León Mejía AC
León Mejía AC
Septiembre, 2021
Documento maquetado con TEXiS v.1.0+.
Nomofobia:
Revisión de la literatura y
desarrollo de la versión española del
Nomophobia Questionnaire
(NMP-Q)
Septiembre, 2021
v
Para que así conste, y tenga los efectos oportunos, los directores
firman la presente autorización en Salamanca, a 5 de julio de 2021:
SERRANO PINTADO
p
o
r
a mi hermano Carlos
Agradecimientos
xi
Resumen
xiii
xiv APARTADO 0. Resumen
Agradecimientos xi
Resumen xiii
3. Referencias bibliográficas 41
II Compendio de publicaciones 49
4. Publicación 1 51
xv
xvi Índice
5. Publicación 2 61
6. Publicación 3 75
7. Anexos 99
Índice de figuras
xvii
Índice de Tablas
xix
Parte I
El término nomofobia fue acuñado por la Oficina de Correos del Reino Unido
en 2008, la cual encargó a una empresa de investigación y análisis de datos
llamada YouGov (DailyMail, 2008) que examinara si los usuarios de teléfonos
móvil de Reino Unido experimentaban algún tipo de ansiedad relacionada
con los mismos. Los resultados encontrados dieron grandes titulares a la
prensa inglesa, ya que más de 13 millones de británicos reconocían tener
3
4 APARTADO 1. Introducción y base teórica
miedo a quedarse sin contacto con el móvil, que mantener el contacto con los
amigos o la familia era la principal razón que explicaba el apego a su móvil,
y más de una de cada dos personas no apagaban nunca el teléfono móvil.
Además, uno de cada diez experimentaba la necesidad de estar localizable en
todo momento y un 9 % afirmaba que tener el teléfono apagado le producía
ansiedad. Había nacido con este estudio la “nomofobia” (acrónimo de No
Mobile Phobia), que afectaba a un 53 % de los usuarios de teléfonos móviles
británicos. A la afirmación de que “todos estamos familiarizados con las
situaciones estresantes de la vida cotidiana, como las mudanzas, las rupturas
y la organización de las Navidades en familia”, se le sumaba ahora perder el
contacto con el móvil.
Las recomendaciones de algunos investigadores consultados a colación de este
estudio aconsejaban a quienes deseasen evitar la nomofobia que mantuvieran
su crédito recargado, llevasen siempre un cargador consigo, dieran a sus
familiares y amigos un número de contacto alternativo y llevasen una tarjeta
telefónica de prepago para hacer llamadas de emergencia en caso de rotura,
pérdida o robo del móvil. Consejos muy llamativos desde el punto de vista
psicológico. Otras recomendaciones incluían llevar un listado de números de
teléfono importantes en caso de pérdida y poner el teléfono en un bolsillo o
bolso cerrado para evitar su pérdida o robo. Por último, también apuntaban
a un acto mucho más radical para luchar contra la nomofobia: apagar el
móvil de vez en cuando.
Once años más tarde, YouGov decidió realizar otro estudio sobre la
nomofobia, esta vez empleando el cuestionario NMP-Q que vio la luz gracias,
en parte, al estudio del 2008 que inspiró la tesis doctoral de Caglar Yildirim
(2014). Los resultados encontrados en YouGov (2019) no fueron mucho más
alentadores que los del DailyMail (2008). Los jóvenes afirmaban sentirse
perdidos sin sus teléfonos. La mayoría de los británicos no había escuchado
el término nomofobia, pero sí se identificaban con el miedo a estar sin el
móvil. En concreto, de los nueve de cada diez británicos (88 %) que poseían
un smartphone, una proporción considerable de ellos se sentían ansiosos,
nerviosos o preocupados ante la idea de separarse de su dispositivo, aunque
fuese tan solo por un día, sobre todo los grupos más jóvenes de 18 a 34 años.
Además, también emergieron claras diferencias en nomofobia según edad.
Por ejemplo, al 60 % de los jóvenes de 18 a 24 años y de 25 a 34 años les
preocupaba no poder comunicarse con su familia y amigos con el teléfono,
frente tan solo a un tercio de los mayores de 55 años (34 %) que también
compartían la misma inquietud. A tres cuartas partes de los jóvenes de
18 a 24 años (72 %) les agobiaría que sus familiares y amigos no pudieran
comunicarse con ellos, en comparación con casi la mitad de los mayores de
55 años (47 %) que sentiría lo mismo. Dos tercios del grupo de edad más
joven (67 %) se pondrían nerviosos con el móvil apagado porque no sabrían
si la gente estaría intentando localizarlos, frente a un tercio de los mayores
1.1. Origen del término 5
de 55 años (35 %) que tendría el mismo malestar ante esta situación. Por
tanto, estos datos apuntan, como parte de la literatura académica revisada
en esta tesis, a los más jóvenes como un grupo de riesgo a la hora de padecer
nomofobia.
Si la encuesta de 2008 encontró que los hombres eran algo más nomofóbicos
que las mujeres (un 58 % de ellos frente a un 48 % de ellas), en 2019
las mujeres emergían como el sexo más propenso a sentir ansiedad o
preocupación por no poder contactar con la familia y los amigos (52 % de
ellas frente al 34 % de ellos). También eran las que más temían no estar
localizables por la familia y los amigos (64 %, frente al 48 % de ellos) o por
no saber si alguien estaba intentando ponerse en contacto con ellas (52 %,
frente al 34 % de los hombres).
Otros datos preocupantes fueron que casi la mitad de los usuarios de 18 a 24
años (45 %) se sentirían raros porque no sabrían qué hacer sin el móvil, frente
a un tercio (36 %) de los jóvenes de 25 a 34 años y sólo uno de cada diez
(10 %) de los mayores de 55 años que opinaba lo mismo. Uno de cada nueve
(11 %) se pondría nervioso al verse "desconectado de su identidad online"si
se quedara sin su teléfono durante un día. Esta cifra se elevaba a uno de cada
cinco (19 %) entre los jóvenes de 18 a 24 años y a uno de cada seis (16 %)
entre los de 25 a 34 años.
Además de explorar las preguntas del NMP-Q, esta nueva encuesta incluyó
datos sobre la frecuencia con la que nos separamos de nuestro teléfono
durante un día o durante una hora. Así, se encontró que dos tercios de
los usuarios de teléfonos inteligentes rara vez o nunca salían de casa sin él
(67 %). Incluso cuando al moverse de una habitación a otra de la casa, la
mitad (49 %) llevaba su teléfono consigo, lo que también aumentaba a ocho
de cada diez de los jóvenes de 18 a 24 años (78 %), siete de cada diez de los
de 25 a 34 años (68 %) y seis de cada diez de los de 35 a 44 años (57 %).
La nomofobia también parece relacionarse con la usabilidad de redes sociales,
siendo los consumidores de SnapChat e Instagram los más propensos a
sentirse nerviosos cuando no pueden usar el móvil y chequear las redes
sociales, un 30 % y un 27 %, respectivamente. Coincide que los usuarios de
estas redes son también los más jóvenes. De hecho, uno de cada seis usuarios
de smartphones afirmó que se sentiría incómodo si perdiera tan solo un día
de actualizaciones en las redes sociales, elevándose esta cifra a uno de cada
cuatro entre las mujeres (23 %).
En España, según el INE (2020), un 94,5 % de niños entre 10 y 15 años usa
Internet y ha habido un aumento notable del número de menores de 15 años
que usan el móvil, que ha pasado de un año a otro del 66 % al 69.5 %. Si
vemos estos datos en la franja de los niños de 10 años, la encuesta del INE
nos dice que un 22 % usa el teléfono móvil. Según un estudio de XPLORA
(2019) sobre el acceso de los niños a los teléfonos móviles con más de 400
6 APARTADO 1. Introducción y base teórica
Una vez definido qué son las fobias y, en concreto, las situacionales como
la nomofobia, cabe preguntarse por qué a menudo se habla de adicción
al móvil en lugar de nomofobia, ¿es lo mismo? Desde un punto de vista
clínico y psicológico la respuesta a la pregunta sería no. Fobia y adicción son
constructos psicológicos diferentes. Mientras que la fobia se caracteriza por
el miedo, la adicción sin sustancia o comportamental implica una pérdida de
control sobre algo que interfiere en la vida de la persona.
Para hablar de adicción comportamental, tendría que darse, al igual que en
las adicciones con sustancia, los fenómenos de dependencia (continuidad de
la conducta a pesar de las consecuencias negativas), tolerancia (cada vez hace
falta más tiempo para obtener el mismo efecto que se persigue), síndrome
de abstinencia (malestar intenso ante el cese de conducta) y la interferencia
grave en la vida cotidiana de la persona. Este cuadro es muy distinto de los
síntomas más comunes referidos al móvil que mide, por ejemplo, el NMP-Q.
Por tanto, se trataría de dos fenómenos distintos, lo cual no quiere decir que
no exista la adicción al móvil, sino que sería otro problema distinto al de la
nomofobia.
Además, cabe señalar que la adicción se describe como un espectro de
gravedad en el uso y abuso de la sustancia o comportamiento. Así, surge la
distinción entre abuso y adicción: cuando una persona está luchando contra
el “abuso”, todavía tiene cierto grado de control, pero si este control se ha
perdido ya hablamos de “adicción” y de la necesidad de realizar la conducta
para sentirse normal y del surgimiento de síntomas de abstinencia, en caso
contrario. Por esta razón, surgieron los conceptos de uso problemático de
Internet (UPI) y del teléfono móvil (UPM), más centrados en problemas de
regulación a la hora de usar el móvil, para diferenciar así entre abuso (UPM)
y adicción más severa.
Por otra parte, la transición del DSM-IV al DSM-5 también estableció
una preferencia por la palabra “dependencia” como eufemismo de adicción,
supuestamente como un intento de ayudar a desestigmatizar a los pacientes
adictos (Fainsinger et al., 2006). Sin embargo, esto añadió confusión
conceptual, ya que la dependencia en el sentido del DSM era realmente
“adicción”, y la dependencia en un sentido médico se usaba como término
para referirse a la adaptación fisiológica normal al uso repetido de una
droga o medicamento. En cualquier caso, tanto si lo llamamos dependencia,
como adicción nos referimos a una pérdida de control acompañada de un
comportamiento compulsivo que busca realizar la conducta problema (Zou
et al., 2017).
1.2. Qué es la nomofobia 11
Por su parte, Ayşen and Neslihan (2019) también realizan una comparación
entre estos dos conceptos, señalando los constructos teóricos con los que se
ha relacionado tanto la nomofobia como la adicción, así como sus factores y
variables más importantes (ver figura 2.2).
12 APARTADO 1. Introducción y base teórica
(a) Nomofobia
Tabla 1.5: Programa “Los siete días mágicos” de Prasyatiani et al. (2017)
Actuación Día
Evaluación preliminar: cuestionario para evaluar el nivel de nomofobia
Día 1
y grupos de apoyo.
Desintoxicación digital: los participantes no pueden llevar el teléfono
Todos los días
móvil durante los siete días mágicos.
Terapia cognitivo-conductual, grupos de apoyo y entrevista motivacional
para abordar problemas relacionados con las emociones, pensamientos y Cualquiera de los 7 días
comportamientos disfuncionales.
Actividad interactiva, que se realiza en grupos y en la que se incluyen
juegos y discusiones para que los participantes puedan siempre interactuar Cualquiera de los 7 días
directamente.
Entrega de teléfono móvil en momentos puntuales, se da cuando los
No especificado
participantes realmente necesitan contactar con sus familiares.
La evaluación final consiste en devolver el cuestionario para determinar el índice
Día 7
de disminución de la nomofobia.
