Oro

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Este artículo trata sobre el elemento. Para otros usos,
consulte Gold (desambiguación) .
El "elemento 79" vuelve a dirigir aquí. Para la antología, consulte
el Elemento 79 (antología) .

Oro,    Au79

Oro

Apariencia amarillo metalizado

Peso atómico 196,966 570 (4) [1]

estándar A r, estándar (Au)

Oro en la tabla periódica

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ar a e as eo o a ur ad er sp ol r lio er tec fni an ng ni s di tin
io nt ri eo di m m o ol bi ro m bi bi io o ta steo m o o
a o di m et ar pi in o si io o o li no io
n mi io eo io o io o o
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R A T Pr U N Pl A C B C Ei F M N La Ru D Se BoH M Da
ad ct o ota ra ep ut m ur er ali ns eren o wr the u ab hri as eitrm
io in ri cti ni tu o er io k fo te mde b en rfo b or u si ne sta
io o ni o ni ni ic el rn ni iole el ciu rdi ni gi m u ri dti
o o o io io io o vi io m o u o m o um
o m
platino ← oro → mercurio

Número atómico ( Z ) 79

Grupo grupo 11

Período período 6

Cuadra   bloque d

Configuración electronica [ Xe ] 4f 14 5d 10 6s 1

Electrones por capa 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1

 Propiedades físicas

Fase en  STP sólido

Punto de fusion 1337,33  K (1064,18 ° C,

1947,52 ° F)

Punto de ebullición 3243 K (2970 ° C, 5378 °

F)

Densidad (cerca de  rt ) 19,30 g / cm 3

cuando es líquido (a  mp ) 17,31 g / cm 3

Calor de fusión 12,55  kJ / mol

Calor de vaporización 342 kJ / mol

Capacidad calorífica molar 25,418 J / (mol · K)

Presión de vapor
P  (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
en  T  (K 164 1814 2021 228 2620 3078
) 6 1

Propiedades atómicas

Estados de oxidación −3, −2, −1 , 0, [2] +1 ,

+2, +3 , +5 (un  óxido an
fótero )

Electronegatividad Escala de Pauling: 2,54

1 °: 890,1 kJ / mol
Energías de ionización
2do: 1980 kJ / mol
Radio atómico empírico: 144  pm
Radio covalente 136 ± 6 pm
Radio de Van der Waals 166 pm

Líneas espectrales de oro

Otras propiedades
Ocurrencia natural primordial
Estructura cristalina cara cúbica centrada (fcc)

Velocidad de sonido varilla 2030 m / s (a  ta )

fina
Expansión térmica 14,2 µm / (m⋅K) (a 25 °
C)
Conductividad térmica 318 W / (m⋅K)
Resistividad electrica 22,14 nΩ⋅m (a 20 ° C)
Orden magnético diamagnético [3]
Susceptibilidad magnética −28,0 × 10 −6  cm 3 / mol
molar (a 296 K) [4]
Fuerza de Tensión 120 MPa
El módulo de Young 79 GPa
Módulo de corte 27 GPa
Módulo de volumen 180 GPa [5]
Relación de Poisson 0.4
Dureza de Mohs 2.5
Dureza Vickers 188–216 MPa
Dureza Brinell 188–245 MPa
Número CAS 7440-57-5
 Historia
Nombrar del latín aurum , que
significa oro
Descubrimiento En el Medio
Oriente (antes del 6000 a.
C. )
Símbolo "Au": del latín aurum
Principales isótopos de oro
Isótop Abundancia Vida Modo de Producto
o media ( t 1/2 ) decaimiento
195
 Au syn 186,10 días ε 195
 
ε 196
 
196
 Au syn 6.183 d
β  - 196

197
 Au 100% estable
198
 Au syn 2.69517 d β - 198

199
 Au syn 3.169 d β - 199

 Categoría: Oro
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El oro es un elemento químico con

el símbolo Au (del latín : aurum ) y número atómico 79, lo que lo
convierte en uno de los elementos de mayor número atómico que
se producen de forma natural. En forma pura, es
un metal brillante , amarillo ligeramente rojizo, denso,
blando, maleable y dúctil . Químicamente, el oro es un metal de
transición y un elemento del grupo 11 . Es uno de los elementos
químicos menos reactivos y es sólido en condiciones estándar . El
oro a menudo se presenta en forma elemental libre (nativa),
como pepitas o granos, enrocas , en vetas y en depósitos
aluviales . Se presenta en una serie de solución sólida con el
elemento nativo plata (como electro ), naturalmente aleado con
otros metales como el cobre y el paladio y también
como inclusiones minerales como dentro de la pirita . Con menos
frecuencia, se presenta en minerales como compuestos de oro, a
menudo con telurio ( telururos de oro ).
El oro es resistente a la mayoría de los ácidos , aunque se
disuelve en agua regia (una mezcla de ácido nítrico y ácido
clorhídrico ), que forma un anión tetracloroaurato soluble . El oro
es insoluble en ácido nítrico , que disuelve la plata y los metales
básicos , propiedad que se ha utilizado durante mucho tiempo
para refinar el oro y confirmar la presencia de oro en sustancias
metálicas, dando lugar al término prueba de ácido . El oro también
se disuelve en soluciones alcalinas de cianuro , que se utilizan
en minería y galvanoplastia.. El oro se disuelve en mercurio ,
formando aleaciones de amalgama , y como el oro actúa
simplemente como un soluto, esta no es una reacción química .
Un elemento relativamente raro, [6] [7] el oro es un metal precioso que
se ha utilizado para la acuñación de monedas , joyería y
otras artes a lo largo de la historia registrada . En el pasado,
un patrón oro a menudo se implementaba como política
monetaria , pero las monedas de oro dejaron de ser acuñadas
como moneda circulante en la década de 1930, y el patrón oro
mundial fue abandonado por un sistema de moneda
fiduciaria después de 1971 .
Existe un total de 197.576 toneladas de oro sobre el suelo, a partir
de 2019 . [8] Esto es igual a un cubo con cada lado que mide
aproximadamente 21,7 metros (71 pies). El consumo mundial de
oro nuevo producido es de aproximadamente el 50% en joyería, el
40% en inversiones y el 10% en la industria . [9] La alta
maleabilidad, ductilidad, resistencia a la corrosión y la mayoría de
las otras reacciones químicas y conductividad de la electricidad
del oro han llevado a su uso continuo en conectores
eléctricos resistentes a la corrosión en todo tipo de dispositivos
computarizados (su principal uso industrial). El oro también se usa
en blindaje infrarrojo , producción de vidrio coloreado , pan de
oroy restauración dental . Ciertas sales de oro todavía se utilizan
como antiinflamatorios en medicina. En 2017 , el mayor productor
de oro del mundo era China con 440 toneladas por año. [10]
 Contenido

