menor enrojecimiento (a*), pero
mayores son los valores de L* y de la coordenada b*. Un comportamiento similar ha
sido descrito por Hughes et al. (1997), quien observó que la reducción del contenido
de grasa daba como resultado una disminución tanto de la luminosidad como de la
coordenada b*, y un aumento de los valores de la coordenada a* de las salchichas
tipo Frankfurt. Este mismo patrón ha sido descrito por otros autores en varios
productos cárnicos picados y emulsionados (Jiménez-Colmenero et al., 2006; Choe
et al., 2013, 2019).
72
Tabla 12. Parámetros de color de los salchichones de pollo control y con
diferente nivel de sustitución (%) de piel de pollo por subproductos grasos
de pollo (40SFB: 40% de sustitución de piel de pollo por subproductos
grasos; 50SFB: 50% de sustitución de piel de pollo por subproductos
grasos).
SAMPLE L* a* b* C* H* ∆E*
80
70
60
Reflectancia (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Longitud de onda (nm)
73
4.4.3. Propiedades de textura
74
estos valores están dentro de los límites de aceptabilidad establecidos por la
legislación colombiana (NTC 1325, 2008).
75
Figura 6. Evaluación sensorial de salchichones de pollo [control, 40SFB
(40% de sustitución de piel de pollo por subproductos grasos y 50SFB (50%
de sustitución de piel de pollo por subproductos grasos)].
La medida objetiva del color de los salchichones también está de acuerdo con los
resultados sensoriales. Si bien en los salchichones 40SFB la medida de color
objetiva mostró diferencias significativas con las muestras control para los valores
de la coordenada b* y del tono, las diferencias de color (∆E*) con respecto al control
fueron inferiores a 3 unidades (Tabla 12) que está por debajo del nivel que podría
ser detectado por el ojo humano (Martínez et al., 2001) y, por tanto, estas diferencias
no pudieron ser detectadas en el análisis sensorial. Por el contrario, los
salchichones 50SFB mostraron mayores diferencias de color (3,3; Tabla 12)
contribuyendo a ser percibidas como diferentes por los panelistas.
76
5. CONCLUSIONES
El perfil lipídico de los subproductos de grasa de pollo de las tres granjas analizadas
fue similar (con bajos coeficientes de variación), a pesar de los factores asociados
con sus diferentes ubicaciones geográficas (siempre que las aves fueran
alimentadas con una dieta similar), lo cual es un hallazgo muy importante para su
potencial aplicación como fuente de grasa en la formulación de productos cárnicos.
Los ácidos grasos predominantes en los subproductos de grasa de pollo son los
ácidos oleico, palmítico y linoleico, mostrando una mayor cantidad de ácidos grasos
insaturados que la registrada para las fuentes de grasas tradicionales utilizadas para
elaborar productos cárnicos.
77
Cuando estos subproductos grasos se utilizaron a un nivel de sustitución del 50%,
se observaron diferencias en las propiedades de color (pero sin afectar la forma
típica del espectro de reflectancia en este tipo de producto cárnico) con respecto al
control y también se observaron diferencias sensoriales en el color, y sabor del
producto respecto del control. Sin embargo, cuando el nivel de sustitución se redujo
al 40%, no se detectaron diferencias sensoriales con respecto a los salchichones
control. Teniendo en cuenta que uno de los objetivos de la innovación en la industria
de alimentos es que la incorporación de cualquier nuevo ingrediente, al menos no
modifique o mejore la calidad del producto original, este estudio sugiere que los
salchichones de pollo con un 40% de sustitución de la piel de pollo por los
subproductos grasos de pollo sería la opción más factible para su industrialización
y futura comercialización.
78
5. CONCLUSIONS
The lipid profile of the chicken fat by-products of the three farms analyzed was similar
(with low variation coefficients), despite the factors associated with their different
geographical locations (provided that the chickens were fed with a similar diet),
which is a very important finding for its potential application as a valued-added
source of healthy fat in the formulation of meat products
The main fatty acids in chicken fat by-products are oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids,
showing a higher amount of unsaturated fatty acids than that are described for
traditional fat sources used to produce meat products.
In terms of colour properties, chicken fat by-products have colour coordinate values
similar to those from chicken skin, which is the usual source of fat in the meat
industry for the elaboration of emulsified chicken meat products. However, fusion
and resolidification cause severe changes in the reflectance spectrum, which could
limit the replacement percentage to be used in the chicken sausage development
and its acceptance by the consumers.
When these fatty by-products were used at a 50% substitution level, differences in
colour properties were observed (but without affecting the typical shape of the
79
reflectance spectrum in this type of meat product) with respect to the control and
also sensory differences in colour and taste of the product were observed with
respect to the control. However, when the level of substitution was reduced to 40%,
no sensory differences were detected with respect to the control sausages. Taking
into account that one of the objectives of innovation in the food industry is that the
incorporation of any new ingredient, at least does not change or improve the quality
of the original product, This study suggests that chicken sausage with 40%
replacement of chicken skin by the fatty by-products of chicken would be the most
feasible option for industrialization and future commercialization.