Sin duda, uno de los aspectos más peliagudos de esta implantación de normas
de convivencia con los móviles es conseguir que los padres sean buenos
modelos y cumplan con las normas impuestas a nivel familiar, como no usar
el móvil en la mesa a la hora de desayunar, comer y cenar en familia, no usarlo
cuando se realice una actividad juntos (como dar un paseo, hacer los deberes
26 APARTADO 1. Introducción y base teórica
29
30 APARTADO 2. Relación y coherencia entre los trabajos publicados
funcionaba igual con independencia del sexo y edad de los individuos, lo cual
era un paso fundamental para poder obtener los puntos de corte específicos
por sexo y edad que nos permitiera usar el NMP-Q de modo clínico.
En cuanto a la revisión sistemática, y tal y como corresponde a esta
metodología, no partimos de objetivos ni hipótesis sino de una serie de
preguntas de investigación que guiaron la revisión de los artículos y que
fueron las siguientes:
Así, pues el segundo trabajo se realizó con una muestra de 5012 participantes,
cuyas puntuaciones fueron analizadas en tres grupos de edades: 12-15,
34 APARTADO 2. Relación y coherencia entre los trabajos publicados
2.3. Conclusiones
2.4. Limitaciones
Tal y como hemos visto, las investigaciones realizadas en el marco de
esta tesis proporcionan criterios normativos para medir la nomofobia, pero
2.4. Limitaciones 37
común a todas las investigaciones que garantice el correcto uso del NMP-Q.
Las directrices para analizar diferencias de género y edad se aportaron con
este mismo propósito.
2.5. Prospectiva
Referencias bibliográficas
41
Referencias bibliográficas
Burstein, M., Georgiades, K., He, J.-P., Schmitz, A., Feig, E.,
Khazanov, G. K., and Merikangas, K. (2012). Specific phobia among
U.S. adolescents: phenomenology and typology. Depression and
Anxiety, 29(12),1072–1082.
Çilem Tuğba Koç (2019). The new one of the old media: Understanding
electronic culture. Debates on Media Communication Studies.
Fainsinger, R. L., Thai, V., Frank, G., and Fergusson, J. (2006). What’s
in a word? Addiction versus dependence in DSM-V Am J Psychiatry,
163(11).
43
44 REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Farchakh, Y., Hallit, R., Akel, M., Chalhoub, C., Hachem, M.,
Hallit, S., and Obeid, S. (2021). Nomophobia in Lebanon: Scale
validation and association with psychological aspects. PLoS One,
16(4),e0249890.
González-Cabrera, J., León-Mejía, A., Calvete, E., and Pérez-Sancho,
C. (2017). Adaptación al español del cuestionario Nomophobia
Questionnaire (NMP-Q) en una muestra de adolescentes. Actas
Españolas de Psiquiatría, 45(4),137–144.
Gutiérrez-Puertas, L., Hernández, V. V., and Aguilera-Manrique, G.
(2016). Adaptation and validation of the Spanish cersion of the
Nomophobia Questionnaire in Nursing Studies. CIN: Computers,
Informatics, Nursing, 34(10),470–475.
Harris, B., Regan, T., Schueler, J., and Fields, S. A. (2020).
Problematic mobile phone and smartphone use scales: A systematic
review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11,672–672.
INE (2020). Encuesta sobre Equipamiento y Uso de Tecnologías de
Información y comunicación en los hogares Año 2020. Technical
Report.
INE (2021). Población que usa Internet (en los últimos tres meses).
Tipo de actividades realizadas por Internet.
IPSOS, Q. e. (2019). Familias hiperconectadas: el nuevo panorama de
aprendices y nativos digitales. Technical Report.
Jones, M., Dawson, B., Eastwood, P., Halson, S., Miller, J., Murray,
K., Dunican, I. C., Landers, G., and Peeling, P. (2019). Influence of
electronic devices on sleep and cognitive performance During Athlete
Training Camps. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 6.
Kildare, C. A. and Middlemiss, W. (2017). Impact of parents
mobile device use on parent-child interaction: A literature review.
Computers in Human Behavior, 75,579–593.
King, A. L. S., Valença, A., Cardoso, A., Sancassiani, F., Machado,
S., and Nardi, A. (2014). “Nomophobia”: Impact of cell phone
use interfering with symptoms and emotions of individuals with
panic disorder compared with a control group. Clinical Practice
and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 10,28–35.
King, A. L. S., Valença, A. M., da Silva, A. C., , Baczynski, T. P.,
de Carvalho, M. R., and Nardi, A. E. (2013). Nomophobia:
Dependency on virtual environments or social phobia? Computers
in Human Behavior, 29(1),140–144.
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS 45
Lin, Y.-H., Chiang, C.-L., Lin, P.-H., Chang, L.-R., Ko, C.-H., Lee,
Y.-H., and Lin, S.-H. (2016). Proposed diagnostic criteria for
smartphone addiction. PLOS ONE, 11(11),1–11.
News, A. (2017). ít makes me feel angry’, Kids speak out about their
parents’phone use.
Niu, G., Yao, L., Wu, L., Tian, Y., Xu, L., and Sun, X. (Children
and Youth Services Review). Parental phubbing and adolescent
problematic mobile phone use: The role of parent-child relationship
and self-control. Children and Youth Services Review, 116(105247).
Parasuraman, S., Sam, A. T., Yee, S. W. K., Chuon, B. L. C., and Ren,
L. Y. (2017). Smartphone usage and increased risk of mobile phone
addiction: A concurrent study. Int J Pharm Investig, 7(3).125–131.
46 REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Sharma, S., Bera, S., Kumar, A., and Gupta, V. (2019). Nomophobia
and its relationship with depression, anxiety, and quality of life in
adolescents. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 28(2).231–236.
Zou, Z., Wang, H., dÓleire Uquillas, F., Wang, X., Ding, J., and Chen,
H. (2017). Definition of substance and non-substance addiction. Adv
Exp Med Biol, 1010.21–41.
Parte II
Compendio de publicaciones
APARTADO 4
Publicación 1
51
Original
Correspondencia:
Joaquín González-Cabrera
Departamento de Psicología de la Educación y Psicobiología
Facultad de Educación
Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR)
Gran Vía Rey Juan Carlos I, 41
26002 Logroño La Rioja, España
Correo electrónico: [email protected]
2. La versión española de la Mobile Phone Problem Use Con la finalidad de generar evidencias de validez con-
Scale (MPPUS)17. Se aborda con el cuestionario el uso vergente se han analizado correlaciones de Pearson contro-
problemático del teléfono móvil. En este estudio la con- lando por la edad entre la puntuación total de la versión
sistencia interna de la herramienta, mediante el alfa de española del NMP-Q y las versiones en castellano del MPPUS
Cronbach, fue de 0,97, así mismo se obtuvieron adecua- y el GPIUS2. Para establecer indicadores de validez discrimi-
dos indicadores de validez interna en el análisis factorial nante se han comparado (mediante prueba T para muestras
exploratorio. independientes) las puntuaciones del NMP-Q en función de
diferentes variables sociodemográficas. Para llevar a cabo
3. La versión española de la Generalized Problematic In- los análisis de datos se utilizaron el paquete estadístico SPSS
ternet Use Scale (GPIUS2)22. Esta herramienta está com- versión 21 (IBM©) y el programa FACTOR 9.2 26.
puesta por 15 ítems y 4 subescalas: a) preferencia por
la interacción social en línea, b) la regulación del estado
de ánimo, c) los resultados negativos, y d) la autorregu- ReSultAdoS
lación deficiente. Posee valores en el alfa de Cronbach Las puntuaciones de los ítems 8, 9 y 15 fueron mayo-
que varían entre 0,85 y 0,78. res en las mujeres (p<0,001) siendo el tamaño del efecto
pequeño en todos los casos (<0,3). Asimismo, se aprecian Para establecer indicadores de validez discriminante se
diferencias en los ítems 4, 16, 17, 18, y 20 en función del tipo han comparado las puntuaciones medias de aquellos partici-
de estudio cursado (p<0,001) siendo las puntuaciones ma- pantes que afirmaban no pueden estar sin el smartphone 24
yores en la muestra que cursaba ESO y el tamaño del efecto horas (n=53; 91,06±23,22) y aquellos que sí pueden (n=253;
pequeño (<0,3). No hay diferencias en función del lugar de 62,33±23,33), t=8,16; p<0,001. De igual forma para aque-
estudio (p<0,389). llos que afirman no poder prescindir de éste indefinidamen-
te (n=243; 73,022±23,50) y aquellos que afirman sí (n=62;
Un total de 166 (54,2%) tienen un smartphone desde 44,01±19,48), t=10,01; p<0,001.
hace más de 3 años frente a 6 participantes (1,7%) que indi-
ca menos de un año (todos ellos alumnos de 3º ESO). Setenta
y cuatro participantes (24,2%) dedican más de 4 horas al día Patrones de uso problemático de la versión
al smartphone, frente a solo 9 (2,5%) que lo usan menos de española del NMP-Q
una hora al día. Asimismo, un 17,3% de la muestra afirma
que no podría estar 24 horas sin el smartphone y un 79,4% La puntuación total del NMP-Q varía entre 20 y 140
que no podría dejarlo indefinidamente. puntos, donde a mayor puntuación mayores niveles de no-
mofobia. Su puntuación media y desviación típica fue de
67,31±25,70 en un rango de 20-132. Para la clasificación de
evidencias de validez de la versión española del uso problemático se eligió el criterio estadístico más restric-
NMP-Q tivo, que es utilizado también en el ámbito de la investiga-
ción del juego patológico o el uso problemático del móvil.
La Tabla 1 recoge distintos indicadores psicométricos Se basa en los percentiles 15, 80 y 95, que corresponden
para cada uno de los ítems del NMP-Q, concretamente la al usuario ocasional, en riesgo y problemático, respectiva-
media, desviación típica y correlación ítem-total. mente12,27. En este caso para el total de la muestra dichos
percentiles corresponden a las puntuaciones 39, 87 y 116
En relación con el análisis factorial exploratorio, los da-
respectivamente del NMP-Q. Se encontró que un 14,4% de
tos del índice Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin y la prueba de esfericidad
la muestra estaba por debajo del percentil 15, un 66,4%
de Bartlett fueron 0,945 y χ2=4551,0; p<0,001. La matriz
entre el percentil 15 y 80 y 4,6% por encima del percentil
de ínter-correlaciones entre los ítems fue apropiada para la
95. Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre las pun-
realización del análisis factorial exploratorio. Los resultados
tuaciones de los alumnos de ESO (71,39±27,33) y Bachiller
señalan 4 factores que explican el 66,4% de la varianza to-
(63,67±23,64)-t=2,623; p<0,009-. En la Tabla 5 se presentan
tal. El primer factor explica un 47,9%, el segundo un 8,0%, el
las diferentes puntuaciones en los percentiles 15, 80 y 95 en
tercero un 6,4% y el cuarto un 5,0%. Se obtuvo un Goodness
función del sexo y la franja de edad.
of Fit Index (GFI) de 1 y en la Tabla 2 se muestran las corre-
laciones entre cada uno de los factores.
tabla 1 Medias, desviaciones típicas y correlación ítem-total para los 20 ítems del NMP-Q (n=306)
Me dt It
1. Me sentiría mal si no pudiera acceder en cualquier momento a la información a 3,49 1,67 0,606
través de mi smartphone.
2. Me molestaría si no pudiera consultar información a través de mi smartphone 4,02 1,71 0,614
cuando quisiera.
3. Me pondría nervioso/a si no pudiera acceder a las noticias (p. ej. sucesos, predicción 2,52 1,59 0,546
meteorológica, etc.) a través de mi smartphone.