 1Caracteristicas
o 1.1Color
o 1.2Isótopos
 1.2.1Síntesis
 2Química
o 2.1Estados de oxidación raros
o 2.2Usos medicinales
 3Origen
o 3.1Producción de oro en el universo
o 3.2Teorías del origen de los asteroides
o 3.3Teorías del retorno del manto
 4Ocurrencia
o 4.1Agua de mar
 5Historia
o 5.1Etimología
o 5.2Cultura
 5.2.1Oro de sangre
 5.2.2Religión
 6Producción
o 6.1Minería y prospección
o 6.2Extracción y refinado
o 6.3Consumo
o 6.4Polución
 7Uso monetario
o 7.1Precio
o 7.2Historia
 8Otras aplicaciones
o 8.1Joyas
o 8.2Electrónica
o 8.3Medicamento
o 8.4Cocina
o 8.5Miscelánea
 9Toxicidad
 10Ver también
  11Referencias
 12enlaces externos

Caracteristicas

El oro se puede dibujar en un cable monoatómico y luego estirar más antes de que se
rompa. [11]

Una pepita de oro de 5 mm (0,20 pulgadas) de tamaño se puede martillar en

una lámina de oro de aproximadamente 0,5 m 2 (5,4 pies cuadrados) de superficie.

El oro es el más maleable de todos los metales. Se puede estirar

en un cable de ancho de un solo átomo y luego estirar
considerablemente antes de romperse. [11] Dichos nanocables se
distorsionan a través de la formación, reorientación y migración
de dislocaciones y gemelos cristalinos sin un endurecimiento
notable. [12] Un solo gramo de oro se puede convertir en una hoja
de 1 metro cuadrado (11 pies cuadrados) y una onza
avoirdupois en 300 pies cuadrados (28 m 2 ). La hoja de oro se
puede batir lo suficientemente fina como para volverse
semitransparente. La luz transmitida aparece de color azul
verdoso, porque el oro refleja fuertemente el amarillo y el
rojo. [13] Estas hojas semitransparentes también reflejan
fuertementeluz infrarroja , haciéndolos útiles como protectores
infrarrojos (calor radiante) en viseras de trajes resistentes al calor
y en viseras solares para trajes espaciales . [14] El oro es un
buen conductor de calor y electricidad .
El oro tiene una densidad de 19,3 g / cm 3 , casi idéntica a la
del tungsteno de 19,25 g / cm 3 ; como tal, el tungsteno se ha
utilizado en la falsificación de lingotes de oro , como recubriendo
una barra de tungsteno con oro, [15] [16] [17] [18] o tomando una barra de
oro existente, perforando agujeros y reemplazando el oro
eliminado con varillas de tungsteno. [19] En comparación, la
densidad del plomo es de 11,34 g / cm 3 , y la del elemento más
denso, el osmio , es22,588 ± 0,015 g / cm 3 . [20]
Color
Artículo principal: oro coloreado

Diferentes colores de aleaciones Ag –Au– Cu

Mientras que la mayoría de los metales son grises o blancos

plateados, el oro es ligeramente amarillo rojizo. [21] Este color está
determinado por la frecuencia de las
oscilaciones del plasma entre los electrones de valencia del
metal, en el rango ultravioleta para la mayoría de los metales pero
en el rango visible para el oro debido a los efectos relativistas
que afectan los orbitales alrededor de los átomos de
oro. [22] [23] Efectos similares imparten un tono dorado
al cesio metálico .
Common colored gold alloys include the distinctive eighteen-
karat rose gold created by the addition of copper. Alloys
containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial
jewelry as these produce white gold alloys. Fourteen-karat gold-
copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys,
and both may be used to produce police and other badges.
Fourteen- and eighteen-karat gold alloys with silver alone appear
greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. Blue gold can
be made by alloying with iron, and purple gold can be made by
alloying with aluminium. Less commonly, addition
of manganese, indium, and other elements can produce more
unusual colors of gold for various applications.[24]
Colloidal gold, used by electron-microscopists, is red if the
particles are small; larger particles of colloidal gold are blue. [25]
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of gold
Gold has only one stable isotope, 197
Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope, so gold is
both a mononuclidic and monoisotopic element. Thirty-
six radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic
mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195
Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. The least stable is 171
Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most
of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by
some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The
exceptions are 195
Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196
Au, which decays most often by electron capture (93%) with a
minor β− decay path (7%).[26] All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic
masses above 197 decay by β− decay.[27]
At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging
in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range, only 178
Au, 180
Au, 181
Au, 182
Au, and 188
Au do not have isomers. Gold's most stable isomer is 198m2
Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer is 177m2
Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184m1
Au has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha
decay. No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths. [27]
Synthesis
La posible producción de oro a partir de un elemento más común,
como el plomo , ha sido durante mucho tiempo un tema de
investigación humana, y la disciplina antigua y medieval de
la alquimia a menudo se centró en él; sin embargo, la
transmutación de los elementos químicos no fue posible hasta la
comprensión de la física nuclear en el siglo XX. La primera
síntesis de oro fue realizada por el físico japonés Hantaro
Nagaoka , quien sintetizó oro a partir de mercurio en 1924
mediante bombardeo de neutrones. [28] Un equipo estadounidense,
trabajando sin conocimiento del estudio previo de Nagaoka,
realizó el mismo experimento en 1941, logrando el mismo
resultado y mostrando que los isótopos de oro producidos por él
eran todosradiactivo . [29]
Actualmente, el oro se puede fabricar en un reactor nuclear
mediante irradiación de platino o mercurio.
Solo el isótopo de mercurio 196 Hg, que se encuentra con una
frecuencia del 0,15% en el mercurio natural, puede convertirse en
oro por captura de neutrones y, tras la captura de electrones,
se descompone en 197 Au con neutrones lentos . Otros isótopos de
mercurio solo se pueden convertir en otros isótopos de mercurio
cuando se irradian con neutrones lentos, algunos de los cuales
se desintegran beta en talio .
Usando neutrones rápidos , el isótopo de mercurio 198 Hg, que
comprende el 9,97% del mercurio natural, se puede convertir
separando un neutrón y convirtiéndose en 197 Hg, que luego se
desintegra en oro estable. Esta reacción, sin embargo, posee una
sección transversal de activación más pequeña y es factible solo
con reactores no moderados.
También es posible expulsar varios neutrones con muy alta
energía en los otros isótopos de mercurio para formar 197 Hg. Sin
embargo, estos neutrones de alta energía solo pueden producirse
mediante aceleradores de partículas . [ aclaración necesaria ]