80
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93
ANEXO 1. PUBLICACIONES
94
foods
Article
Quality of Chicken Fat by-Products: Lipid Profile
and Colour Properties
Lina María Peña-Saldarriaga 1 , Juana Fernández-López 2 and José Angel Pérez-Alvarez 2, *
1 Research & Development Department, Bios Group, Cra 48 No. 274 Sur-89 Envigado,
055422 Antioquia, Colombia; [Link]@[Link]
2 IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Higher Polytechnic School of Orihuela,
Miguel Hernández University, Orihuela, 03312 Alicante, Spain; [Link]@[Link]
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]; Tel.: +34-966749784
Received: 7 July 2020; Accepted: 1 August 2020; Published: 3 August 2020
Abstract: The growth in the production and consumption of chicken meat and related products
is responsible for the formation a large number of by-products. Among these, abdominal and
gizzard fat is usually considered as waste and thus is discarded, creating an environmental problem.
This work aims to characterize chicken fat by-products, evaluating their lipid profile and colour
properties for their potential use as fat sources in meat products in substitution of traditionally
used fats. In addition, the role of farm location, keeping the feeding and other farmer routines fixed,
in the lipid profile was also evaluated. “Parrilleros” Colombian chickens from three farms located in
various geographical zones of the Antioquia region were selected. After slaughtering, abdominal and
gizzard fat was obtained. Lipid profile was evaluated by gas chromatography and the CIELAB colour
properties were assessed. The production results and the lipid profile of chicken fat by-products
(abdominal and gizzard fat) was similar in the three farms studied, which is important for their
potential application as fat source in the formulation of meat products. The predominant fatty acids
were oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids, showing a higher amount of unsaturated fatty acids than the
fat sources traditionally used for this purpose. Valorization of chicken by-products by the use of
abdominal and gizzard fat as fat source in chicken meat products formulation could be a feasible
alternative contributing to the poultry sector sustainability.
Keywords: chicken fat by-products; unsaturated fatty acids; colour properties; lipid profile
1. Introduction
Poultry farming has been the main impetus for the sustained and steady economic development
of Colombian agriculture in recent years, and is considered a determining variable in the growth
of the Gross Domestic Product of the agricultural sector in the country. The growth in the poultry
industry in Colombia is mainly due to increased domestic consumption. A decade ago the per capita
consumption of poultry meat in Colombia was about 23 kg of chicken meat per year, while today
it is 35.5 kg [1]. The industry has developed to such an extent that poultry products are now the
most important source of animal protein in Colombia (contributing 50%), a trend that underlines
the importance of this industry in the country and its constant growth. Not only in Colombia is
the poultry industry important, but it also plays a relevant role in feeding much of the rest of the
world. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and
the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the worldwide per capita consumption of chicken
meat in the last decade has increased by 15%, growth which has outstripped that registered for
beef and pork. The main consumers are the United States and Brazil, whose annual consumption
exceeds 40 kg per capita [2]. Such an increase in the consumption of chicken meat is mainly due to the
perception by health-conscious consumers that chicken meat is a low-fat source of healthy nutrition,
rich in unsaturated fat and a high in protein [3]. In addition, chicken meat is increasingly used in the
development of new chicken-based convenience products (chicken bologna, chicken nuggets, chicken
hotdogs, chicken wings), which have been successfully marketed for consumption at home and also in
the growing fast-food industry [4].
However, the rapid growth of poultry production has led to the massive generation of
food-processing by-products likes bones, viscera, abdominal fat, feet, head, blood and feathers.
If these by-products were regarded as having greater nutritional value, their use would contribute to
the development of a sustainable food industry while increasing the value of this sector [5]. Until now,
these by-products have only been sold as animal feed and to pet food processors [6–8] and, recently,
for the production of biodiesel [9]. However, there are no references about the possible use of some
of these by-products as raw materials for use in human food processing. For example, it may be
possible that the abdominal and gizzard fat that remains inside the poultry carcass, where it represents
approximately 2–2.5% of the total weight of the slaughtered chicken [10], could be used as fat source
for the production of chicken sausages or other meat products, especially taking into account its
characteristic content of unsaturated fatty acids. Until now, this abdominal and gizzard fat has
been discarded by small producers, together with the viscera, feathers and blood, thus creating and
environmental problem.
The production of high quantities of by-products by the poultry industry and the potential
of abdominal and gizzard fat as a healthy fat source in different applications, about which little
information is available, led to the development of this study. The main objective was to determinate
the fatty acid profile and colour properties of poultry fat by-products (in this case, abdominal and
gizzard fat) and to assess whether these properties remain stable and whether they depend on the
farm conditions (feeding and geographical location).