4. Me molestaría si no pudiera utilizar mi smartphone y/o sus aplicaciones cuando 4,24 1,82 0,679
quisiera.
9. Si no pudiera consultar mi smartphone durante un rato, sentiría deseos de hacerlo. 3,62 1,85 0,689
10. Me inquietaría por no poder comunicarme al momento con mi familia y/o amigos. 3,82 1,86 0,791
11. Me preocuparía porque mi familia y/o amigos no podrían contactar conmigo. 4,12 1,77 0,673
12. Me pondría nervioso/a por no poder recibir mensajes de texto ni llamadas. 3,58 1,92 0,835
13. Estaría inquieto por no poder mantenerme en contacto con mi familia y/o amigos. 3,91 1,78 0,787
14. Me pondría nervioso/a por no poder saber si alguien ha intentado contactar 3,82 1,89 0,766
conmigo.
15. Me inquietaría por haber dejado de estar constantemente en contacto con mi 3,31 1,76 0,777
familia y/o amigos.
16. Me pondría nervioso/a por estar desconectado/a de mi identidad virtual. 2,76 1,68 0,790
17. Me sentiría mal por no poder mantenerme al día de lo que ocurre en los medios de 3,11 1,79 0,751
comunicación y redes sociales.
18. Me sentiría incómodo/a por no poder consultar las notificaciones sobre mis 3,09 1,77 0,788
conexiones y redes virtuales.
19. Me agobiaría por no poder comprobar si tengo nuevos mensajes de correo 2,47 1,68 0,568
electrónico.
20. Me sentiría raro/a porque no sabría qué hacer. 2,81 1,86 0,584
ME: Media aritmética; DT: desviación típica; IT: correlación ítem-total corregido
positivas y directas entre el NMP-Q y la versión española del los autores de la versión original, el cual cuenta con una
GPIUS-2 y el MPPUS. adecuada validez de contenido de la nomofobia18,19. No obs-
tante, sí se han realizado modificaciones analíticas al realizar
Además, se ha conseguido una adaptación al castellano el análisis factorial exploratorio. En este caso, tras la inspec-
con rigor conceptual y metodológico, ya que se han encon- ción de las medias y los coeficientes de asimetría de los ítems
trado evidencias de fiabilidad y validez interna. El diseño de (posición) y la magnitud de las correlaciones inter-ítem (dis-
la misma ha seguido el marco conceptual establecido por criminación) de distintos ítems se espera que las correlacio-
tabla 3 Saturaciones factoriales obtenidas de cada ítem en función de cada dimensión y su relación con los
valores originales de la escala del NMP-Q (n=306)
ÍTEM Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor de Yildirim y Correia (2015) Saturación factorial de Yildirim y
Correia (2015)
nes policóricas se ajusten mejor a los datos obtenidos que ceptualizado más como un hándicap para la comunicación
las correlaciones de Pearson. Asimismo, se ha utilizado el (factor 1) por el claro papel obstaculizador que tiene a tal
procedimiento de Análisis Paralelo (AP) siendo el método de efecto. En cualquier caso, siendo las diferencias entre los fac-
extracción de factores el Unweighted Least Squares (ULS). tores tan pequeñas se aboga por dejar el ítem 7 en el factor 4
usando una rotación Promin24,25, frente al análisis factorial a fin de ser consistentes con el marco teórico de los autores.
Hasta la fecha se han obtenido pocos datos de prevalen- Esta actividad ha sido parcialmente financiada por UNIR
cia debido a lo reciente del instrumento. No obstante, Yildi- Research (http://research.unir.net), Universidad Internacio-
rim et al. encontraron en Turquía un 42,6% de jóvenes adul- nal de la Rioja (UNIR, http://www.unir.net), dentro del Plan
tos nomofóbicos18,30. Estos datos concuerdan en parte con Propio de Investigación 3 [2015-2017], Grupo de Investiga-
los obtenidos en nuestra muestra. En otro trabajo, realizado ción “Análisis y prevención del ciberacoso”.
Publicación 2
61
original adicciones vol. 33, no. 2 · 2021
Abstract Resumen
Nomophobia is a situational phobia leading to a deep, irrational, La nomofobia es una fobia situacional en la que se experimenta un
and disproportionate fear of not being able to use the smartphone. miedo intenso, irracional y desproporcionado a no poder usar el
An instrumental study on the Spanish version of the Nomophobia smartphone. Se realizó un estudio instrumental de la versión españo-
la del cuestionario de Nomofobia (NMP-Q) con los objetivos de: 1)
Questionnaire (NMP-Q) was carried out. The objectives were: 1) To
analizar su estructura factorial y fiabilidad; 2) analizar su invarianza
analyse its factor structure and reliability; 2) to test for the invariance
con relación al sexo y la edad, y 3) obtener puntos de cortes espe-
of sex and age groups, and 3) to obtain specific cut-off points by sex
cíficos para distintas edades y sexo. El muestreo fue incidental y no
and age non-existent to date. Sampling was incidental and non-prob- probabilístico. Hubo 5012 participantes (57.9%, mujeres) de 12-24
abilistic with 5012 participants (57.9%, females) aged 12-24 years años (M = 18,04, SD = 3,3). El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró
(M = 18.04, SD = 3.3). The confirmatory factor analysis revealed a hi- un modelo jerárquico de 4 factores correlacionados y explicados por
erarchical model with four correlated factors explained by a gener- uno general de segundo orden. Los índices de fiabilidad de las dimen-
al second-order factor. The internal validity and reliability values of siones del NMP-Q fueron satisfactorios oscilando entre ,78, ,85, ,86 y
the NMP-Q dimensions are satisfactory, ranging between .78, .85, .86, ,92 (Omega ω). Un análisis multigrupo confirmó la invarianza por
and .92 (Omega ω). A multigroup analysis confirmed the invariance sexo y edad. A partir de las puntuaciones del NMP-Q se calcularon 3
across sex and age groups. Building on the NMP-Q scores, we calcu- puntos de corte siguiendo los percentiles 15, 80 y 95 (sin nomofobia,
lated 3 cut-off points using percentiles 15th, 80th and 95th (unno- riesgo de nomofobia, y nomofóbico). Las mujeres de 12-15 años tu-
vieron las puntuaciones más altas en nomofobia. Podemos concluir
mophobic, at risk of nomophobia, and nomophobic). Females aged
que el NMP-Q nos permite identificar problemas de nomofobia por
12-15 years had the highest nomophobic scores. We can conclude that
sexo y edad desde un punto de vista clínico.
the proposed sex and age cut-off points will allow us to better identify
Palabras clave: Nomofobia; Puntos de corte; Smartphone; Internet;
nomophobic problems from a clinical point of view.
Adicción conductual.
Keywords: Nomophobia; Cut-off points; Smartphone; Internet;
Behavioural addiction.
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Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q): Factorial Structure and sex and age Cut-off Points for the Spanish Version
Introduction
T
nologies, which produces anxiety and distress (King et al.,
he digitalization of society has profoundly 2013). More specifically, it is considered a situational and
transformed the way we socially interact, allow- social phobia that makes individuals experience a deep,
ing us to communicate, obtain information, irrational, and disproportionate fear of not being able to
develop ideas, generate synergies, and maxi- use the mobile phone or of running out of coverage and/
mize opportunities in forms we never before dreamed of. or battery and, therefore, having to temporarily relinquish
However, despite numerous advantages, these changes also their social identity, that is, the personality that communi-
entails challenges and risks, especially for young people, cates and expresses itself on the social network accessed
giving rise to new psychosocial pathologies (Kirwan, 2016). through the mobile phone (Bragazzi & Del Puente, 2014;
In this sense, it is unclear whether we are facing a new be- González-Cabrera, León-Mejía, Calvete & Pérez-Sancho,
havioral addiction or a problem of a psychosocial and envi- 2017; Han, Kim & Kim, 2017; King et al., 2013; Yildirim &
ronmental nature (Pedrero Pérez et al., 2018). Correia, 2015). It is also related to other mental problems,
In particular, Spain, along with Asian countries, tops such as generalized anxiety disorder, panic, agoraphobia,
the list of worldwide countries that have greater access to depression, social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder,
Internet via their smartphones, more specifically 92% of post-traumatic stress, and anorexia (King, Guedes, Pedro
the respondents (Google/TNS, 2017; Statista, 2017). In ad- Neto, Guimaraes & Nardi, 2017). Regardless of the lack of
dition, 99% of young Spaniards access the Internet every agreement on how we label or conceptualize the problem-
day through their mobile phones (Ditrendia, 2017). On atic use of smartphones (phobia vs. addictions), we need to
the other hand, people have their own mobile at increas- better understand this phenomenon as well as to improve
ingly early ages, with a current mean age between 10-12 the way we psychosocially intervene to prevent and treat it
years (Garmendia-Larrañaga, Jiménez-Iglesias, Casado & (Ruiz-Ruano, López-Salmerón & López-Puga, 2020).
Mascheroni, 2016; González-Cabrera, Balea, Vallina, Moya
& Laviana, 2017). Assessment tools and at-risk groups
In the light of these data, it is not surprising that no- The existence of a technological generation gap allows
mophobia (acronym for no-mobile-phobia) is receiving us to differentiate between people who have experienced
increasing attention in Spain and globally. This is because the digital communicative social change (and some of its
it relates to a contemporary phenomenon that is charac- possible pernicious effects) in their adult life –with their
teristic of our societies, i.e., the need to connect online basic personality already formed–, and people who are al-
(Walsh, White & Young, 2010) or digital connectedness, ready growing up and socializing as digital natives and ear-
which can be defined as the urge to be in constant contact ly adopters of technology. This is of great interest for the
with social networks through Internet and personal devices study of nomophobia, as everything seems to indicate that
and laptops that allow us to be constantly connected with adolescents and young people (especially young females)
others. In addition, given the digital changes we are going are at higher risk (González-Cabrera et al., 2017; Securen-
through, the concept of the extended self proposed by James voy, 2012). However, in order to reach valid conclusions
(1890) is also undergoing a profound transformation. In about at-risk groups, it is essential to have data on scores
this sense, avatars, profiles, contacts, comments and mes- that reliably indicate a nomophobic problem, and to de-
sages circulating in the social networks, emails, etc., have termine whether these scores are really sensitive to individ-
become part of our inner “self” (Belk, 2016), changing the uals’ sex and age.
processes of self-presentation and self-monitoring implied Since nomophobia is a relatively new concept, we had
by Internet. This online reality affects the establishment no specific tools to evaluate it until the NMP-Q was pro-
of one’s self-concept and core identity (Carter & Grover, posed by Yildirim and Correia (2015). Afterwards, different
2015; Davis, 2013; Walsh et al., 2010) in ways we are still linguistic adaptations have been made to Spanish, Italian,
trying to understand. Persian or Chinese (Adawi et al., 2018; Bragazzi et al., 2016;
Therefore, Internet and smartphones have not only González-Cabrera et al., 2017; Lin, Griffiths & Pakpour,
changed our socio-communicative needs, but also our 2018; Ma & Liu, 2018), and most surely others adaptations
habits and social behavior. The dysregulation of certain be- are ongoing. However, to date few studies have identified
havioral patterns can produce distress and anxiety in some cut-off points to establish problematic levels of nomopho-
individuals, generating harmful and dysfunctional outputs bia (González-Cabrera et al., 2017), and due to the relative
(Dongre, Inamdar & Gattani, 2017; King et al., 2013; Tane- novelty of the construct, normative data on nomophobia is
ja, 2014). Among these behavioral problems, the conceptu- still needed. Consequently, our objectives are: 1) to obtain
alization of nomophobia as an anxiety disorder has recently indicators of validity and reliability of the Spanish version
attracted attention. In the field of psychology and psychi- of the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), including
atry, it is defined as a disorder resulting from people’s in- the confirmatory study of its factor structure; 2) to test
teraction with the information and communication tech- whether the questionnaire works equally in both men and
138
Ana León-Mejía, Esther Calvete, Carmen Patino-Alonso, Juan M. Machimbarrena, Joaquín González-Cabrera
women, as well as in adolescences and young adults of dif- structure of a tool already adapted to Spanish and to study
ferent ages, and 3) to obtain specific cut-off points by sex in depth its psychometric properties. The initial sample
and age. comprised 5380 participants from the entire national ter-
We formulated the following hypotheses: (a) Nomopho- ritory, but the final sample was made up of 5012 people,
bia will be higher in females than in males; (b) Regarding after eliminating incomplete questionnaires (one or more
age, the scores will be higher in the younger groups, with unanswered items or containing response errors) as well as
the range of greatest concern between 14 and 18 years; questionnaires that were completed in less than 4 minutes.