Química

Solución de cloruro de oro (III) en agua

Aunque el oro es el más noble de los metales nobles , [30] [31] todavía

forma muchos compuestos diversos. El estado de oxidación del
oro en sus compuestos varía de -1 a +5, pero Au (I) y Au (III)
dominan su química. Au (I), denominado ión auroso, es el estado
de oxidación más común
con ligandos blandos como tioéteres , tiolatos y organofosfinas . L
os compuestos de Au (I) son típicamente lineales. Un buen
ejemplo es el Au (CN) 2 - , que es la forma soluble de oro que se
encuentra en la minería. Los haluros de oro binarios , como AuCl,
forman cadenas poliméricas en zigzag, nuevamente con
coordinación lineal en Au. La mayoría de las drogas basadas en
oro son derivados de Au (I). [32]
Au (III) (denominado áurico) es un estado de oxidación común, y
se ilustra con el cloruro de oro (III) , Au 2 Cl 6 . Los centros átomo
de oro en los complejos de Au (III), al igual que otros
d 8 compuestos, son típicamente cuadrada plana , con enlaces
químicos que tienen tanto covalente y iónico carácter.
El oro no reacciona con el oxígeno a ninguna temperatura [33] y,
hasta 100 ° C, es resistente al ataque del ozono. [34]
Algunos halógenos libres reaccionan con el oro. [35] El oro es
fuertemente atacado por el flúor a un calor rojo apagado [36] para
formar fluoruro de oro (III) . El oro en polvo reacciona con el cloro
a 180 ° C para formar AuCl 3 . [37] El oro reacciona con el bromo a
140 ° C para formar bromuro de oro (III) , pero reacciona muy
lentamente con el yodo para formar el monoyoduro .
El oro no reacciona directamente con el azufre, [38] pero el sulfuro
de oro (III) puede obtenerse pasando sulfuro de hidrógeno
a través de una solución diluida de cloruro de oro (III) o ácido
cloraúrico .
El oro se disuelve fácilmente en mercurio a temperatura ambiente
para formar una amalgama y forma aleaciones con muchos otros
metales a temperaturas más altas. Estas aleaciones se pueden
producir para modificar la dureza y otras propiedades
metalúrgicas, para controlar el punto de fusión o para crear
colores exóticos. [24]
El oro no se ve afectado por la mayoría de los ácidos. No
reacciona
con ácido fluorhídrico , clorhídrico , bromhídrico , yodhídrico , sulfú
rico o nítrico . Reacciona con el ácido selenico y se disuelve
con agua regia , una mezcla 1: 3 de ácido nítrico y ácido
clorhídrico . El ácido nítrico oxida el metal a +3 iones, pero solo en
cantidades mínimas, típicamente indetectables en el ácido puro
debido al equilibrio químico de la reacción. Sin embargo, los iones
son eliminados del equilibrio por el ácido clorhídrico,
formando iones AuCl 4 - o ácido cloroáurico., lo que permite una
mayor oxidación.
El oro tampoco se ve afectado por la mayoría de las bases. No
reacciona con hidróxido
de sodio o potasio acuoso , sólido o fundido . Sin embargo,
reacciona con el cianuro de sodio o potasio en condiciones
alcalinas cuando hay oxígeno presente para formar complejos
solubles. [38]
Los estados de oxidación comunes del oro incluyen +1 (oro (I) o
compuestos áuricos) y +3 (oro (III) o compuestos áuricos). Los
iones de oro en solución se reducen y precipitan fácilmente como
metal añadiendo cualquier otro metal como agente reductor . El
metal agregado se oxida y se disuelve, lo que permite que el oro
se desplace de la solución y se recupere como un precipitado
sólido.
Estados de oxidación raros
Los estados de oxidación menos comunes del oro incluyen -1, +2
y +5.
El -1 estado de oxidación se produce en aurides, compuestos que
contienen el Au - anión . El aururo de cesio (CsAu), por ejemplo,
cristaliza en el motivo de cloruro de cesio ; [39] También se conocen
aururos de rubidio, potasio y tetrametilamonio . [40] El oro tiene la
más alta afinidad electrónica de cualquier metal, a 222,8 kJ / mol,
haciendo Au - una especie estable. [41]
Los compuestos de oro (II) suelen ser diamagnéticos con enlaces
Au-Au como [ Au (CH
2)
2ORDENADOR PERSONAL
6H
5)
2]
2Cl
2. La evaporación de una solución de Au (OH)

3en H concentrado

2ASI QUE

4produce cristales rojos de sulfato de oro (II),

Au 2 (SO 4 ) 2 . Originalmente se pensó que era un compuesto de

valencia mixta, se ha demostrado que contiene Au4+
2cationes, análogos al ion mercurio (I) más conocido , Hg
2+

2.   Un complejo de oro (II), el catión tetraxenonogold (II) , que

[42] [43]
contiene xenón como ligando, se encuentra en [AuXe 4 ]
(Sb 2 F 11 ) 2 . [44]
Pentafluoruro de oro , junto con su anión derivado, AuF-
6, y su complejo de difluoruro , heptafluoruro de oro , es el único

ejemplo de oro (V), el estado de oxidación más alto verificado. [45]

Algunos compuestos de oro exhiben enlaces aurofílicos , que
describen la tendencia de los iones de oro a interactuar a
distancias que son demasiado largas para ser un enlace Au-Au
convencional, pero más cortas que el enlace de van der
Waals . Se estima que la interacción es comparable en fuerza a la
de un enlace de hidrógeno .
Los compuestos de racimo bien definidos son numerosos. [40] En
tales casos, el oro tiene un estado de oxidación fraccional. Un
ejemplo representativo son las especies octaédricas {Au ( P (C
6H
5)
3)}2+
6. Los calcogenuros de oro , como el sulfuro de oro, presentan
cantidades iguales de Au (I) y Au (III).
Usos medicinales
Las aplicaciones medicinales del oro y sus complejos tienen una
larga historia que se remonta a miles de años. [46] Se han aplicado
varios complejos de oro para tratar la artritis reumatoide , siendo
los más utilizados el aurotiomalato , la aurotioglucosa y
la auranofina . Se han investigado tanto los compuestos de oro (I)
como los de oro (III) como posibles fármacos contra el
cáncer. Para los complejos de oro (III), debe considerarse la
reducción a oro (0 / I) en condiciones fisiológicas. Se pueden
generar complejos estables usando diferentes tipos de sistemas
de ligandos bi-, tri- y tetradentados, y su eficacia se ha
demostrado in vitro e in vivo. [47]

Origen
Producción de oro en el universo
Esquema de una sección transversal de NE (izquierda) a SO (derecha) a través
del cráter de impacto Vredefort de 2.020 millones de años de
antigüedad en Sudáfrica y cómo distorsionó las estructuras geológicas
contemporáneas. Se muestra el nivel de erosión actual. Johannesburgo se encuentra
donde la Cuenca Witwatersrand (la capa amarilla) está expuesta en la línea de la
"superficie actual", justo dentro del borde del cráter, a la izquierda. No a escala.