Finisher Diets
Ingredients (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sorghum 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Soy oil
Foods 2020, 9, 1046
2.95 2.92 3.24 3.20 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.503 of 10
Yellow corn 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
White corn 43.68 43.79 44.45 44.30 45.00 44.95 45.03 34.84 32.84
Corn gluten 4.16 Table
4.26 4.38 4.85 4.72
1. Experimental finisher diets. 4.09 4.11 - -
Wheat - - - - - - - 10.00 10.00
Bone flour(%)
Ingredients 3.18 3.00 3.06 2.87Finisher
2.89Diets 3.23 3.19 4.50 3.45
Soybean meal 7.61
1 7.61
2 11.17
3 11.01
4 14.94
5 14.68
6 14.77
7 11.77
8 11.51
9
Full fat soybean 12.50 12.50 10.00 10.00 4.49 5.16 5.03 10.00 14.99
Sorghum 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Sunflower
Soy oilmeal 2.00
2.95 2.00
2.92 -
3.24 -
3.20 -
4.00 -
4.00 -
4.00 -
4.00 -
3.50
Nutrients
Yellow(% of diet)
corn 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Protein
White corn 18.56
43.68 18.51
43.79 18.54
44.45 18.57
44.30 18.58
45.00 18.70
44.95 18.59
45.03 18.46
34.84 18.45
32.84
Corn gluten
Lipids 4.16
8.46 4.26
8.97 4.38
8.41 4.85
8.97 4.72
8.30 4.09
8.24 4.11
8.16 -
8.28 -
8.25
Wheat
Fibre -
3.90 -
3.88 -
3.90 -
3.89 -
3.63 -
3.62 -
3.57 10.00
3.58 10.00
3.58
Bone flour
Minerals 3.18
3.32 3.00
3.37 3.06
3.26 2.87
3.26 2.89
3.26 3.23
3.20 3.19
3.22 4.50
3.34 3.45
3.33
Soybean meal 7.61 7.61 11.17 11.01 14.94 14.68 14.77 11.77 11.51
Fatty acids (% total fat)
Full fat soybean 12.50 12.50 10.00 10.00 4.49 5.16 5.03 10.00 14.99
C14:0 (Myristic
Sunflower mealacid) 0.19
2.00 0.19
2.00 0.18
- 0.17
- 0.15
- 0.16
- 0.16
- 0.22
- 0.20
-
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 11.51 11.48 11.45 11.41 11.27 11.35 11.34 11.70 11.54
Nutrients (% of diet)
C16:1 (Palmitoleic acid) 0.86 0.84 0.91 0.89 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.06 0.90
Protein 18.56 18.51 18.54 18.57 18.58 18.70 18.59 18.46 18.45
C18:0 (Stearic
Lipids acid) 4.04
8.46 4.00
8.97 4.01
8.41 3.97
8.97 3.97
8.30 4.04
8.24 4.03
8.16 4.32
8.28 4.15
8.25
C18:1 (Oleic
Fibre acid) 24.90
3.90 24.86
3.88 24.93
3.90 24.88
3.89 24.97
3.63 25.03
3.62 25.03
3.57 24.85
3.58 24.36
3.58
C18:2 Minerals
(Linoleic acid) 52.29
3.32 52.42
3.37 52.34
3.26 52.48
3.26 52.47
3.26 52.22
3.20 52.24
3.22 51.36
3.34 52.12
3.33
C18:3 (Linolenic acid)
Fatty acids (% total fat) 5.62 5.62 5.57 5.57 5.43 5.46 5.45 5.81 6.09
C>19 acid)
C14:0 (Myristic 0.59
0.19 0.59
0.19 0.63
0.18 0.62
0.17 0.71
0.15 0.70
0.16 0.70
0.16 0.69
0.22 0.64
0.20
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 11.51 11.48 11.45 11.41 11.27 11.35 11.34 11.70 11.54
2.2. C16:1 (Palmitoleic
Chemical analysisacid) 0.86 0.84 0.91 0.89 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.06 0.90
C18:0 (Stearic acid) 4.04 4.00 4.01 3.97 3.97 4.04 4.03 4.32 4.15
Samples of fat
C18:1 (Oleic (200 g; 65%
acid) 24.90 abdominal
24.86 fat24.93
and 35%
24.88gizzard
24.97fat, the normal
25.03 fat proportions
25.03 24.85 of the
24.36
C18:2
carcass) (Linoleic
were dried acid) 52.29 following
and extracted 52.42 52.34 52.48 procedure
the Soxhlet 52.47 52.22 52.24diethyl
and using 51.36ether52.12
as the
C18:3 (Linolenic acid) 5.62 5.62 5.57 5.57 5.43 5.46 5.45 5.81 6.09
extraction solvent [11]. The methyl esters from fatty acids (FAME) were prepared using BF3 in
C > 19 0.59 0.59 0.63 0.62 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.64
methanol and stored at −80 °C until chromatographic analysis.
Figure 1. Chicken
Figure 1. Chicken fat
fat by-products:
by-products: (A)
(A) Abdominal
Abdominal fat,
fat, (B)
(B) gizzard
gizzard fat.
fat.
2.2. Chemical
The FAME analysis
were analysed using a gas chromatograph (GC-2014 Gas Chromatograph, Shimadzu,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan)
Samples of fat (200 g; equipped with a flame
65% abdominal fat andionization detector,
35% gizzard a split/splitless
fat, the injector, andof
normal fat proportions a
fused silica capillary column containing polyethylene glycol as stationary phase
the carcass) were dried and extracted following the Soxhlet procedure and using diethyl ether as (db-wax, 60m x
0.25mm, J&W Scientific,
the extraction Santa
solvent [11]. TheClara, CA,esters
methyl USA. from
The injector temperature
fatty acids (FAME) werewas set to 230 °C.
prepared The BF
using initial
3 in
column temperature was 80◦°C for 2 min at a rate of
methanol and stored at −80 C until chromatographic analysis. 3 °C per minute, was raised to 180 °C at 30 °C
per minute
The FAME andwere
was analysed
kept at this
usingtemperature for 30 min.
a gas chromatograph After this
(GC-2014 Gas time, the temperature
Chromatograph, was
Shimadzu,
increased to 200 °C at a rate of 3 °C per minute and remained at this temperature
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a flame ionization detector, a split/splitless injector, for 108 min. The
fatty acids were quantified using C11:0 methyl ester as internal standard. Identification
and a fused silica capillary column containing polyethylene glycol as stationary phase (db-wax, of fatty acids
60 m × 0.25 mm, J&W Scientific, Santa Clara, CA, USA. The injector temperature was set to 230 ◦ C.