(c) Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) will confirm the Sampling procedure was non-probabilistic and incidental,
four-dimension model that other authors have reported but the sample included participants from the 17 regions
(Lin et al., 2018) and the original model of Yildirim and of Spain, including Ceuta and Melilla (see Table 1).
Correia (2015). Of these participants, 2902 (57.9%) were female and
2110 (42.1%) were male, with ages ranging between 12
and 24 years (mean= 18.04, SD= 3.3). Regarding the age
Material and methods of participants, there were 252 (5%) participants between
Participants 12-13 years of age, 1171 (23.4%) between 14-15 years, 1155
We conducted an instrument validation study (Monte- (23%) between 16-17 years, 727 (14.5%) between 18 and
ro & León, 2007) between November and December 2017 19 years, 703 (14%) between 20-21 years, and 1004 (20%)
in Spain, the purpose of which was to confirm the factor between 21 and 24 years of age.
Note. Spain is composed of 17 regions and two cities with a special regimen (Ceuta and Melilla).
139
Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q): Factorial Structure and sex and age Cut-off Points for the Spanish Version
any consequence and about the confidentiality of the infor- the model adequately fits the data). To compare models, we
mation, which was warranted due to the anonymous nature used the corrected Chi-squared difference test (Crawford &
of the survey. Finally, they were informed about whom to Henry, 2003). To determine the internal consistency of the
contact for questions about the research. After reading this instrument, we estimated the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
information, in case they agreed to participate, they should (Cronbach, 1951), the Ordinal alpha coefficient (Elosua
indicate their acceptance and then went to the survey. This & Zumbo, 2008), McDonald’s Omega (1999), the GLB of
study has been evaluated by the Research Ethics Committee Woodhouse and Jackson (1977), and the GLB algebraic al-
of the International University of La Rioja (PI 009/2019). gorithm (GLBa) of Moltner and Revelle (2015).
There were no exclusion criteria other than to own and use To examine if the NMP-Q can be used with both men
a smartphone with Internet. and women, as well as with people of different ages, we
tested the invariance of the structural model across sex
Statistical Analyses and age groups (under and above 17). In the first step, we
First, we calculated the descriptive statistics of the estimated the model separately in males, females, partici-
NMP-Q scores according to sex and age (recoded into pants between 12 and 17 years, and participants between
three groups: 12-15, 16-20, and 21-24 years). We used these 18 and 24 years. Secondly, configural invariance was test-
groups in order to be consistent with the psycho-evolution- ed. This implies that the relations between each indicator
ary stages inherent in initial adolescence (12-15), mid and and its construct have the same pattern of fixed and free
late adolescence (16-20) and early youth (21-24) (Salmera- loadings for each group. Thirdly, this model was compared
Aro, 2011). Quantitative variables were expressed as mean with a more restrictive model (weak factorial invariance),
and standard deviation (SD). The mean difference be- in which first-order factor loadings within constructs were
tween the qualitative variables of two categories was ana- specified as equal for both groups. In the fourth step, we
lyzed with Student’s T-test for independent samples. In the examined whether the intercepts were invariant across
case of more than two categories, results were compared groups (strong factorial invariance). With this aim, the
using ANOVA. Pairwise post hoc comparisons were exam- intercepts were added to the previous model. Finally, we
ined using the Bonferroni test. examined whether second-order factor loadings were
Cohen’s d was also calculated to provide the effect size. equivalent across groups. Given that Chi-Square is very sen-
Regarding internal validity, an analysis of the psychomet- sitive to large samples and non-normality conditions, it is
ric properties of each item was conducted, indicating the assumed that the model is invariant if the ΔCFI is not above
arithmetic mean, standard deviation, item-total correla- 0.01 (Cheung Rensvold, 2002).
tion, skewness, and kurtosis (see Table 2). The structure To classify the cut-off points, we used the 15th, 80th, and
of the NMP-Q was analyzed by means of CFA. We used 95th percentiles, which correspond to: nonnomophobic,
the robust maximum likelihood (RML) method, which at risk of nomophobia, and nomophobic. This classifica-
requires an estimate of the asymptotic covariance matrix tion is based on other areas of research, such as pathologi-
of the sample variances and covariances and includes the cal gambling or the problematic use of mobile phones, yet
Satorra-Bentler scaled χ2 index (S-Bχ2). it has been adapted to the uniqueness of the nomophobic
The hypothesized model consisted of a correlated problem presented herein (González-Cabrera et al., 2017;
four-factor structure: Not being able to access information López-Fernández, Freixa-Blanxart & Honrubia-Serrano,
(4 items); Giving up convenience (5 items); Not being 2013). These cut-off points will be analyzed according to
able to communicate (6 items); and Loss of connection (5 the variables sex and age, distributed in 3 age groups: 12-
items). This model was compared with several alternative 15, 16-20, and 21-24 years.
models: (1) a one-dimensional model, in which all items In order to perform the data analysis, we used the sta-
were allowed to be explained by a single factor; (2) an un- tistical package IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version
correlated four-factor model, where covariances between 23.0 (IBM Corp.), LISREL 9.2 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2013),
the four nomophobia factors were fixed to 0; and (3) a hi- R version 3.5.0 (R Core Team, 2013) and psych package
erarchical model with one second-order factor explaining (Revelle, 2019). The graphic representation was per-
the four nomophobia factors. In all models, items were formed with yEd-Graph©.
constrained to load on one factor only. Following the rec-
ommendations of Hu and Bentler (1999), goodness of fit
was assessed by the comparative fit index (CFI; values of .95
Results
or greater indicate that the model adequately fits the data), Sex and age differences
the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA; There were significant sex differences in the total scores
values of .06 or less indicate excellent fit and values up to of the NMP-Q (males: M = 52.37 and SD = 19.62; females:
.08 indicate moderate fit), and the standardized root-mean- M = 59.66 and SD = 22.54; t = -11.931, p < .001, d = .34), and
square residual (SRMR; values of .08 or less indicate that these sex differences were observable in all dimensions of
140
Ana León-Mejía, Esther Calvete, Carmen Patino-Alonso, Juan M. Machimbarrena, Joaquín González-Cabrera
the questionnaire: 1) Not being able to access information Validity Evidence of the NMP-Q scores
(males: M = 12.81 and SD = 4.86; females: M = 13.77 and Table 2 depicts various psychometric indicators for each
SD = 5.09; t = -6.720, p < .001, d = .20); 2) Giving up con- of the items of the NMP-Q, specifically the mean, standard
venience (males: M = 11.54 and SD = 5.46; females: M = deviation, skewness, kurtosis and the item-total correla-
12.72 and SD = 6.26; t = -6.943, p < .001, d = .20); 3) Not tions. The lowest mean score (1.85) was found in Item 15
being able to communicate (males: M = 14.68 and SD = (dimension “Not being able to communicate”), which fo-
6.95; females: M = 17.75 and SD =7.96; t = -14.238, p < .001, cuses on people’s anxiety if constant connection to their
d = .41) and 4) Loss of connection (males: M = 13.34 and family and friends were broken. Conversely, the items with
SD = 5.44; females: M = 15.42 and SD = 6.09; t = -12.452, the highest scores were found in the dimension “Not being
p < .001; d = .36). able to access information,” in Item 2, which asks the ex-
In terms of age, the 12-15 age-group presented a mean tent to which people would be annoyed if looking up infor-
and standard deviation of 57.76 and 22.50, respectively. mation on the smartphone was not possible whenever they
The 16-20-year-olds obtained M = 55.14 and SD = 20.47; and wanted (3.67), Item 4, which asks how annoyed people
the 21-24 age-group obtained M = 53.54 and SD = 20.80. would be if it was impossible to use the smartphone when
There were significant differences between the three age they so wished (3.59), and Item 1, which asks how uncom-
groups in the total score, F(5, 5006) = 10.521, p < .001, η2 = fortable people would be if they did not have constant ac-
0.01). The differences between the 16-20 and the 12-15 cess to information through the smartphone (3.43). Skew-
age-groups were statistically significant (p < .001). Scores ness and kurtosis values showed that, in general, the curve
were also higher and statistically significant in the groups was asymmetrically negative, and the distribution was lep-
of 21-24 and 12-15 (p < .001). The correlation between age tokurtic. Item 15 was the most anomalous. Discrimination
and the total NMP-Q score was negative and statistically sig- indexes of all items were acceptable and above the critical
nificant (r = -.091, p <.001). value of .30, ranging from .48 and .76.
Table 2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Item-Total Correlation, Kurtosis and Skewness for the 20 items of the NMP-Q (n = 5012).
Note. This table shows the 20 items of the NMP-Q along with their mean (M), standard deviation, (SD) the item-total correlations (IT), Kurtosis (Kurt) and skewness
(Skew). The twenty items correspond to 4 dimensions: Not being able to access information (4 items, 1-4); Giving up convenience (5 items, 5-9); Not being able to
communicate (6 items, 10-15) and Loss of connection (5 items, 16-20).
141
Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q): Factorial Structure and sex and age Cut-off Points for the Spanish Version
Table 3 presents the fit indexes for all the models. As ge of estimating a total score for the NMP-Q, together with
can be seen, the hypothesized model consisting of four co- the partial scores of the subscales. The factor loadings of
rrelated factors obtained good fit indexes. We performed the first-order factors on the second-order factor were .84,
a second-order model, which also had adequate indexes. .99, .79, and .95, respectively for Not being able to commu-
Models 2 and 3 increased chi square significantly and nicate, Loss of connection, Not being able to access infor-
presented poorer fit indexes. However, Model 4, although mation, and Giving up convenience.
it also increased chi square significantly, presented very si- Figure 1 presents hierarchical model (four first-order fac-
milar fit indexes. This hierarchical model has the advanta- tors explained by one second-order factor), whose loadings
Model S-B 2 RMSEA CI CFI NNFI SRMR Comparison with the hypothesized model
Four correlated factors
S-B 2(163) = 4356 .072 (90% CI [.070, .073]) .980 .977 .062
(hypothesized model)
Model 2.