Se cree que el oro se produjo en la nucleosíntesis de

supernovas y a partir de la colisión de estrellas de neutrones , [48] y
que estuvo presente en el polvo a partir del cual se formó
el Sistema Solar . [49]
Tradicionalmente, se cree que el oro en el universo se ha formado
por el proceso r (captura rápida de neutrones) en la nucleosíntesis
de supernova , [50] pero más recientemente se ha sugerido que el
oro y otros elementos más pesados que el hierro también pueden
ser producidos en cantidad por el proceso r en la colisión
de estrellas de neutrones . [51] En ambos casos, los espectrómetros
de satélite al principio solo detectaron indirectamente el oro
resultante. [52] Sin embargo, en agosto de 2017, los observatorios
electromagnéticos observaron las firmas espectroscópicas de
elementos pesados, incluido el oro, en el evento de fusión de
estrellas de neutrones GW170817 , después de la onda
[Link] detectores confirmaron el evento como una
fusión de estrellas de neutrones. [53] Los modelos astrofísicos
actuales sugieren que este evento de fusión de una sola estrella
de neutrones generó entre 3 y 13 masas terrestres de oro. Esta
cantidad, junto con las estimaciones de la tasa de ocurrencia de
estos eventos de fusión de estrellas de neutrones, sugiere que
tales fusiones pueden producir suficiente oro para dar cuenta de
la mayor parte de la abundancia de este elemento en el
universo. [54]
Teorías del origen de los asteroides
Debido a que la Tierra estaba fundida cuando se formó , casi todo
el oro presente en la Tierra primitiva probablemente se hundió en
el núcleo planetario . Por lo tanto, la mayor parte del oro que se
encuentra en la corteza y el manto de la Tierra, en un modelo, se
cree que fue entregado a la Tierra más tarde, por impactos de
asteroides durante el Bombardeo Intenso Tardío , hace unos 4 mil
millones de años. [55] [56]
El oro al que pueden alcanzar los humanos, en un caso, se ha
asociado con el impacto de un asteroide en particular. Al
asteroide que formó el cráter Vredefort hace 2.020 mil millones de
años a menudo se le atribuye el mérito de sembrar la cuenca de
Witwatersrand en Sudáfrica con los depósitos de oro más ricos de
la tierra. [57] [58] [59] [60] Sin embargo, este escenario ahora se
cuestiona. Las rocas de Witwatersrand que contienen oro se
colocaron entre 700 y 950 millones de años antes del impacto de
Vredefort. [61] [62] Estas rocas auríferas habían sido además
cubiertas por una gruesa capa de lavas Ventersdorp y
el Supergrupo [Link] rocas antes de que golpeara el
meteoro y, por lo tanto, el oro en realidad no llegó al asteroide /
meteorito. Sin embargo, lo que logró el impacto de Vredefort fue
distorsionar la cuenca de Witwatersrand de tal manera que las
rocas auríferas llegaron a la actual superficie de
erosión en Johannesburgo , en Witwatersrand , justo dentro del
borde de los 300 km originales (190 mi ) diámetro del cráter
causado por el impacto de un meteorito. El descubrimiento del
depósito en 1886 lanzó la fiebre del oro de
Witwatersrand . Aproximadamente el 22% de todo el oro que se
determina que existe hoy en la Tierra se ha extraído de estas
rocas Witwatersrand. [62]
Teorías del retorno del manto
A pesar del impacto anterior, se cree que gran parte del resto del
oro de la Tierra se incorporó al planeta desde sus inicios, cuando
los planetesimales formaron el manto del planeta, al principio de
la creación de la Tierra. En 2017, un grupo internacional de
científicos estableció que el oro "llegó a la superficie de la Tierra
desde las regiones más profundas de nuestro
planeta", [63] el manto , evidenciado por sus hallazgos en el Macizo
del Deseado en la Patagonia Argentina . [64] [ aclaración necesaria ]

Ocurrencia
En la Tierra, el oro se encuentra en los minerales de las rocas
formadas desde el Precámbrico en adelante. [65] Se presenta con
mayor frecuencia como un metal nativo , típicamente en
una solución de metal sólido con plata (es decir, como
una aleación de oro / plata ). Estas aleaciones suelen tener un
contenido de plata del 8 al 10%. Electrum es oro elemental con
más de un 20% de plata y se conoce comúnmente como oro
blanco . El color de Electrum va de plateado dorado a plateado,
dependiendo del contenido de plata. Cuanto más plata, menor es
la gravedad específica .
El oro nativo se presenta como partículas desde muy pequeñas
hasta microscópicas incrustadas en la roca, a menudo junto
con minerales de cuarzo o sulfuro como el "oro de los tontos", que
es una pirita . [66] Estos se denominan depósitos de vetas . El metal
en un estado nativo también se encuentra en forma de escamas,
granos o pepitas más grandes [65] que han sido erosionadas de las
rocas y terminan en depósitos aluviales llamados depósitos de
placer . Este oro libre es siempre más rico en la superficie
expuesta de las vetas auríferas, debido a la oxidaciónde los
minerales acompañantes seguidos de la meteorización; y lavando
el polvo en arroyos y ríos, donde se acumula y puede soldarse
mediante la acción del agua para formar pepitas.
El oro a veces se encuentra combinado con telurio como
los minerales calaverita , krennerita , nagyagita , petzita y silvanita 
(ver minerales telururos ), y como la rara bismutida maldonita
(Au 2 Bi) y antimonida aurostibita (AuSb 2 ). El oro también se
encuentra en aleaciones raras con cobre , plomo y mercurio : los
minerales auricuprida (Cu 3 Au), novodneprita (AuPb 3 ) y
weishanita ((Au, Ag) 3 Hg 2).
Investigaciones recientes sugieren que los microbios a veces
pueden desempeñar un papel importante en la formación de
depósitos de oro, transportando y precipitando el oro para formar
granos y pepitas que se acumulan en depósitos aluviales. [67]
Otro estudio reciente ha afirmado que el agua en las fallas se
vaporiza durante un terremoto, depositando oro. Cuando ocurre
un terremoto, se mueve a lo largo de una falla . El agua a menudo
lubrica las fallas, rellenando fracturas y
trompicones. Aproximadamente a 10 kilómetros (6.2 millas)
debajo de la superficie, bajo temperaturas y presiones muy altas,
el agua transporta altas concentraciones de dióxido de carbono,
sílice y oro. Durante un terremoto, el trote de fallas de repente se
abre más. El agua dentro del vacío se vaporiza instantáneamente,
se convierte en vapor y fuerza a la sílice, que forma el cuarzo
mineral, y al oro a salir de los fluidos y a las superficies
cercanas. [68]
Agua de mar
Los océanos del mundo contienen oro. Las concentraciones
medidas de oro en el Atlántico y el Pacífico nororiental son 50–
150 femtomol / L o 10–30 partes por cuatrillón (alrededor de 10–
30 g / km 3 ). En general, las concentraciones de oro para las
muestras del Atlántico sur y del Pacífico central son las mismas (~
50 femtomol / L) pero menos seguras. Las aguas profundas del
Mediterráneo contienen concentraciones ligeramente más altas
de oro (100-150 femtomol / L) atribuidas al polvo y / o ríos
arrastrados por el viento. A 10 partes por cuatrillón, los océanos
de la Tierra albergarían 15.000 toneladas de oro. [69] Estas cifras
son tres órdenes de magnitud menos que las informadas en la
literatura antes de 1988, lo que indica problemas de
contaminación con los datos anteriores.
Varias personas han afirmado poder recuperar económicamente
el oro del agua de mar , pero se equivocaron o actuaron en un
engaño intencional. Prescott Jernegan dirigió una estafa de oro
del agua de mar en los Estados Unidos en la década de 1890, al
igual que un estafador inglés a principios de la década de
1900. [70] Fritz Haber hizo una investigación sobre la extracción de
oro del agua de mar en un esfuerzo por ayudar a pagar las
reparaciones de Alemania después de la Primera Guerra
Mundial . [71]Con base en los valores publicados de 2 a 64 ppb de
oro en agua de mar, parecía posible una extracción
comercialmente exitosa. Después de analizar 4.000 muestras de
agua que arrojaron un promedio de 0,004 ppb, quedó claro que la
extracción no sería posible y puso fin al proyecto. [72]