The initial column temperature was 80 ◦ C for 2 min at a rate of 3 ◦ C per minute, was raised to 180 ◦ C
at 30 ◦ C per minute and was kept at this temperature for 30 min. After this time, the temperature
was increased to 200 ◦ C at a rate of 3 ◦ C per minute and remained at this temperature for 108 min.
The fatty acids were quantified using C11:0 methyl ester as internal standard. Identification of fatty
Foods 2020, 9, 1046 4 of 10
acids was performed by comparison of the retention times with those of known fatty acids and the
results expressed as percentage of the area of each fatty acid over the total area of fatty acids (%).
3. Results
Table 2. Productivity parameters of “Parrilleros” chickens in the three farms under study (n = 75
per farm).
The weight of fat by-products per chicken carcass was approximately 40 g, of which 65%
corresponded to abdominal fat and 35% to gizzard fat. The total yield for lipid extraction obtained in
chicken fat by-products was 75%.
Fatty acid profiles (% of total lipids) of chicken fat by-products from the 3 farms used in this study
are shown in Table 3. No differences were found (p > 0.05) between the lipid profiles of chicken fat
by-products from the 3 farms under study.
Table 3. Lipid profile (% of total lipids) of chicken fat by-products from the three farms under study.
Farms
Fatty Acid Common Name Variation Coefficient (%)
Villa Rita La Goleta La Nirvana
C14:0 Myristic acid 0.52 0.50 0.50 3.9
C16:0 Palmitic acid 24.18 23.63 23.81 4.0
C16:1 Palmitoleic acid 5.01 4.83 5.16 3.6
C18:0 Stearic acid 5.69 6.00 5.92 5.4
C18:1w9 Oleic acid 36.15 36.83 35.31 6.0
C18:2w6 Linoleic acid 22.55 22.22 23.75 0.6
C18:3w3 Linolenic acid 1.46 1.49 1.64 1.0
P
SFA 30.4 30.1 30.2 3.6
P
MUFA 41.2 41.7 40.5 5.4
P
PUFA 24.0 23.7 25.4 0.5
P P
PUFA/ SFA 0.8 0.8 0.8
The predominant fatty acids in chicken fat by-products were oleic (C18:1), palmitic (C16:0) and
linoleic (C18:2) acids (Table 3), which reflects the lipid profile of the diets (Table 1). The chicken fat
by-products showed a higher unsaturated fat content (65.5%) than of saturated fat (30.3%), which also
reflects the values of the diets (Table 1).
Table 4. Colour parameters [(L*) lightness, (a*) redness, (b*) yellowness, (C*) chroma or saturation
index, (h*) hue] of chicken fat by-products (solid fat and melted and re-solidified fat).
Chicken Fat
L* a* b* C* h*
by-Product
Solid 71.52 ± 2.22a 3.44 ± 0.09 a 24.65 ± 1.56 b 24.89 ± 1.47 b 82.06 ± 1.25 b
Melted and
40.26 ± 1.03b 0.96 ± 0.03 b 65.89 ± 1.02 a 65.9 ± 2.14 a 89.17 ± 1.22 a
re-solidified
a,b : different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). n = 39.
Figure 2 presents the reflectance spectra (400–700 nm) obtained for the solid fat and the melted
and re-solidified fat. As it can be seen, the shape of the spectra for both types of fat is completely
different. At all the wavelengths studied, solid fat showed higher (p < 0.05) reflectance percentages
than the other fat. Melted and re-solidified fat did not show any reflectance from 400 to 480 nm
(mainly corresponding to violet and blue), while from 480 to 540 nm (green) the reflectance values
showed the higher increase (approx.13%), these reflectance values remaining constants until the end of
the spectrum (corresponding to yellow, orange and red).
Foods 2020, 9, 1046 6 of 10
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70
60
50
Reflectance (%)
40
30
20
10
0
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Reflectance
Reflectance spectra
spectra (400–700
(400–700 nm)
nm) of the chicken
of the chicken fat
fat by-products
by-products (solid
(solid fat
fat and,
and, melted
melted and
and
re-solidified fat).
re-solidified fat).
4. Discussion
Unsaturated fatty acids include essential fatty acids that play beneficial roles in human health. Oleic acid
may help decrease the circulating concentration of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in humans
and is considered a “healthy” fat [21]. High oleic acid values are desirable for their hypocholesterolemic
action, and have the added advantage of not lowering high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol
(“good cholesterol”), and protecting against coronary heart diseases [22,23]. The essential fatty acids
include the w3 and w6 families, which are not biologically synthetized by humans, but which are
necessary for biological processes and therefore should be included in the human diet [23].