Four uncorrelated factors S-B 2(169) = 14144 .128 (90% CI [.127, .130]) .935 .926 .379 ∆S-B 2(6, n = 5012) = 9788, p < .001
Model 3. One factor S-B 2(169) = 13452 .125 (90% CI [.123, .127]) .938 .930 .071 ∆S-B 2(6, n = 5012) = 7574, p < .001
Model 4. Hierarchical model
(four first-order factors explained S-B 2(165) = 4387 .72 (90% CI [.070, .073]) .980 .977 .063 ∆S-B 2(2, n = 5012) = 29, p < .001
by one second-order factor)
.86
NMP-1
.86
NMP-2
Not being able to access
.64
information
NMP-3
.78
NMP-4
.77
NMP-5
.79
.72
NMP-6
.77
NMP-7 Giving up convenience
.65
NMP-8 .95
.67
NMP-9
Nomophobia
.84 .84
NMP-10
.80
NMP-11
.82
NMP-12
Not being able to
.89
communicate
NMP-13 .99
.85
NMP-14
.61
NMP-15
.65
NMP-16
.62
NMP-17
.69
NMP-18 Loss of connection
.50
NMP-19
.72
NMP-20
Figure 1. Hierarchical model (four first-order factors explained by one second-order factor) for the NMP-Q.
142
Ana León-Mejía, Esther Calvete, Carmen Patino-Alonso, Juan M. Machimbarrena, Joaquín González-Cabrera
Table 4. Cronbach Alpha (α), Ordinal, and Omega (ω) Coefficients for the four Dimensions and confidence interval (CI),
the Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) and the GLB.algebraic (GLBa) of the NMP-Q.
Table 5. Invariance analyses across sex and age (with strict comparisons using S-B 2).
Model S-B 2 df RMSEA RMSEA 90% CI SRMR NNFI CFI Compared ΔCFI
models
Sex
1 Men 2320 165 .067 [.065, .070] .062 .977 .980
2 Women 2213 165 .077 [.074, .079] .066 .977 .980
3 Configural model 4536 330 .071 [.070, .073] .062 .977 .980
4 First-order factor loadings invariance 4603 346 .070 [.068, .072] .060 .977 .979 3-4 .001
5 Strong invariance 4664 362 .069 [.067, .071] .060 .978 .979 4-5 .000
6 Second-order factor loadings invariance 4710 366 .069 [.067, .071] .073 .978 .979 5-6 .000
Age
7 < 17 years 2418 165 .073 [.070, .075] .066 .977 .980
8 > 18 years 3444 165 .070 [.068, .073] .061 .977 .980
9 Configural model 4562 330 .072 [.070, .072] .061 .977 .980
10 First-order factor loadings invariance 4671 346 .071 [.069, .072] .071 .977 .979 9-10 .001
11 Strong invariance 4733 362 .069 [.068, .071] .071 .978 .979 10-11 .000
12 Second-order factor loadings invariance 4761 366 .069 [.068, .071] .080 .978 .979 11-12 .000
Note. S-B 2 = Satorra-Bentler 2; df = Degrees of freedom; RMSEA =Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; CI = Confidence Interval; SRMR= Standardized Root
Mean Squared Residual; CFI: Comparative Fit Index; NNFI = Non-Normed Fit Index; ∆CFI = differences in Comparative Fit Index.
were higher than .50 in all cases. The Cronbach alpha, Or- scores for the percentiles as a function of sex for the age
dinal, and Omega coefficients are shown in Table 4 along groups of 12-15, 16-20, and 21-24 years.
with the fit indexes. As shown, all values of each dimension
were adequate, ranging from .78 to .92 (Omega ω).
Discussion
Measuring invariance across sex and age This work contributes to the knowledge and identifica-
We estimated the hierarchical model in separate subsa- tion of nomophobia, a new problem that has not yet been
mples by sex and age. Fit indexes were adequate for each explored in depth at the clinical level, due to its lack of
subsample. Tests of invariance indicated that both fac- recognition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men-
tor-loadings and intercepts could be assumed to be invari- tal Disorders-5th edition DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Associa-
ant because change in CFI was lower than .01 in all cases. tion, 2013) and to the diversity of the theoretical approach-
es to this recent construct. Regarding the first objective of
Cut-off points of the Spanish Version of the NMP-Q as the manuscript, i.e., to assess the structure and reliabili-
a function sex and age ty of the Spanish version of the Nomophobia Question-
The mean score and standard deviation for the NMP-Q naire (NMP-Q), we confirm the hypothesized four-factor
was of 55.44 and 21.21, respectively, within a range of 20- correlated model (see Table 3) and provide evidence for
140. The 15th, 80th, and 95th percentiles correspond to the existence of a broader second-order factor that would
nonnomophobic, at risk of nomophobia, and nomopho- explain the associations between the four dimensions of
bic, respectively. Following this criterion, the cut-off points nomophobia. These data are consistent with those found
are 34, 72 and 94 for the above-mentioned classifying cate- in other adaptations, such as that of Lin et al. (2018), and
gories. The distribution for males is 32, 68, and 87, and for they constitute a validation of previous exploratory works
females, it is 36, 78, and 100. Table 6 presents the different (González-Cabrera et al., 2017; Yildirim & Correia, 2015).
143
Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q): Factorial Structure and sex and age Cut-off Points for the Spanish Version
Table 6. Scores for the Percentiles of the NMP-Q as a Function and student samples. The new cut-off points suggested here
of Sex and Age (n = 5012) are, in general, lower than those of González-Cabrera et al.
Scores (2017), but they maintain the same tendency of the explor-
Males Females atory study, as females (at any age) presented greater levels
Percentiles
12-15 16-20 21-24 12-15 16-20 21-24 of nomophobia and, among them, females of the 14-15 and
n = 809 n = 1276 n = 817 n = 614 n = 929 n = 567
16-17 age groups presented the highest scores.
1 20 20 20 21 21 21
5 25 25 23 29 27 25
Regarding the hypotheses that sex and age nomopho-
10 31 30 27 34 32 29 bic differences do exist (Arpaci, Baloglu, Kozan & Kesici,
15 34 33 30 38 37 32 2017; Dasgupta et al., 2017; Gezgin & Çakır, 2016; Gezgin,
20 36 36 32 41 40 37 S¸umuer, Arslan & Yildirim, 2017; González-Cabrera et al.,
25 39 39 36 44 43 41
2017; King et al., 2017; Prasad et al., 2017), this study has
30 41 41 39 47 46 44
35 43 43 41 50 49 47
come to confirm that females score higher in the NMP-Q
40 45 45 44 53 53 50 (and in all four dimensions) than males. However, other
45 48 48 47 57 55 53 works have not reported these differences (Lin et al., 2018)
50 51 50 49 60 57 57 or have indicated that they are nonsignificant (Farooqui,
55 54 53 52 65 59 60
Pore & Gothankar, 2017; Madhusudan, Sudarshan, San-
60 58 55 55 67 62 63
65 61 58 58 70 66 64 jay, Gopi & Fernandes, 2017; Müge & Gezgin, 2016; Uysal,
70 65 61 61 73 69 68 Özen & Madeno˘glu, 2016). Some works have even found
75 68 64 63 77 73 72 males to have higher levels of nomophobia and mobile
80 71 67 66 82 77 75 dependence (Dongre et al., 2017; Nawaz, Sultana, Am-
85 75 71 71 87 82 80
jad & Shaheen, 2017). These differences may be due to
90 82 76 76 94 88 85
95 92 84 86 107 101 95 cultural or religious issues, which may have more explan-
99 121 110 103 129 126 124 atory value than the variable sex itself, as it has been sug-
M 54.27 52.11 50.90 62.37 59.29 57.33 gested in other studies on problematic Internet use and
DT 20.88 18.68 16.68 23.71 22.04 21.77
mobile phone (Baron & Campbell, 2011; Yudes-Gómez,
Note. Gray indicates the 15th (No Nomophobia), 80 (Risk of Nomophobia),
and 95 (Nomophobia) percentiles.
Baridon-Chauvie & González-Cabrera, 2018). In addition,
data from the present study support the hypothesis that
nomophobia scores decrease with age, more specifical-
Additionally, we provide a hierarchical model with four ly after 18 years old. This is convergent with the work of
first-order factors and a general second-order factor, which Gezgin et al. (2017), who argue that, as age increases, the
allow us to provide both a total score and three cut-off levels of nomophobia decrease, and it is somehow in line
points, making it possible not only to determine whether a with the findings of Dasgupta et al. (2017), although in this
nomophobic problem exists but also its severity. latter study the age that makes a different it is not placed
There are currently few studies on the prevalence of no- in the 18 years old but in the 21, being younger than this
mophobia, and even fewer with a large and geographically age a predictor of nomophobia. Similarly, age differences
representative sample of all the regions of the same coun- between those who are younger than 20 and those who are
try. To date, no work has established clear cut-off points to older have also been reported (Adawi et al., 2018; Yildi-
identify different levels of a nomophobic problem. The rim, Sumuer, Adnan & Yildirim, 2015). Finally, some other
only work that suggests cut-off points was performed by works have also provided different age ranges for at-risk
González-Cabrera et al. (2017), using the 15th, 80th, and groups, being the more problematic groups those of 18-29
95th percentiles according to sex and age of their partic- years (King et al., 2017) and 22-24 years (Sharma, Sharma,
ipants. However, the sample of that study had major lim- Sharma & Wavare, 2015).
itations due to the small size and its representativeness. In This study also presents some methodological limita-
addition, the cut-off points were conceptualized as casual tions. Firstly, the NMP-Q is a self-reporting questionnaire,
user (P15), at-risk user (P80), and problematic user (P95). so there may be response and desirability biases. For this
In this manuscript, we adapted these categories coming reason, some participants may have answered some ques-
from the game disorder literature to the singularity of the tions untruthfully, under-reporting the severity or frequen-
nomophobia construct, indicating absence of nomophobia cy of nomophobia symptoms to minimize their problems.
(P15), being at risk of developing nomophobia (P80), and Albeit more unlikely, they may also have exaggerated
the existence of a nomophobic problem (P95). Besides, our their answers to make their mobile problems seem worse.
present study was conducted with a large Spanish sample, Despite the fact that, due to the characteristics of this re-
general (not just students) and with representation of all re- search, we did not use any mechanism to detect dishonesty,
gions of the country (see Table 1), whereas the former study participants were given their nomophobia scores. There-
of González-Cabrera et al. (2017) were done with smaller fore, it is reasonable to assume that the online question-
144
Ana León-Mejía, Esther Calvete, Carmen Patino-Alonso, Juan M. Machimbarrena, Joaquín González-Cabrera
naire was only answered by readers who were interested schools. All the above information is also of special interest
in the topic and in knowing their scores. We believe that to parents, since education and parental supervision can
this incentive, which is not so common in research, served play a very important role in the prevention of the prob-
to reduce the aforementioned problems associated with lems associated with the information and communication
self-reports. Also, the short time that it took to complete technologies.
the 20-item questionnaire (7 minutes on average), along
with the fact that there were no reverse items, may have
reduced problems related to poor attention or boredom.
Funding
We also eliminated the questionnaires that were completed This research was funded by Spanish Ministry of Econo-
in less than 4 minutes. This study could be improved in the my, Industry and Competitiveness,RTI2018-094212-B-I00:
future by using complementary measures to self-report. (CIBER-AACC); and by the International University of la
Secondly, sampling was not random, although the sam- Rioja, Project “Cyberpsychology(Trienio 2017-20)”. In ad-
ple size ensures that the participants come from in all the dition, this research was supported by a grant from the
Spanish regions and cities, and there was high sociodemo- Basque Country (Ref. IT982-16).
graphic diversity. More importantly, extrapolating these
results should be done with caution, and they should be
understood as a first approximation carried out with a
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147
APARTADO 6
Publicación 3
75
PLOS ONE
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Abstract
OPEN ACCESS
Background
Citation: Leo´n-Mej´ıa AC, Gutie´rrez-Ortega M,
Mobile phones allow us to stay connected with others and provide us a sense of security.