Historia

Un tributo indio en Apadana , de la satrapía aqueménida del hindú , llevando oro en

un yugo, alrededor del 500 a. C. [73]

The Muisca raft, between circa 600-1600 AD. The figure refers to the ceremony of the
legend of El Dorado. The zipa used to cover his body in gold dust, and from his raft, he
offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old
Muisca tradition became the origin of the legend of El Dorado.
This Muisca raft figure is on display in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, Colombia.

El primer metal registrado empleado por los seres humanos

parece ser el oro, que se puede encontrar libre o " nativo ". Se
han encontrado pequeñas cantidades de oro natural en las
cuevas españolas utilizadas durante el Paleolítico tardío,
c. 40.000 antes de Cristo. [74] Los artefactos de oro hicieron su
primera aparición al comienzo del período predinástico en Egipto,
al final del quinto milenio antes de Cristo y el comienzo del cuarto,
y la fundición se desarrolló durante el curso del cuarto
milenio; Aparecen artefactos de oro en la arqueología de la Baja
Mesopotamia a principios del cuarto milenio. [75] Los artefactos de
oro de los Balcanes datan del cuarto milenio antes de Cristo,
como los que se encuentran en la necrópolis de [Link] del
lago Varna en Bulgaria , considerado por una fuente (La Niece
2009) como el hallazgo más antiguo "bien fechado" de artefactos
de oro. [65] A partir de 1990, los artefactos de oro encontrados en
el cementerio de la cueva de Wadi Qana del cuarto milenio
antes de Cristo en Cisjordania fueron los primeros del
Levante. [76] Los artefactos de oro, como los sombreros dorados y
el disco de Nebra, aparecieron en Europa Central desde el
segundo milenio antes de Cristo, Edad del Bronce .
El mapa más antiguo conocido de una mina de oro se trazó en la
dinastía XIX del Antiguo Egipto (1320-1200 a. C.), mientras que la
primera referencia escrita al oro se registró en la dinastía XII
alrededor de 1900 a. C. [77] Los jeroglíficos egipcios de 2600 a. C.
describen el oro, que según el rey Tushratta de los Mitanni era
"más abundante que la suciedad" en Egipto. [78] Egipto y
especialmente Nubia tenían los recursos para convertirlos en
importantes áreas productoras de oro durante gran parte de la
historia. Uno de los primeros mapas conocidos, conocido
como Mapa de Papiro de Turín , muestra el plano de una mina de
oro en Nubia junto con indicaciones de la geología local.. Los
métodos de trabajo primitivos son descritos tanto
por Estrabón como por Diodoro Siculus , e incluían el encendido
del fuego . También hubo grandes minas en el Mar Rojo en lo que
ahora es Arabia Saudita .
Corona antigua de oro de Kritonios , material funerario o matrimonial, 370–360 a.
C. De una tumba en Armento , Campania

El oro se menciona en las cartas de

Amarna numeradas 19 [79] y 26 [80] alrededor del siglo XIV a. C. [81] [82]
Gold is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament, starting
with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah), the story of the golden calf, and
many parts of the temple including the Menorah and the golden
altar. In the New Testament, it is included with the gifts of
the magi in the first chapters of Matthew. The Book of
Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having
streets "made of pure gold, clear as crystal". Exploitation of gold in
the south-east corner of the Black Sea is said to date from the
time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of
what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia around 610
BC.[83] The legend of the golden fleece dating from eighth century
BCE may refer to the use of fleeces to trap gold dust from placer
deposits in the ancient world. From the 6th or 5th century BC,
the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold
coin.
In Roman metallurgy, new methods for extracting gold on a large
scale were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods,
especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 106
AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las
Medulas in León, where seven long aqueducts enabled them to
sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Roşia
Montană in Transylvania were also very large, and until very
recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited
smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer and hard-rock deposits
at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well described
by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia written
towards the end of the first century AD.
During Mansa Musa's (ruler of the Mali Empire from 1312 to
1337) hajj to Mecca in 1324, he passed through Cairo in July
1324, and was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that
included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels where
he gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt
for over a decade, causing high inflation.[84] A contemporary Arab
historian remarked:
Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The
mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but
from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has
remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams
or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years
until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they
brought into Egypt and spent there [...].
— Chihab Al-Umari, Kingdom of Mali[85]

Gold coin of Eucratides I (171–145 BC), one of the Hellenistic rulers of ancient Ai-

Khanoum. This is the largest known gold coin minted in antiquity (169.2 g (5.97 oz);
58 mm (2.3 in)).[86]

The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small

part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion
by Native American peoples, especially
in Mesoamerica, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.
The Aztecs regarded gold as the product of the gods, calling it
literally "god excrement" (teocuitlatl in Nahuatl), and
after Moctezuma II was killed, most of this gold was shipped to
Spain.[87] However, for the indigenous peoples of North
America gold was considered useless and they saw much greater
value in other minerals which were directly related to their utility,
such as obsidian, flint, and slate.[88] El Dorado is applied to a
legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous
abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado
underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the
previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost
city. El Dorado, was the term used by the Spanish Empire to
describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the Muisca native people
in Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold
dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding
El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a
city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.
Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of
corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—
where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's
daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—
and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the
Beanstalk.
The top prize at the Olympic Games and many other sports
competitions is the gold medal.
75% of the presently accounted for gold has been extracted since
1910. It has been estimated that the currently known amount of
gold internationally would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side
(equivalent to 8,000 m3 or 280,000 cu ft).[89]
One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other
substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a
mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they
never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists did promote an
interest in systematically finding out what can be done with
substances, and this laid the foundation for today's chemistry.
Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉),
which was also the astrological symbol and the ancient Chinese
character for the Sun.
The Dome of the Rock is covered with an ultra-thin golden
glassier. The Sikh Golden temple, the Harmandir Sahib, is a
building covered with gold. Similarly the Wat Phra
Kaew emerald Buddhist temple (wat) in Thailand has ornamental
gold-leafed statues and roofs. Some European king and
queen's crowns were made of gold, and gold was used for
the bridal crown since antiquity. An ancient Talmudic text circa
100 AD describes Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva, receiving a
"Jerusalem of Gold" (diadem). A Greek burial crown made of gold
was found in a grave circa 370 BC.