Table 5. Lipid profile (%) of traditional fat sources in the meat industry, according to the literature, and
of chicken fat by-products analyzed in this work.
Chicken Fat
Fatty Acid Common Name Beef Tallow (1) Pork Lard (2) Poultry Skin (3)
by-Products
C14:0 Myristic acid 1–1.5 1–1.5 – 0.51
C16:0 Palmitic acid 24–28 24–28 20–24 23.87
C16:1 Palmitoleic acid 2–3 2–3 5–9 5.00
C18:0 Stearic acid 20–24 13–14 4–6 5.87
C18:1w9 Oleic acid 40–43 43–47 33–44 36.10
C18:2w6 Linoleic acid 2–4 8–11 18–20 22.84
C18:3w3 Linolenic acid <1 <1 1–2 1.53
P
SFA 46–55 38–43.5 25–31.5 30.23
P
MUFA 42–46 45–50 38–53 41.13
P
PUFA 2–4 8–11 19–22 24.37
<0.1
P P
PUFA/ SFA 0.3 0.8 0.8
(1)
Mottram et al. [24]; Alm [25]. (2) Mottram et al. [24]; Ospina-E et al. [22]; Alm [25]. (3) Sheu & Chen [20];
Feddern et al. [17]; Alm [25].
By contrast, the highest saturated fatty acid (SFA) levels are found in beef tallow (46–55%) and
the lowest in poultry fat by-products (30.2%). Taking into consideration that the high consumption
of saturated fatty acids has been associated with increased levels of serum cholesterol and LDL,
both risk factors for cardiovascular diseases [26,27], using chicken fat by-products as fatty raw material
in the meat industry could be considered advantageous. However, some studies suggest that the
role of saturated fat in heart diseases is complex because of the heterogeneous biological effects of
different saturated fatty acids and the diversity of food sources [27,28], so that not all SFAs should be
considered hypercholesterolemic. These findings suggest that the specific matrix of different foods,
including other fatty acids, nutrients, and bioactives, may biologically modify the effect of saturated
fat in cardiovascular diseases.
According to French et al. [29] the most undesirable fatty acid is myristic acid, which only
represents 1.3% in chicken fat by-products (Table 3), 3% in beef tallow and 3.5% in pork backfat
(Table 5). Several authors have reported that palmitic acid has a low hypercholesterolemic effect and
stearic acid has no effect because it becomes oleic acid in the body [30] and so does not influence blood
cholesterol levels.
These results suggest that chicken fat can be used as fatty ingredient in formulating sausages,
for example, as a partial or total substitute of traditional solid fat sources with their higher SFA
concentrations, or be used together with chicken skin, thus increasing the amount of useful fat that can
be obtained from poultry [31]. In addition, the high levels of UFA in chicken fat by-products could
allow them to be used as frying oil as well as mixed with other solid fats to increase their plasticity.
these lipids. In the case of the fat from carcasses, the colour basically depends on the feed that the
live animal received [34]. In the case of chickens, when maize (rich in carotenes and xanthophylls)
is included in their diet, the fatty deposits take on a yellow colour. Another factor influencing fat
colour is the concentration of haemoglobin retained in the capillaries of the adipose tissue and also the
connective tissue that is included [35]. According to this author, mature adipose cells or adipocytes
can easily reach a diameter of micron size and are almost filled by a single large droplet of triglyceride.
Thus, the nucleus and cytoplasm of an adipose cell are restricted to a thin layer under the plasma
membrane, which accounts for the low water content of fat. Mature adipose cells with very little
cytoplasm contain few organelles. The large triglyceride droplet that fills most of the cell is not directly
bounded by a membrane, but is restrained by a cytoskeletal meshwork of 10-nm filaments, which is
most conspicuous in the adipose cells of poultry.
From a technological point of view, fat fulfils several functions in meat product processing
(e.g., appearance, taste and textural properties) although, in the case of colour, its principal role is
in the brightness of the resulting meat products. The colour coordinate values (L*, a* and b*) of
the analysed chicken fat by-products are into the range reported by Sirri et al. [36] for chicken skin.
These authors measured the colour coordinates in the skin of different parts of the chicken carcass
(breast, thigh and shank) and reported the following values: 65.8-81.7 for lightness, −3.75–7.52 for
redness, and 7.45–39.12 for yellowness. These data point to high variability in skin colour, especially
in the case of b*, even taking into account that the total xanthophyll content of the feeds used was
homogeneous (from 12 to 15 mg/kg of feed) in the different flocks studied. This suggests that, in addition
to pigment concentrations, other factors could play an important role in determining the final skin
colour of poultry.
The observed reduction in lightness and the increase in yellowness due to melting (Table 4) could
be due to the reduction in moisture and the consequent increase in the concentration of yellow pigment
(carotenes). Based on the differences in the reflectance spectra obtained for solid fat by-products,
and melted and re-solidified fat (Figure 2), it is clear that the heat applied to melt the fat caused severe
changes in its ultrastructure, which were not reversed when the fat re-solidified.