Serrano-Pintado I, Gonza´lez-Cabrera J (2021) A We can work, chat with family and friends, take pictures, buy clothes or books, and even
systematic review on nomophobia prevalence: control home appliances. They play such a significant role in our lives that we feel anxious
Surfacing results and standard guidelines for future
without them. In some cases, the relationship between humans and these communication
research. PLoS ONE 16(5): e0250509. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250509 devices have become problematic. Nomophobia (NMP) is the fear of becoming incommuni-
cable, separated from the mobile phone and losing connection to the Internet. Since this
Editor: Giuseppe Carrà, Universita degli Studi di
Milano-Bicocca, ITALY social phobia was coined in the first decade of the XXI century, a growing number of studies
have studied it and reported the prevalence of this technology-related problem. However,
Received: November 22, 2020
this research activity has generated mixed results regarding how we assess and report
Accepted: April 7, 2021
nomophobia and who may be at a higher risk of suffering or developing it.
Published: May 18, 2021
Competitiveness, RTI2018-094212-B-I00: (CIBER- makes it difficult to reach definitive conclusions. We conclude our review by recommending
AACC), and PID2019-107589GB-I00, and it was
some common guidelines for guiding future research.
also supported by the International University of La
Rioja, Project Cyberpsychology (Triennium 2017-
2020).
Introduction
Nomophobia (No-Mobile-Phone Phobia) is a modern-day problem that was first coined by
the UK Post Office in 2008. The Post Office ordered a research organization called YouGov to
examine whether phone users in the UK were experiencing anxiety over their mobile phones.
It was found that almost 13 million people reported being anxious when losing their mobile or
forgetting to take the phone with them, running out of battery, having no network coverage,
and when not receiving any calls, texts or emails for some time, which represents a 53% of the
surveyed [1].
In this way, society was ahead of science in identifying a phenomenon that was raising
social concern: the relationship with our mobiles and the alleg problems created by this tech-
nological link. Let us remember that mobiles appeared early in the seventies. And since then
mobile connections (8.97 billion) have surpassed the number of people in the world (7.8 bil-
lion), becoming the fastest-growing human-made technology that has ever existed [2]. These
devices are continuously evolving to be more attractive, compelling, and faster, and mobile
companies are also competing to offer us new models with more memory, better cameras,
and batteries, while the number of apps and services are also constantly increasing, making us
dependent on them.
We have named a problem—nomophobia—but we are just beginning to understand why
people experience anxiety when being out of touch or why they never want to turn their
mobile off, and why our mobiles are the first thing to check in the morning and the latest at
night. In order to answer all these questions, we need to understand this phenomenon better.
King [3, 4], and Yildirim [5] were the first scholars to address this task. In the study by King
et al. [3], nomophobia was regarded as a 21st-century disorder resulting from information and
communication technologies. They posited that nomophobia comes from the fear of not being
able to communicate with others and being separated from the mobile or not connected to the
Internet. In another work, King et al. [4] spoke of nomophobia as a situational phobia charac-
terized by a fear of becoming distressed and not getting any assistance. Yildirim [5] operatio-
nalized this theoretical construct into a research instrument consisting of a self-reported
measure (the Nomophobia Questionnaire, NMP-Q) that examines our relationship with
smartphones, i.e., mobiles with internet connections that run software programs in a way simi-
lar to a computer. In doing so, nomophobia was linked to a problematic mobile phone use,
defined as an incapacity to control and regulate the use of the mobile phone and suffering neg-
ative daily life consequences. After the NMP-Q was developed and proved to be a valid instru-
ment to assess this problem, many scholars have translated and adapted it to other languages,
including Spanish, Chinese, Italian, Persian, and Indonesian, among others. With these new
versions, we also started to have more prevalence data and other valuable worldwide informa-
tion regarding the profile of people who suffer from nomophobia.
Rodr´ıguez-Garc´ıa et al. showed in their systematic review on a sample of 42 studies [6] that
since 2010 (when scholars first started to talk about nomophobia) this problem has been stud-
ied regarding a growing number of psychological variables such as anxiety, panic disorder,
stress, depression, obsessiveness, FOMO (Fear of Missing Out), extraversion, awareness, emo-
tional stability, sympathy, openness to experience, mindfulness, loneliness, and self-happiness,
among others; they also review the connections between nomophobia and Internet usage,
social media, academic performance, learning and attention, and collectivism explored by the
literature. Their results highlighted that most of the research conducted so far was exploratory.
We would add to these conclusions that nomophobia itself is not still well known, as substan-
tial dark spots are hampering our understanding. For instance, terms such as addiction or
dependence are frequently used interchangeably with nomophobia, both in the academic liter-
ature and in colloquial conversations, creating conceptual confusion. As for who may be at a
higher risk of developing nomophobia, data is non-conclusive because some studies report
that women are more at risk than men, while others state the opposite; the same happens when
examining age differences. Even more importantly, there are many methodological gaps
regarding nomophobia assessments and prevalence reporting that we need to address. None of
these questions have been studied to date.
For this reason, and to clarify some points of significant concern in the nomophobia litera-
ture, we have conducted a systematic review of nomophobia prevalence and gender and age
differences. Given the disparity of criteria used to study and report nomophobia, we also
aimed at developing some standard guidelines to help us study, compare, and systematize
future research results.
Methods
Protocol and eligibility criteria
The number of studies on nomophobia has grown remarkably since this concept was first
coined in 2008 and, mainly, since the NMP-Q came out [5, 7]. A myriad of results and defini-
tions have arising several significant research questions, among which we are going to focus
on the following:
• Do we similarly measure nomophobia?
• Are there gender and age differences in nomophobia prevalence?
• Do we similarly report nomophobia prevalence?
• How should nomophobia be reported?
To answer these research questions, we conducted a systematic review of 108 papers pub-
lished up to the 1st of January 2020. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [8], as well as the specific psychology and
health considerations suggested by Perestelo-Pe´rez [9] and by Shamseerg et al. [10]. First,
papers were included in this systematic review on three starting conditions: a) If they were
written in English or Spanish; b) If they were peer-reviewed; c) If they were indexed in elec-
tronic academic databases and search engines.
Second, we only considered those papers that focused on nomophobia from a psychological
and applied perspective with quantitative data on prevalence. Interpretative and therapy stud-
ies were excluded except for the work of Yildirim [11] that was part of a mix-method research
that led to the NMP-Q development.
Third, studies aiming at mobile addiction and dependence were eliminated from the study
as these are related but different constructs. Sometimes the word nomophobia was in the title
and abstract, but the conceptual frame and research tool focused on mobile addiction or other
topics unrelated to nomophobia, and thus we omitted those papers too.
Also, we excluded studies whose results were highly unclear, precluding us from under-
standing what was reported, or that they did not provide at least one of the following pieces of
information: which instrument was used, NMP prevalence, and gender/age differences. We
omitted theses (except for Yildirim’s thesis developing the NMP-Q), master’s theses, and non-
scientific publications.
The correct handling of duplicate studies is a critical issue for a systematic review and,
therefore, we followed the recommendations of Kwon et al. [12] and decided to eliminate
them one by one in Parsifal (where all of them were collected) after a careful checking by two
members of the research group (MG and AL).
Search strategy
Relevant articles were identified by searching Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest,
and Science Direct and gathered in Parsifal. The first search took place in May 2018, filling in
the following search fields: title, keywords, and abstracts. A second search was done in May
2019 and December of 2019 to update the study.
We used the following terms searched by Boolean operators (and, or) and truncations and
wildcards (? ): nomophobia, nomophobes, nomophobic, nomofobia, nomofóbico/a.
Two researchers (AL, MG) performed an eligibility assessment in an unblinded, standard-
ized, and independent manner. Firstly, the title, keywords, and abstract of the papers initially
found were screened to eliminate those not matching initial inclusion criteria (language and
peer review). Secondly, AL and MG reviewed the full-text of those articles that were eligible for
inclusion. Disagreements on inclusion/exclusion of selected articles were solved after four
researchers met and discussed its eligibility, reaching a 100% agreement afterward. Articles
not meeting the inclusion criteria were removed from the study (see Fig 1).
Risk of bias
No doubt, the existence of bias in systematic review (SR) is almost inevitable. Even though we
tried to minimize it, there can always be some subjectivity in the screening process. In this SR,
the two principal authors, who did the analyses, were in charge of this task and agreed 100%
on the studies finally included, a process that is known to reduce the risk of bias considerably
but not eliminate it [13].
Searching institutional websites is crucial to avoid publication bias, as research gathered in
these repositories may contain relevant information [14, 15]. But it also has been said that
these sources of information introduce other types of bias; for instance, differences in search
functions across websites make it necessary to change or adapt the search strings [13]. Also,
not all repositories are equally visible on the Internet or accessible to the researcher, and most
of the debate is around unpublished trials not being represented in the SR. This latter fact does
not affect this SR since the literature on NMP that we reviewed is not based on controlled trials
but mostly on prevalence assessment and correlational designs.
In any case, we tried to minimize bias by screening Google Scholar and other article reposi-
tories. Still, most of the publications on nomophobia that came out of the peer-reviewed chan-
nels did not meet all of our inclusion criteria (i.e., language, report prevalence/assessment
data, and meeting a minimum of scientific standards of research). Those meeting our require-
ments were indeed included. Also, we analyzed a significant number of studies whose journals
are not indexed in SCOPUS or WoS (mostly from India and Pakistan). Therefore, even though
the possibility of missing pertinent studies is there, we followed all the steps to minimize it.
Fig 1. PRISMA flow diagram. Note: “No Quantitative” refers to lack of prevalence/assessment data and not to the
research methodology.
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of the nomophobia research. India and Turkey are the countries that have led the research in
(29 and 28 papers, respectively), followed by USA (9) and Spain (8).
The publication rate started to rise in 2015, being 2017, 2018 and 2019 the years that con-
centrate most of the publications.
Most studies were done with students, particularly undergraduates in the field of health sci-
ences (mostly Medicine and Nurse Studies) although not all studies reported this information
or employed mixed samples (students and non-student). The sample size is very heteroge-
neous varying from less than 30 participants to more than 3200.
Abbreviations: NSI-SR: Nomophobia Severity Index-Self Related Version; PMUQ: Mobile Phone-Use
Questionnaire; TMD: Test of Mobile Phone Dependence; PUMP: Problematic Use of Mobile Phones Scale; RWT:
Robert Weiss Test; ICD-10: International Classification of Deseases (10th version: Criteria for Dependence
Syndrome); IAT: Internet Addiction Test; ERA-RSI: Scale of Addiction-Adolescent Risk to Social Networks and
Internet; CERM: Mobile Experience Questionnaire; QANIP: Questionnaire to Assess Nomophobia.
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As for India, which is one of the leading countries in the number of publications using the
NMP-Q, it is unknown whether they were using the English version or an Indian translation
because this piece of information is not disclosed. However, the only publication of an Indian
version per se is the adaptation to Tamil in 2018. In general, many studies neglected to inform
which version of the NMP-Q was being employed; this information was taken for granted.
The work of Yildirim [5] coined two words: nomophobe (someone who suffers from nomo-
phobia) and nomophobic (the characteristics of nomophobes and/or behaviors related to
nomophobia), but these words are not always used in the intended way. This may be due to
the fact that “ic” is a common termination to convert nouns into adjectives, e.g., academia/aca-
demic. This may explain why nomophobic is more used than nomophobe. And for this reason
we will also use “nomophobic” to name people having nomophobia.
Regarding the prevalence data gathered with the NMP-Q (see Table 2), the main obstacle
for analyzing results is twofold. First, we find an enormous heterogeneity in assessing NMP.
Note:
P stands for Percentile. Cells with highest and lowest values have been formatted in bold and italic, respectively.