Minoan jewellery; 2300–2100 BC; various

sizes; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
 


Pair of Sumerian earrings
with cuneiform inscriptions; 2093–2046
BC; Sulaymaniyah Museum (Sulaymaniyah, Iraq)
 
 

Ancient Egyptian statuette of Amun; 945–715 BC;

gold; 175 mm × 47 mm (6.9 in × 1.9 in);
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 


Ancient Egyptian signet ring; 664–525 BC; gold;

diameter: 30 mm × 34 mm (1.2 in × 1.3 in); British
Museum (London)
 


Ancient Greek stater; 323–315 BC; 18 mm (0.71 in);

Metropolitan Museum of Art
 
 

Etruscan funerary wreath; 4th–3rd century BC;

length: 333 mm (13.1 in); Metropolitan Museum of
Art
 


Roman aureus of Hadrian; 134–138 AD; 7.4 g;

Metropolitan Museum of Art
 


Quimbaya lime container; 5th–9th century; gold;

height: 230 mm (9.1 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
 
 

Byzantine scyphate; 1059–1067; diameter: 25 mm

(0.98 in); Cleveland Museum of
Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)
 


Pre-Columbian pendant with two bat-head warriors

who carry spears; 11th–16th century; gold; overall:
76.2 mm (3.00 in); from the Chiriqui
Province (Panama); Metropolitan Museum of Art
 
 English Neoclassical box; 1741; overall: 44 mm
× 116 mm × 92 mm (1.7 in × 4.6 in × 3.6 in);
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

 French Rococo glass bottle mounted in gold; circa
1775; overall: 70 mm × 29 mm (2.8 in × 1.1 in);
Cleveland Museum of Art

Etymology

An early mention of gold in the Beowulf

"Gold" is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages,

deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-
European *ǵʰelh₃- ("to shine, to gleam; to be yellow or green"). [90][91]
The symbol Au is from the Latin: aurum, the Latin word for "gold".
[92]
 The Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-,
meaning "glow". This word is derived from the same root (Proto-
Indo-European *h₂u̯es- "to dawn") as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of
the Latin word Aurora, "dawn".[93] This etymological relationship is
presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications
that aurum meant "shining dawn".[94]
Culture
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Gold crafts from the Philippines prior to Western contact.

Outside chemistry, gold is mentioned in a variety of expressions,
most often associated with intrinsic worth.[41] Great human
achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form
of gold medals, gold trophies and other decorations. Winners of
athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded
a gold medal. Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made
from gold as well. Other award statues and prizes are depicted in
gold or are gold plated (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden
Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British
Academy Film Awards).
Aristotle in his ethics used gold symbolism when referring to what
is now known as the golden mean. Similarly, gold is associated
with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of the golden
ratio and the golden rule.
Gold is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition.
The fiftieth wedding anniversary is golden. A person's most valued
or most successful latter years are sometimes considered "golden
years". The height of a civilization is referred to as a golden age.
Blood gold
See also: Triangular trade § Atlantic triangular slave trade
The British Gold Coast (Ghana today) and the Guinea region were
among of the main centres of European trade in slaves and gold.
The British Guinea (coin) was minted from gold extracted from this
area.[95] The Danish Gold Coast, French Guinea, Portuguese
Guinea and Spanish Guinea were adjacent European colonies to
serve the gold and slave trade. British interests were represented
by the Royal African Company, which shipped more African slaves
to the Americas than any other company in the history of
the Atlantic slave trade.[96][97]
Religion
The Agusan image, depicting a deity from northeast Mindanao.

In some forms of Christianity and Judaism, gold has been

associated both with holiness and evil. In the Book of Exodus,
the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry, while in the Book of
Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in gold and silver, and
Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the
Covenant with pure gold.
In Byzantine iconography the halos of Christ, Mary and the
Christian saints are often golden.
In Islam,[98] gold (along with silk)[99][100] is often cited as being
forbidden for men to wear.[101] Abu Bakr al-Jazaeri, quoting
a hadith, said that "[t]he wearing of silk and gold are forbidden on
the males of my nation, and they are lawful to their women".
[102]
 This, however, has not been enforced consistently throughout
history, e.g. in the Ottoman Empire.[103] Further, small gold accents
on clothing, such as in embroidery, may be permitted.[104]
According to Christopher Columbus, those who had something of
gold were in possession of something of great value on Earth and
a substance to even help souls to paradise.[105]
Wedding rings are typically made of gold. It is long lasting and
unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring
symbolism of eternal vows before God and the perfection the
marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christian wedding ceremonies, the
wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown (though some opt
for wreaths, instead) during the ceremony, an amalgamation of
symbolic rites.
On 24 August 2020, Israeli archaeologists discovered a trove of
early Islamic gold coins near the central city of Yavne. Analysis of
the extremely rare collection of 425 gold coins indicated that they
were from the late 9th century. Dating to around 1,100 years back,
the gold coins were from the Abbasid Caliphate.[106]

Production
Main article: List of countries by gold production
Time trend of gold production

The World Gold Council states that as of the end of 2017, "there

were 187,200 tonnes of stocks in existence above ground". This
can be represented by a cube with an edge length of about 21
metres (69 ft).[107] At $1,349 per troy ounce, 187,200 tonnes of gold
would have a value of $8.9 trillion. According to the United States
Geological Survey in 2016, about 5,726,000,000 troy ounces
(178,100 t) of gold has been accounted for, of which 85% remains
in active use.[108]
In 2017, the world's largest gold producer by far was China with
440 tonnes. The second-largest producer, Australia, mined 300
tonnes in the same year, followed by Russia with 255 tonnes.[10]
Mining and prospecting
Main articles: Gold mining and Gold prospecting

A miner underground at Pumsaint gold mine, Wales; c. 1938.

Grasberg mine, Indonesia is the world's largest gold mine.

Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source of a large
proportion of the world's gold supply, and about 22% of the gold
presently accounted is from South Africa. Production in 1970
accounted for 79% of the world supply, about 1,480 tonnes. In
2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world's
largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa
has not been the largest.[109]
As of 2017, China was the world's leading gold-mining country,
followed in order by Australia, Russia, the United States, Canada,
and Peru. South Africa, which had dominated world gold
production for most of the 20th century, had declined to sixth
place.[10] Other major producers are Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali,
Indonesia and Uzbekistan.

Relative sizes of an 860 kg (1,900 lb) block of gold ore and the 30 g (0.96 ozt) of gold
that can be extracted from it, Toi gold mine, Japan.