5. Conclusions
The lipid profile of chicken fat by-products from the three farms was similar (with low coefficients
of variation), despite factors associated with their different geographical locations (as long as the birds
were fed a similar diet) which is very important finding for their potential application as a fat source
in the formulation of meat products. The predominant fatty acids in chicken fat by-products were
oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids, showing higher amount of unsaturated fatty acids than recorded
for traditional fat sources used to make meat products. As regards the colour properties, chicken
fat by-products had colour coordinate values that were in the range of those of chicken skin, which
is the usual fat source in the meat industry. However, melting and re-solidification caused severe
changes in the reflectance spectrum. In view of these results, chicken fat by-products could be used
as fat ingredient in sausage formulations to partially or totally substitute traditionally used solid fat
sources with their higher saturated fatty acid concentrations.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.F.-L. and L.M.-P.S.; methodology, L.M.-P.S. and J.A.P.-A.; validation,
L.M.-P.S. and J.A.P.-A.; investigation, J.F.-L. and J.A.P.-A.; resources, L.M.-P.S.; writing—original draft preparation,
L.M.-P.S.; writing—review and editing, J.F.-L. and J.A.P.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: IPOA researchers are members of the HealthyMeat network, funded by CYTED
(ref. 119RT0568).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethics statement: This research and the rearing and slaughter of chickens were carried out in accordance with the
National Committee Guidelines (Colombia) on animal testing and care.
Foods 2020, 9, 1046 9 of 10
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license ([Link]
foods
Article
Quality Properties of Chicken Emulsion-Type
Sausages Formulated with Chicken Fatty Byproducts
Lina María Peña-Saldarriaga 1 , José Angel Pérez-Alvarez 2 and Juana Fernández-López 2, *
1 Research & Development Department, Bios Group, Cra 48 No.274 Sur-89 Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia;
[Link]@[Link]
2 IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela,
Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Orihuela, 03312 Alicante, Spain; [Link]@[Link]
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]; Tel.: +34-9667-49784
Received: 20 March 2020; Accepted: 14 April 2020; Published: 17 April 2020
Abstract: During poultry slaughtering, fatty byproducts are generated, mainly comprising abdominal
and gizzard fat, which are mostly discarded and result in consequent environmental problems.
The objective of this work was to use these fatty byproducts as fatty raw material in the production of
chicken sausages (emulsion-type). They were applied for the partial replacement (40% and 50%) of
chicken skin (fatty source usually used in chicken sausages). The effect of these partial replacements
on the quality properties (proximate composition, lipid profile, color, texture, and microbiological
and sensory properties) of chicken sausages were assessed. Sausages with fatty byproducts added
(40% and 50%) showed lower moisture but higher fat content than control. Nevertheless, all of
them meet the nutritional requirements of the Colombian regulation for this type of meat product.
Sausages with 40% and 50% substitution level showed similar texture properties and microbiological
quality as control. When these fatty byproducts were used at 50% substitution level, differences in
several color properties and sensorial attributes (color, flavor, and meat taste) were noticed with
respect to control. When the substitution level was reduced to 40%, no sensorial differences were
detected. Chicken fatty byproducts can be successfully applied as partial replacement of chicken skin
in emulsion-type sausages.
1. Introduction
Latin American poultry farming will grow at a pace higher than the world average over the
next ten years. In this period, global poultry farms will grow 2.5% per year, while in Latin America,
the estimate is 4% per year. This major advance in the region is marked by the current economic
scenario, in which birds benefit from their greater price competitiveness and consumer preference.
In the Latin American market, about 50% of total animal protein consumption is chicken meat. South
American countries like Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia have shown significant growth in recent years [1].
In Colombia, poultry farming has been consolidated as a determining factor in the growth of the gross
domestic product (GDP) of the agricultural sector [2]. Due to this increase in poultry production,
many food industries have focused their strategy on innovation and the development of new poultry
meat products [3]. Sausages are one of the oldest forms of meat processing, made by minced meat,
salt, spices, and other seasonings stuffed in intestine or artificial case [4,5]. Many varieties have been
developed, influenced by climate, religion, availability of ingredients, and processing and preservation
methods. Now, it can be said that nearly every culture has its own version of a sausage [4]. It is
currently the most produced meat product due the low costs and lack of requirement for sophisticated
technology [6]. In addition, it has had a significant increase in consumption throughout the world due
to its convenience and practicality [5]. On this point, the market for poultry sausages has been growing
not only due to their healthier properties related to meat and fat composition (mainly regarding fatty
acids), but also because their consumption is not forbidden by any religion.
An emulsion-type sausage is a mixture of meat, fat, water, spices, and additives in which fat is
dispersed more or less uniformly in a continuous, highly hydrated protein matrix. The fat droplets do
not necessarily remain globular, and they may coalesce with each other, but they cannot escape from
the matrix to produce a single phase. The desirable properties of emulsion-type sausages are largely
determined by the stability of moisture and fat binding in the highly hydrated gellable protein matrix.
In addition, the moderate denaturalization of muscle proteins during the thermal process gives a fine
texture and flavor to emulsion-type sausages. In this type of sausage, fat is an essential component
because it improves the tenderness, juiciness, and overall palatability [7–9]. Traditionally, in most
chicken sausages, the used source of fat does not come from chicken but mostly from pork (back fat) or,
in some cases, beef (tallow) [10–12] mainly due to their superior technological characteristics [8,9] and,
also, their greater availability. Nevertheless, the nutritional quality of these fatty sources (regarding
their high fatty acid composition) and, also, some religion demands are the main inconvenience
nowadays. For this reason, chicken skin is being used as the main fatty source in chicken sausages.