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For instance, while some studies report the mean of the items (scoring 1-7), others report the
total score (scoring 20-140), and some others classify participants into different prevalence
groups or severity levels. In this latter case, there is also a disparity between those studies that
use numeric cut-off points to establish severity levels, and those that use clusters lacking a
numeric cut-off point. This report-inconsistency may be due, among many other things, to the
fact that the NMP-Q was not designed as a clinical questionnaire. Only the study of Leo´n-
Mej´ıa et al. [19] has explored clinical uses of this questionnaire, proposing specific cut-off
points according to age and gender. Let us mention that this latter study was not included in
this systematic review as it was published at the beginning of 2020, thus falling out of the time
scope of this study.
When examining NMP classifications shown in Table 2, there is also a great disparity. How-
ever, most studies providing a scoring-system have differentiated between being “at-risk” of
developing nomophobia and “having” it. The problem arises when analyzing the latter since
sometimes they were treated as a matter of “having vs. not having”, and in some other cases it
was just a question of having different levels of nomophobia (NMP, hereafter).
Out of eighty-two studies using the NMP-Q, sixty-five of them did not follow any classifica-
tion system, whereas seventeen of them did it. Among the ones that provided a classification
system, the 4-level proposed by Yildirim is the most common option.
Many times the presence of NMP is established when someone’s score is above the average
mean of items (and we see that most participants are in this situation) with a mean value that
varies between 3.72 and 4.07. When looking at worrying levels of NMP in three or four-level-
classifications, we find that between 25.7% and 67% have moderate problems, and between 1%
and 87% have several problems of NMP.
When the studies report the mean of the total score, this goes from 45.5 to 76 (see Table 2
above in which cells with the highest and lowest values have been highlighted in red and blue,
respectively).
Most studies follow a classification based on four levels of severity (absence, mild, moder-
ate, and severe), but within this group there are also slight differences in the cut-off points
used (see Table 2). Most of them put the value of 20 in the absence level, whereas others put it
in the mild. Most studies place 100 as the cut-off point for severity, but for others it is 101.
Moreover, most studies point to 140 as the maximum score for severity, whereas for others it
is 120 or scoring above 100.
As for mild levels, most place it in the range 21-60, while for others it is between 16-20, 21-
59, and 20-60. Also, most studies report the prevalence for the whole sample, but others pro-
vide it by gender and other grouping criteria. Some studies report the prevalence in all catego-
ries, whereas others only disclose moderate and severe cases. Finally, some studies provide the
Mean and SD together with the severity information, while most do not.
As for those studies not using the NMP-Q (see Table 3), only eight out of twenty-six used a
classification system, of which the most common is the 2-level classification (“at-risk” and
“having NMP”). Here in this group, the range of “at-risk” goes from 27% to 81%, and “having
NMP” goes between 18.5% and 73%.
Note:
AHI stands for Ad Hoc Instrument, and AHQs for Ad Hoc Questions
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Moderate cases are around 40% and severe cases, between 7-15%. There is also one study
that uses a reversed scoring, meaning the higher the score the lower the NMP. In this latter
case, the four levels are as follows: Absence (above 20), Mild (16-20), Moderate (9-15), Severe
(less than 9).
In Tables 2 and 3, we have reported the results of those studies that followed both a scoring
and a classification system, but most studies just reported prevalence (their results are shown
in Tables 4 and 5). In this group of studies, some of them provide the mean along with the
level of severity, whereas others just report one piece of information.
In those studies using the arithmetic mean of items (Table 5) the score varies between 2.95
and 4.74. When NMP is reported as the mean of the total score (as Yildirim and his collabora-
tors suggested) the value goes from 51.29 to 93.82 (Table 4).
Note:
They appear both in Tables 5 and 6 because they reported both the mean and severity levels.
According to the authors, High and Low NMP Groups corresponds to the top 25 percent and bottom 25 percent,
respectively.
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Note:
They appear both in Tables 5 and 6 because they reported both the mean and severity levels.
According to the authors, High and Low NMP Groups corresponds to the top 25 percent and bottom 25 percent,
respectively.
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Some other studies report prevalence in terms of percentages of individuals who are nomo-
phobic (Table 6).
As seen in Table 6, moderate cases go from 39.5% to 73.3%, and severe cases, from 6.1% to
26.7%. As for the percentages of “at-risk” subjects, these go from 64% to 79% whereas that sub-
jects having NMP are between 6% to 42%. The mean percentage of nomophobic people in
moderate cases is 54.7% whereas for severe cases is 16.1% (Fig 2).
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Gender differences
After searching for gender differences, we classified those studies reporting gender differences
into two main groups: those finding females as more nomophobic and the opposite. Within
these two groups, we also highlighted those with partial results.
The evidence tables show the results reported along with the country, instrument, and sam-
ple used by the study. We find that NMP is more prevalent among women since twenty-four
studies found women to suffer more from NMP, while eight found the opposite (see Tables 7
and 8).
Notice that most of these studies finding women more nomophobic were conducted in
Turkey and India, followed by other European, Asian and American countries. Therefore, all
the places where these results were found are very culturally diverse suggesting that social fac-
tors may not explain this gender difference alone.
Also, there is a higher presence of undergraduate participants, and most participants are in
their twenties.
Interestingly, the only study exploring genetic variables, with Turkish twins, also found
females suffering more from NMP than males. As for studies finding more NMP in males, we
have eight and three with partial results, and most of them were conducted in India, Turkey
and Pakistan. Most of the participants are also students in their early twenties.
Our review shows that there is an evident report-inconsistency when dealing with gender
differences, as some studies provide detailed data on which kind of differences were found,
whereas others only report that gender differences were significant, sometimes not telling the
direction of these differences, i.e., who are more affected, female o male participants.
Also, many studies do not address gender differences. When providing gender results,
there are two different ways of showing this information: providing the percentages of females
and males in the classification groups (at risk, nomophobic, mild or severe, etc.), and provid-
ing the nomophobia mean score of both females and males.
The fact that gender differences have been studied and reported with different criteria
makes it difficult to reach sound conclusions. However, our analyses suggests that females
Table 7. Studies pointing to females as more nomophobic (by year of publication, older to newest).
Study Tool Country Sample NMP more in females
Sharma et al. (2015) Others India Undergraduates ♀
Tavolacci et al. (2015) Others France Age: 20.0 ± 2.4 ♀
Undergraduates
Yildirim et al. (2015) NMP-Q Turkey Age: 20.02 ± 1.65 ♀
Undergraduates
Uysal et al. (2016) NMP-Q Turkey Students ♀
Gezgin & C¸ akır (2016) NMP-Q Turkey High school students ♀
Gezgin et al. (2017a) NMP-Q Turkey Pre-service teachers ♀
Salwa (2017) NMP-Q Saudi Arabia Undergraduates ♀
Dasgupta et al. (2017) NMP-Q India Age: 21.33 ± 2.36 ♀
Undergraduates
Arpaci et al. (2017c) NMP-Q Turkey Age: 21.94 ± 3.61 ♀
Undergraduates
Arpaci et al. (2017a) NMP-Q Turkey Age: 22.08 ± 3.73 ♀
Undergraduates
Chandak et al. (2017) NMP-Q India Residents, Teaching Hospital ♀
Kanmani et al. (2017) NMP-Q Turkey Undergraduates workers ♀
Gonza´lez-Cabrera et al. (2017) NMP-Q Spain Age: 15.41±1.22 ♀
Undergraduates
Gezgin et al. (2018a) NMP-Q Turkey High school students ♀
Peris-Hern�ndez (2018) ERA-RSI Spain Students ♀
Sethia et al. (2018) NMP-Q India Students ♀
Jianling & Chang (2018) NMP-Q China Age: 19.01 ± 1.23 ♀
Smartphone users
Aguilera-Manrique et al. (2018) NMP-Q Spain Age: 22.77 ± 3.65 ♀
Undergraduates
Mallya et al. (2018) NMP-Q India Undergraduates ♀
Yavuz et al. (2019) NMP-Q Turkey High-school students ♀
Cain & Malcom (2019) NMP-Q USA Undergraduates ♀
Aktay & Hanife (2019) NMP-Q Turkey Undergraduates ♀
Deryakulu & Ursavaş (2019) NMP-Q Turkey Age: 18.36 ± 6.71 ♀
Turkish twin-pairs
Galhardo et al. (2020) NMP-Q Portugal Age: 22.95 ± 5.36 ♀
Students
Partial results
Prasad et al. (2017) NMP-Q India Age: 21.99 ± 2.95 ♀ More NMP
Undergraduates ♂ More at risk
Yasan & Yildirim (2018) NMP-Q Turkey Age = 22.45 ± 2.30 ♀ NBATC and GUC
Undergraduates
Gutie´rrez-Puertas et al. (2019) NMP-Q Spain Age: 20.78 ± 3.16 ♀
Portugal Undergraduates
Note:
Females score more only in severe levels.
Females score more in the dimensions of “Not Being able to Communicate” (NBATC) and “Giving Up Convenience” (GUC).
Gender differences are found in Portuguese but not in Spanish participants.
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Table 8. Studies pointing to males as more nomophobic (by year of publication, older to newest).
Study Tool Country Sample NMP Vulnerability
Pavithra et al. (2015) Other India Age: 21.6 ± 3.1 ♂
Undergraduates and non-students
Nagpal & Ramanpreet (2016) NMP-Q India Undergraduates ♂
Matoza & Carballo (2016) RWT Paraguay Age: 17-35 ± 21.9 ♂
Undergraduates
Kar et al. (2017) Other India Age: 21.08 ♂
Undergraduates
Dongre et al. (2017) ICD-10 India Age: 21.23 ± 9.44 ♂
Residents in an urban area
Yildiz (2019) NMP-Q Turkey High school students ♂
Jilisha et al. (2019) NMP-Q India Undergraduates ♂
Daei et al. (2019) NMP-Q Iran Undergraduates ♂
Partial results
Farooqui & Pore (2016) NMP-Q India Undergraduates ♂
Nawaz et al. (2017) NMP-Q Pakistan Smartphone users ♂
Ozdemir et al. (2018) NMP-Q Pakistan and Turkey Students ♂
Note:
It is not statistically significant
Females have more moderate levels but males have more severe levels
Females scored more in the dimension “Fear of Not Being Able to Access Information”;
True for Turkey but not Pakistan.
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seem to be more affected by NMP than males. Notice that we only included those studies that
analyzed gender differences and also reported the direction of them.
Age differences
When looking at the role of age, comparisons between studies are a bit more troublesome.
Firstly, because the age groups were created with different age-points. Secondly, because age
differences were studied regarding different parameters: having or not, suffering more or less,
total scores, scores by NMP dimensions, among others. Thirdly, some studies analyzed the
effect of age indirectly, for instance, differences in school grades between participants, being a
freshman or residents vs. older undergraduates or graduates. This results in a myriad of age
results difficult to read.
Despite this fact, we performed the same descriptive analyses as done with gender and pre-
sented this information in evidence Tables 9 and 10.
As shown, the number of studies finding younger participants to be more vulnerable to
NMP is higher than those finding the opposite (9 vs 3, respectively). It is also higher than those
pointing to mixed results or no age differences (9 vs 3 and 6, respectively).
Aside from that problematic factors that we explained above, some other issues claim for
our attention if we are to better understand the role of age in the risk and prevalence of NMP.
For instance, many studies have a narrow age range and this can affect the analyses. Moreover,
NMP may be sensitive to gender, and having a very asymmetric gender distribution could also
distort results. It is crucial to report the age range (youngest and oldest), which is not always
done in studies that find significant age differences. Finally, some studies report the existence
of significant age differences but fail to inform about the direction of these differences.