In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at

exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert,
at the border between Chile and Argentina.
It has been estimated that up to one-quarter of the yearly global
gold production originates from artisanal or small scale mining. [110]
[111][112]

The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as

a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush which resulted in the
discovery of some of the largest natural gold deposits in recorded
history. The gold fields are confined to the northern and north-
western edges of the Witwatersrand basin, which is a 5–7 km
(3.1–4.3 mi) thick layer of archean rocks located, in most places,
deep under the Free State, Gauteng and surrounding provinces.
[113]
 These Witwatersrand rocks are exposed at the surface on
the Witwatersrand, in and around Johannesburg, but also in
isolated patches to the south-east and south-west of
Johannesburg, as well as in an arc around the Vredefort
Dome which lies close to the center of the Witwatersrand basin. [61]
[113]
 From these surface exposures the basin dips extensively,
requiring some of the mining to occur at depths of nearly 4,000 m
(13,000 ft), making them, especially
the Savuka and TauTona mines to the south-west of
Johannesburg, the deepest mines on earth. The gold is found only
in six areas where archean rivers from the north and north-west
formed extensive pebbly Braided river deltas before draining into
the "Witwatersrand sea" where the rest of the Witwatersrand
sediments were deposited.[113]
The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British
Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights
of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa.
During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large
gold deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of
gold in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near
Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803.[114] The first major gold strike in
the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town
called Dahlonega.[115] Further gold rushes occurred
in California, Colorado, the Black Hills, Otago in New Zealand, a
number of locations across Australia, Witwatersrand in South
Africa, and the Klondike in Canada.
Grasberg mine located in Papua, Indonesia is the largest gold
mine in the world.[116]
Extraction and refining
Main article: Gold extraction

Gold jewelry consumption by country in tonnes[117][118][119]

201
Country 2009 2010 2011 2013
2

 India 442.37 745.70 986.3 864 974

  China 376.96 428.00 921.5 817.5 1120.1

 United States 150.28 128.61 199.5 161 190

 Turkey 75.16 74.07 143 118 175.2

 Saudi Arabia 77.75 72.95 69.1 58.5 72.2

 Russia 60.12 67.50 76.7 81.9 73.3

 United Arab Emirates 67.60 63.37 60.9 58.1 77.1

 Egypt 56.68 53.43 36 47.8 57.3

 Indonesia 41.00 32.75 55 52.3 68

 United Kingdom 31.75 27.35 22.6 21.1 23.4

Other Persian Gulf Countries 24.10 21.97 22 19.9 24.6

 Japan 21.85 18.50 −30.1 7.6 21.3

 South Korea 18.83 15.87 15.5 12.1 17.5

 Vietnam 15.08 14.36 100.8 77 92.2

 Thailand 7.33 6.28 107.4 80.9 140.1

Total 1466.86 1770.71 2786.12 2477.7 3126.1

Other Countries 251.6 254.0 390.4 393.5 450.7

World Total 1718.46 2024.71 3176.52 2871.2 3576.8

Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits.

Ore grades as little as 0.5 parts per million (ppm) can be
economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 ppm;
ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least
3 ppm. Because ore grades of 30 ppm are usually needed before
gold is visible to the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is
invisible.
The average gold mining and extraction costs were about $317
per troy ounce in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on
mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to
2,471.1 tonnes.[120]
After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined
industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based
on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is chlorination in the
melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more
complex and is only applied in small-scale installations. [121][122] Other
methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold
include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation, or refining
methods based on the dissolution of gold in aqua regia. [123]
As of 2020, the amount of CO2 produced in mining a kilogram of
gold is 16 tonnes, while recycling a kilogram of gold produces 53
kilograms of CO2 equivalent. Approximately 30 percent of the
global gold supply is recycled and not mined as of 2020. [124]
Corporations are starting to adopt gold recycling including jewelry
companies such as Generation Collection and computer
companies including Dell.[125]
Consumption
The consumption of gold produced in the world is about 50% in
jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. [9][126]
According to World Gold Council, China is the world's largest
single consumer of gold in 2013 and toppled India for the first time
with Chinese consumption increasing by 32 percent in a year,
while that of India only rose by 13 percent and world consumption
rose by 21 percent. Unlike India where gold is mainly used for
jewelry, China uses gold for manufacturing and retail. [127]
Pollution
Further information: Mercury cycle and International Cyanide
Management Code
Gold production is associated with contribution to hazardous
pollution.[128][129]
Low-grade gold ore may contain less than one ppm gold metal;
such ore is ground and mixed with sodium cyanide to dissolve the
gold. Cyanide is a highly poisonous chemical, which can kill living
creatures when exposed in minute quantities. Many cyanide
spills[130] from gold mines have occurred in both developed and
developing countries which killed aquatic life in long stretches of
affected rivers. Environmentalists consider these events major
environmental disasters.[131][132] Thirty tons of used ore is dumped as
waste for producing one troy ounce of gold.[133] Gold ore dumps are
the source of many heavy elements such as cadmium, lead, zinc,
copper, arsenic, selenium and mercury. When sulfide-bearing
minerals in these ore dumps are exposed to air and water, the
sulfide transforms into sulfuric acid which in turn dissolves these
heavy metals facilitating their passage into surface water and
ground water. This process is called acid mine drainage. These
gold ore dumps are long term, highly hazardous wastes second
only to nuclear waste dumps.[133]
It was once common to use mercury to recover gold from ore, but
today the use of mercury is largely limited to small-scale individual
miners.[134] Minute quantities of mercury compounds can reach
water bodies, causing heavy metal contamination. Mercury can
then enter into the human food chain in the form
of methylmercury. Mercury poisoning in humans causes incurable
brain function damage and severe retardation.
Gold extraction is also a highly energy intensive industry,
extracting ore from deep mines and grinding the large quantity of
ore for further chemical extraction requires nearly 25 kWh of
electricity per gram of gold produced.[135]

Monetary use

Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was based on
a gold standard. The coin to the left is Swedish and the right one is Danish.