On the other hand, some of the byproducts generated during poultry slaughtering (viscera, bones,
head, cartilage, crest, blood, abdominal fat, feet, and fathers), which represent almost 37% of the
total live weight of the animal [13], could be reused, increasing their nutritional and environmental
value and providing sustainable development for food industries and supporting the value chain
in this sector [14]. More specifically, the abdominal and gizzard fat that remain inside the poultry
carcass could be used as a fatty source for the production of chicken sausages or other meat products,
mainly considering their characteristic content in monounsaturated fatty acids and vitamin A [15].
Until now, this abdominal and gizzard fat has been discarded by small producers together with viscera,
feathers, and blood, creating an environmental problem, or in some cases, are sold to outlets such
as animal feed and pet food processors [16,17]. The aim of this work is to evaluate the effect of the
partial substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts (abdominal and gizzard fat) on the quality of a
traditional Colombian sausage (emulsion-type).
Table 1. Formulation of chicken sausages (40SFB: 40% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts;
50SFB: 50% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts).
ranges allowed by the Colombian regulation for cooked sausages (protein > 10%, fat < 28%, fat +
moisture < 90%) [33]. Taking into account that the lipid profile of chicken fat has been reported as
highly healthy, mainly due to the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids (65.5%) over saturated fatty
acids (30.3%) [30,34] without significant differences from different chicken carcass parts (skin, adipose
tissue, and meat) [29,30,35], no differences in the lipid profile of these sausages would be expected.
Table 2. Proximate composition of chicken sausages with different substitution level (%) of chicken
skin by chicken fatty byproducts (40SFB: 40% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts; 50SFB:
50% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts).
Table 3. Color parameters of chicken sausages with different substitution level (%) of chicken skin by
chicken fatty byproducts (40SFB: 40% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts; 50SFB: 50%
substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts).
SAMPLE L* a* b* C* h* ∆E*
CONTROL 66.41 ± 0.21b 13.33 ± 0.09a 18.76 ± 0.15b 23.00 ± 0.15a 54.60 ± 0.20b
40SFB 67.62 ± 0.25b 13.42 ± 0.11a 19.70 ± 0.20a 23.82 ± 0.23a 56.73 ± 0.25a 2.2
50SFB 69.42 ± 0.26a 12.51 ± 0.12b 19.93 ± 0.17a 23.53 ± 0.19a 57.87 ± 0.15a 3.3
a–b: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Looking the reflectance spectra (Figure 1) of the sausages, it can be also observed that sausages
with 50% substitution showed lower (p < 0.05) percentages of reflectance, for all wavelengths, than the
control and 40% substitution sausages (without significant differences between them). In spite of
these changes, it could be said that the three spectra kept the typical shape attributed to the meat
reflectance spectrum without being affecting by the level of chicken skin substitution. It must be
taken into account that this typical shape of the meat reflectance spectrum is determined by the major
pigment in meat (myoglobin) and by the relative amounts of its three forms, i.e., deoxymyoglobin,
metmyoglobin, and oxymyoglobin and their interconversions and degradations through oxygenation,
oxidation, and reduction reactions, ultimately influencing the appearance of meat color [19].
substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts).
SAMPLE L* a* b* C* h* ΔE*
CONTROL 66.41 ± 0.21b 13.33 ± 0.09a 18.76 ± 0.15b 23.00 ± 0.15a 54.60 ± 0.20b
40SFB 67.62 ± 0.25b 13.42 ± 0.11a 19.70 ± 0.20a 23.82 ± 0.23a 56.73 ± 0.25a 2.2
Foods 2020, 9,50SFB
507 69.42 ± 0.26a 12.51 ± 0.12b 19.93 ± 0.17a 23.53 ± 0.19a 57.87 ± 0.15a 3.3 6 of 10
a–b: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
80
70
Reflectance (%) 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Wavelenght (nm)
Figure 1. Reflectance spectra (360–740 nm) of chicken sausages [control, 40SFB (40% substitution of
Figure 1. Reflectance spectra (360–740 nm) of chicken sausages [control, 40SFB (40% substitution of
chicken skin by fatty byproducts and 50SFB (50% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts)].
chicken skin by fatty byproducts and 50SFB (50% substitution of chicken skin by fatty byproducts)].
3.3. Texture Properties
3.3. Texture Properties
Texture properties of sausages (hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, springiness and chewiness)
Texture
were properties
not affected (p > of sausages
0.05) (hardness, of
by the replacement cohesiveness,
chicken skin by gumminess, springiness
fatty byproducts and The
at any level. chewiness)
werefollowing
not affected > 0.05)
overall(pvalues by the
of TPA replacement
parameters obtained of chicken
for chickenskin by fatty
sausages werebyproducts at any
hardness: 497.4 ± level.