Note: UGD stands for Unequal Gender Distribution and EGD for Equal Gender Distribution
The age comparison was in two groups: youngers (20 years or below) and elders (over 20 years).
Differences examined in students of 9th to 12th grade.
FOGUC stands for “Fear of Not Being Able to Access Information”.
FNBATAI stands “Fear of Giving Up Convenience”.
This maximum scores reflected moderate and severe levels.
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When we look at age and gender differences (Fig 3), most of the studies do not examine
these variables. When they do, these differences are not often interpretable (due to missing
information) or statistically significant. We merged these two latter cases (“no information”
and “not significant”) in the category of “no results” and compare it with the categories “higher
NMP” and “partial results” within four groups: females, males, younger, and older people. We
see that “higher NMP” is more represented in females and young people, and therefore, they
seem more vulnerable than males and older people. However, the fact that “no results” is the
category most represented in the four groups and that partial results is similar distributed
makes it difficult to establish any causality between age and gender, and the level of NMP
(Fig 3).
Common guidelines
One of the main conclusions of this systematic review is that heterogeneity in reporting data is
exceptionally high. This fact, along with some inconsistencies highlighted above, makes it
Note:
UGD stands for Unequal Gender Distribution and EGD for Equal Gender Distribution.
Minimum and maximum age not specified.
The authors only state that age has a significant relationship with NMP but not the direction.
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extremely difficult to look at nomophobia prevalence, identify the magnitude of the problem,
and shed light on gender and age differences. Therefore, we propose standard guidelines for
future studies using the NMP-Q to move forward to the standardization of nomophobia
reporting (see Fig 4).
Generating a common framework is fundamental for research purposes and produces
high-quality data that can serve to inform and design therapeutic interventions. With this aim,
and after reviewing carefully the studies published in ten years on NMP research, we propose
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the following steps and criteria. The most important information when reporting prevalence
with the NMP-Q is the arithmetic mean and SD of the total sum of items: 20-140 points, since
this is the way its author proposed. Reporting the same information by each dimension of the
questionnaire or by item could be complementary to the total score, but it should never be
used instead of it. The use of the levels of severity and cut-off points suggested by Yildirim [20]
is also recommended, in addition to not treating this problem in a dichotomous way (non-suf-
fering NMP vs Suffering NMP).
Providing the percentages of people in each level is welcome, and in case this is done, we
suggest this information be reported in each of the four levels and not just in one or two.
When trying to establish which people are “at-risk” of developing this problem, we do not rec-
ommend the criterion of being above the mean be followed. The reason is that it is neither the-
oretically nor methodologically supported. Instead, we can identify “at-risk” levels using the
percentile 80 as done in the gaming disorder literature [21].
Studying the NMP prevalence by age is of great importance as younger participants seem to
be at higher risk, but we need more systematic research to reinforce this conclusion (see Fig 5).
The main problem is that age information is reported in very different ways, and good prac-
tices are not always followed.
We recommend providing the following basic information: age range of participants (total
sample), age of the youngest and oldest, mean and SD. If participants are split into groups, it is
also important to report this information along with the age range of the different groups. Bear
in mind that if we want to analyze age and treat it as a relevant variable (which is highly recom-
mended), the range must be sufficiently broad to distinguish wide evolutive periods or, at
least, groups that differ in maturity or life events experienced. Also, we should not equal age to
school grade, university year, or experience in a work position, which makes results difficult to
apprehend and validate.
In case of reporting age differences, the significance should be explored as well as the direc-
tion of the differences found (NMP higher in younger or older participants). Also, reporting
the effect size is recommended since is easy to calculate, and it gives us a more scientific
approach by focusing on the size of the difference between two groups. Methods to analyse the
effect size include Cohen’s d (difference between two population means divided by their
common standard deviation), Cohen’s f (the standard deviation of the population means
divided by their common standard deviation) and for analyses of variance (ANOVAs) or
covariance (ANCOVAs), and Eta Square (η2). It is worth mentioning that Cohen’s d is the
appropriate effect size measure if two groups have similar standard deviations and are of the
same size. Glass’s delta, which uses only the standard deviation of the control group, is an alter-
native measure if each group has a different standard deviation. And, finally, Hedges’ g, which
provides a measure of effect size weighted according to the relative size of each sample, is an
alternative where there are different sample sizes. Non significant and partial results should be
reported as this matters to the global comprehension of NMP.
Finally, for gender differences (see Fig 6) it is necessary to report the number of both
females and males along with their percentage distribution, and the total mean and standard
deviation of both genders, and additionally, differences or scores in specific items or dimen-
sions of the NMP-Q. In case the significance of gender differences is examined, it is fundamen-
tal to inform of the direction of them (NMP higher in females or males), and to calculate the
effect size (Cohen’s d, Cohen’s f or η2 as it improves substantially the quality of the analyses
and makes it easier to conduct future meta-analyses on NMP. Non-significant and partial
results should be reported as this matters to the global comprehension of this phobia.
Below we have proposed several recommendations for nonclinical research using the
NMP-Q. For those interested in clinical implications, we recommend using the percentiles 15,
80, and 95 (a criterion widely used, for instance, in the literature of gaming disorders) that
would refer to absence, at-risk, and NMP. There is just one work [19] that has identified cut
off points for these percentiles, which are: 34 (P15), 72 (P80), and 94 (P95).
suitable instrument to conduct future studies and the only one allowing for transcultural
research. In order to generalize results, it is crucial to calculate the total score of the NMP-Q
and the percentages of individuals in the four-level classification, as suggested by Yildirim
[20], and improving the size and representativeness of samples.
Since we identified many inconsistencies both when using this instrument and when
reporting data, we have proposed some standard guidelines. This suggested protocol does not
determine or limit the analyses to be done but rather, we conceive it as a helping instrument to
build on a common and basic framework. We also recommended guidelines for gender and
age analyses with the same supportive purpose that characterized the guidelines for reporting
prevalence. In addition, we believe that calculating specific cut-off points by gender and age,
and within different countries and cultural settings, will improve our understanding of the het-
erogeneity of findings coming from diverse countries. Our recommendation is to consider at
least three percentiles (15, 80, and 95) when calculating those cut-off points.
Our review, with the evidence we have so far, confirms the existence of gender and age dif-
ferences, pointing to females and young people as the most vulnerable groups, although this
conclusion is based on a limited number of studies, a fact that weaken this statement. There-
fore this initial result will need to be confirmed by future studies. Given this topic’s clinical
interest, we recommend analyzing age and gender differences as determining variables when-
ever it is possible and regardless of other primary goals. In doing so, we will contribute to iden-
tifying which groups need our attention and should be the target of interventions. In this
sense, we make a plea to authors, reviewers, and editors to not consider partial or non-signifi-
cant results as failure research or information with low value. Not publishing these results is
neither positive for the clinical reasons explained above nor for guaranteeing that the pub-
lished scholarly work is unbiased, ie., not rejected based on the direction and strength of find-
ings [22]. This is not the only reason for this plea, since having a wider myriad of results will
favor conducting meta-analyses on the subject.
One of our systematic review’s main goals was to identify methodological inconsistencies
when measuring and reporting nomophobia prevalence and generate practice, a field in which
SR has proven to be useful. As some authors have highlighted, a SR should be seen as a means
to an end, i.e., contributing to obtaining a robust and sensible answer to a research question,
and not an end in itself [13, 23]. In this sense, we met our goals, but they are not exempt from
limitations. First, SR has been widely used in the fields of experimental sciences for extracting
information from control trials. Still, applying this research methodology to social science (an
area to which belong most of the reviewed studies) is less common; it poses challenges when
comparing studies that are very different in their designs, methodology, and results, and that
sometimes describe poorly these sections. This precluded us from conducting any meta-analy-
sis, and, in some cases, it was even difficult for us to compare descriptive results. For instance,
the information on statistical significance and direction of significant differences was not
always available. For this reason, and as said above, our finding pointing females and young
people as more vulnerable to NMP should be taken with caution despite being based on the
reviewed evidence. Our SR has not included studies from 2020, so other recent studies of
potential relevance may not have been included in this review.
As for qualitative studies on NMP, our SR identified a small number of them that were
excluded for not being related to our research and not meeting our inclusion criteria. It is true
that whenever possible, the inclusion of qualitative studies helps to evaluate the effects of health
interventions or to understand the experience of having a disease, to mention a few examples.
Since our research question focused on prevalence and assessment data, our study could not
benefit from the valuable perspective that qualitative designs can offer to any research. For all
the above reasons, adapting the methodology of SR to nonmedical or nonexperimental fields,
it is only possible if one rejects a rigid approach and favor instead flexibility while sticking to
the principles of rigor, transparency, and replicability [13] that we tried to follow despite the
above limitations outlined.
It is clear that nomophobia has become a hot topic in the field of social sciences, particularly
in cyberpsychology, and that we are concerned about the hours that high-school students and
undergraduates spent with their mobiles and the sort of ties they establish with them. How-
ever, we noticed that there are substantially fewer studies done with children and preadoles-
cents. Given that the age of first owning a mobile is decreasing, younger samples should be
more targeted. For instance, research from other fields has found the association between digi-
tal technology use and well-being in adolescents to be negative but small [24]. Further studies
on problematic use have reported that this problem affects one in every four children and
young people, putting them in more danger of poorer mental health [13]. Whether called
nomophobia or otherwise, the way we relate to our mobile phones has been linked to numer-
ous psychological problems and different consequences for the individual’s life [6, 25]. There-
fore, Nomophobia research needs to contribute to this debate on the frequency, intensity, and
harmful consequences of this phobia among the youngest.
To conclude, by improving our knowledge of nomophobia we will be guiding clinical and
therapeutical studies, which were very salient when this topic emerged. Indeed, the field of
intervention in NMP is underdeveloped and calls for collaborative work between scholars who
have expert knowledge on this phobia and those who specialize in different groups of thera-
peutic frameworks within Behaviour Therapy. Many psychotherapists sometimes work outside
the academy, not benefitting from all the existing research and theoretical knowledge. There-
fore, we must end this gap and learn together how to help those already affected by this prob-
lem so they can enjoy a more balanced and healthier life. It is also crucial that nomophobia can
be prevented through educational programs that instruct people in the appropriate use of tech-
nology. Currently, we are not aware of any programs that specifically address nomophobia
with adolescents and other vulnerable groups. It would be very beneficial if educational inter-
ventions could be developed in the future to reduce nomophobic behaviour.
Supporting information
S1 Appendix. A: Studies included in the qualitative synthesis. B: A selection of studies not
included in the qualitative synthesis.
(PDF)
S1 Checklist. PRISMA 2009 guidelines.
(DOC)
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Ana C. León-Mej´ıa, Mo´nica Gutie´rrez-Ortega.
Data curation: Ana C. Leo´n-Mej´ıa, Mo´nica Gutie´rrez-Ortega.
Formal analysis: Ana C. León-Mej´ıa, Mo´nica Gutie´rrez-Ortega.
Funding acquisition: Joaqu´ın Gonza´lez-Cabrera.
Investigation: Ana C. León-Mej´ıa, Mónica Gutie´rrez-Ortega.
Methodology: Ana C. León-Mej´ıa, Mónica Gutie´rrez-Ortega.
Project administration: Joaqu´ın Gonza´lez-Cabrera.
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Anexos
99
100 APARTADO 7. Anexos
Figura 7.5: Evolución del índice de impacto PLOS ONE. Fuente: Clarivate
(2021)
104 APARTADO 7. Anexos
Figura 7.6: Ranking por índice de impacto de PLOS ONE. Fuente: Clarivate
(2021)
105
* Corresponding author:
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