The 92.9 N; springiness:
following overall0.75 ± 0.11 mm;
values of TPAcohesiveness:
parameters 0.18 ±obtained
0.09; gumminess: 89.5 ± 9.7
for chicken N; and chewiness:
sausages were hardness:
497.453.9 ± 6.50N;
± 92.9 N springiness:
mm. Several modifications
0.75 ± 0.11 mm;in texture properties have
cohesiveness: 0.18been reported
± 0.09; in cooked89.5
gumminess: meat± 9.7 N;
products regarding formulation modifications in reference not only
and chewiness: 53.9 ± 6.50 N mm. Several modifications in texture properties have been to the type of ingredient but also
reported
to its concentration [6,39–42]. Texture in comminuted and cooked meat products has been related to
in cooked meat products regarding formulation modifications in reference not only to the type of
the ability of meat proteins to bind to water and fat and create a protein matrix in addition to their
ingredient but also to its concentration [6,39–42]. Texture in comminuted and cooked meat products
stability during processing (addition of salt, non-meat binders, heat treatment, etc.) affecting their
has been related
emulsifying and to the ability
gelling of meat in
properties proteins
the meatto bind
[Link] Water
water andand fat
fat and create awith
can interact protein
othermatrix in
addition to their stability during processing (addition of salt, non-meat binders,
ingredients to develop a desirable texture and mouthfeel and vitally influence the overall quality of heat treatment, etc.)
affecting their emulsifying
the product. In this case, theandpartial
gelling properties
replacement of in the meat
chicken skin batter.
by chickenWater and fat candid
fat byproducts interact
not with
othermodify the sausage’s
ingredients texture,
to develop which could
a desirable be attributed
texture and mouthfeelto the high
andstability of the protein
vitally influence matrix, quality
the overall
which
of the is ableIn
product. to this
bindcase,
watertheandpartial
fat regardless of the fat
replacement ofsource
chicken used.
skinThese results could
by chicken indicate the did not
fat byproducts
feasibility of chicken skin replacement (up to 50%) by fat byproducts in sausage.
modify the sausage’s texture, which could be attributed to the high stability of the protein matrix,
[Link]
able to bind Analysis
water and fat regardless of the fat source used. These results could indicate the
feasibility of chicken skin replacement (up to 50%) by fat byproducts in sausage.
The substitution of chicken skin with chicken fat byproducts (at any level) did not influence (p >
0.05) the microbiological
3.4. Microbiological Analysisquality of chicken sausages. Table 4 shows the microbial counts of chicken
sausages. All these values were within acceptability limits prescribed by Colombian legislation [33].
The substitution of chicken skin with chicken fat byproducts (at any level) did not influence
(p > 0.05) the microbiological quality of chicken sausages. Table 4 shows the microbial counts of chicken
sausages. All these values were within acceptability limits prescribed by Colombian legislation [33].
Results (CFU/g)
Microorganisms
CONTROL 40SFB 50SFB
Mesophiles 1234 ± 130 1086 ± 180 1160 ± 147
Total coliforms <10 <10 <10
E. coli <10 <10 <10
Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus <100 <100 <100
Salmonella Absence/25 g Absence/25 g Absence/25 g
Listeria monocytogenes Absence/25 g Absence/25 g Absence/25 g
Spores of sulfite-reducing Clostridium <10 <10 <10
E. coli <10 <10 <10
Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus <100 <100 <100
Salmonella Absence/25 g Absence/25 g Absence/25 g
Listeria monocytogenes Absence/25 g Absence/25 g Absence/25 g
Foods 2020,Spores
9, 507 of sulfite-reducing Clostridium <10 <10 <10 7 of 10
Color
7
Fat mouthfeel 6 Flavor
5
4
3
2
Chewiness Meat taste Control
1
0 40SFB
50SFB
Off-taste Salty
Figure 2. Sensory evaluation of chicken sausages [control, 40SFB (40% substitution of chicken skin by
byproducts and
fatty byproducts and 50SFB
50SFB (50%
(50% substitution
substitution of
of chicken
chicken skin
skin by
by fatty
fatty byproducts)].
byproducts)].
4. Conclusions
The results of this study show that chicken fatty byproducts could be used in place of chicken skin
in chicken emulsion-type sausages. Sausages with fatty byproducts added (40SFB and 50SFB) showed
lower moisture but higher fat content than control. Nevertheless, all of them meet the nutritional
requirements of the Colombian regulation for this type of meat products. When these fatty byproducts
were used at 50% substitution level, several differences in color properties (but without affecting the
typical shape of reflectance spectrum in this type of meat product) were noticed with respect to control,
and differences in color, flavor, and meat taste were also detected by panelists. Therefore, when the
substitution level was reduced to 40%, no sensorial differences were detected with respect to control
sausages. This study suggests that chicken sausages with 40% substitution of chicken skin by chicken
fatty byproducts is a highly marketable option.
Foods 2020, 9, 507 8 of 10
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.F.-L., and L.M.P.-S.; Methodology, L.M.P.-S., and J.A.P.-A.; Validation,
L.M.P.-S., and J.A.P.-A.; Investigation, J.F.-L., and J.A.P.-A.; Resources, L.M.P.-S.; Writing—Original draft
preparation, L.M.P.-S, and J.F.-L.; Writing—Review and editing, J.F.-L., and J.A.P.-A. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: IPOA researchers are members of the HealthyMeat network, funded by CYTED
(ref. 119RT0568).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
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