Gold has been widely used throughout the world as money,[136] for

efficient indirect exchange (versus barter), and to store wealth
in hoards. For exchange purposes, mints produce
standardized gold bullion coins, bars and other units of fixed
weight and purity.
The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia
Minor, around 600 BC.[83] The talent coin of gold in use during the
periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of the
life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams.[137] From an
earlier preference in using silver, European economies re-
established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries.[138]
Bills (that mature into gold coin) and gold certificates (convertible
into gold coin at the issuing bank) added to the circulating stock
of gold standard money in most 19th century industrial economies.
In preparation for World War I the warring nations moved to
fractional gold standards, inflating their currencies to finance the
war effort. Post-war, the victorious countries, most notably Britain,
gradually restored gold-convertibility, but international flows of
gold via bills of exchange remained embargoed; international
shipments were made exclusively for bilateral trades or to pay war
reparations.
After World War II gold was replaced by a system of
nominally convertible currencies related by fixed exchange rates
following the Bretton Woods system. Gold standards and the
direct convertibility of currencies to gold have been abandoned by
world governments, led in 1971 by the United States' refusal to
redeem its dollars in gold. Fiat currency now fills most monetary
roles. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; it
backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International
Monetary Fund in 1999.[139]
Central banks continue to keep a portion of their liquid reserves as
gold in some form, and metals exchanges such as the London
Bullion Market Association still clear transactions denominated in
gold, including future delivery contracts. Today, gold mining output
is declining.[140] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th
century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold
reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of
all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold have
been replaced by floating prices for gold and gold future contract.
Though the gold stock grows by only 1 or 2% per year, very little
metal is irretrievably consumed. Inventory above ground would
satisfy many decades of industrial and even artisan uses at
current prices.
The gold proportion (fineness) of alloys is measured by karat (k).
Pure gold (commercially termed fine gold) is designated as 24
karat, abbreviated 24k. English gold coins intended for circulation
from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy
called crown gold,[141] for hardness (American gold coins for
circulation after 1837 contain an alloy of 0.900 fine gold, or 21.6
kt).[142]
Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much
higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable
of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard
for many currencies. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity,
value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties.
Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas
More in his treatise Utopia. On that imaginary island, gold is so
abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and
lavatory seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive,
dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians
mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the
most modestly dressed of their party.
The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU.[143] Many holders of
gold store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge
against inflation or other economic disruptions, though its efficacy
as such has been questioned; historically, it has not proven itself
reliable as a hedging instrument.[144] Modern bullion coins for
investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical
wear properties; they are typically fine gold at 24k, although
the American Gold Eagle and the British gold sovereign continue
to be minted in 22k (0.92) metal in historical tradition, and the
South African Krugerrand, first released in 1967, is also 22k
(0.92).[145]
The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the
highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% or 0.99999,
while the popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a
purity of 99.99%. In 2006, the United States Mint began producing
the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%.
The Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as
the Australian Gold Nugget but changed the reverse design in
1989. Other modern coins include the Austrian Vienna
Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese Gold Panda.[146]
Price
Further information: Gold as an investment
Gold price history in 1960–2020.

As of September 2017, gold is valued at around $42 per gram

($1,300 per troy ounce).
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and
by grams. The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured
by karat (k), with 24 karat (24k) being pure gold, and lower karat
numbers proportionally less. The purity of a gold bar or coin can
also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known
as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being nearly pure.
The price of gold is determined through trading in the gold
and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as the Gold
Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily
benchmark price to the industry. The afternoon fixing was
introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are open.
[147]

History
Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency;
when paper money was introduced, it typically was
a receipt redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In
a monetary system known as the gold standard, a
certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency.
For a long period, the United States government set the value of
the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($0.665
per gram), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy
ounce ($0.889/g). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this
price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate
the market to prevent further currency devaluation against
increased gold demand.[148]
On 17 March 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse
of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established
whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the
old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the
private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing
system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to
find its free-market level.[citation needed] Central banks still hold
historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has
generally been declining.[citation needed] The largest gold depository in the
world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which
holds about 3%[149] of the gold known to exist and accounted for
today, as does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort
Knox. In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold
supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving
a surplus of 105 tonnes.[150]
After 15 August 1971 Nixon shock, the price began to greatly
increase,[151] and between 1968 and 2000 the price of gold ranged
widely, from a high of $850 per troy ounce ($27.33/g) on 21
January 1980, to a low of $252.90 per troy ounce ($8.13/g) on 21
June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[152] Prices increased rapidly from
2001, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until 3 January 2008,
when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set.
[153]
 Another record price was set on 17 March 2008, at $1023.50
per troy ounce ($32.91/g).[153]
In late 2009, gold markets experienced renewed momentum
upwards due to increased demand and a weakening US dollar. [citation
needed]
 On 2 December 2009, gold reached a new high closing at
$1,217.23.[154] Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010
after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of
gold as a safe asset.[155][156] On 1 March 2011, gold hit a new all-time
high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns regarding
ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East.[157]
From April 2001 to August 2011, spot gold prices more than
quintupled in value against the US dollar, hitting a new all-time
high of $1,913.50 on 23 August 2011, [158] prompting speculation
that the long secular bear market had ended and a bull
market had returned.[159] However, the price then began a slow
decline towards $1200 per troy ounce in late 2014 and 2015.
In August 2020, the gold price picked up to US$2060 per ounce
after a complexive growth of 59% from August 2018 to October
2020, a period during which it outplaced the Nasdaq total return of
54%.[160]

Other applications
Jewelry

Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads. Larco Museum Collection, Lima, Peru.

A 21.5k yellow gold pendant watch so-called "Boule de Genève" (Geneva ball), ca.

1890.

Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is

usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its
hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties.
Alloys with lower karat rating, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k,
contain higher percentages of copper or other base metals or
silver or palladium in the alloy.[24] Nickel is toxic, and its release
from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe.
[24]
 Palladium-gold alloys are more expensive than those using
nickel.[161] High-karat white gold alloys are more resistant to
corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The
Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts
between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative
wood-grain effects.
By 2014, the gold jewelry industry was escalating despite a dip in
gold prices. Demand in the first quarter of 2014 pushed turnover to
$23.7 billion according to a World Gold Council report.
Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by
high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be
of hallmarking quality, the gold solder alloy must match
the fineness (purity) of the work, and alloy formulas are
manufactured to color-match yellow and white gold. Gold solder is
usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as
Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point
solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting
points, goldsmiths can assemble complex items with several
separate soldered joints. Gold can also be made into thread and
used in embroidery.
Electronics
Only 10% of the world consumption of new gold produced goes to
industry,[9] but by far the most important industrial use for new gold
is in fabrication of corrosion-free electrical connectors in
computers and other electrical devices. For example, according to
the World Gold Council, a typical cell phone may contain 50 mg of
gold, worth about 50 cents. But since nearly one billion cell
phones are produced each year, a gold value of 50 cents in each
phone adds to $500 million in gold from just this application. [162]
Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and
general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other
environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has
led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin-
layer coating on electrical connectors, thereby ensuring good
connection. For example, gold is used in the connectors of the
more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video
and USB cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector
metals such as tin in these applications has been debated; gold
connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as
unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing
ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic
sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in
use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers,
communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines)
remains very common.[163]
Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical
contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical
conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[164] Switch contacts are
generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are
sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to
connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a
process known as wire bonding.
The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.91×10 22 cm−3.
[165]
 Gold is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used
for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver
and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the
advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, gold electrical
wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic
experiments, but large high-current silver wires were used in
the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
It is estimated that 16% of the world's presently-accounted-for
gold and 22% of the world's silver is contained in electronic
technology in Japan.[166]
Medicine
Metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal
purposes. Gold, usually as the metal, is perhaps the most
anciently administered medicine (apparently by shamanic
practitioners)[167] and known to Dioscorides.[168][169] In medieval times,
gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that
something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy.
Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative
medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.
In the 19th century gold had a reputation as an anxiolytic, a
therapy for nervous disorders. Depression, epilepsy, migraine, and
glandular problems such as amenorrhea and impotence were
treated, and most notably alcoholism (Keeley, 1897).[170]
The apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance
suggests the possibility of serious gaps in the understanding of
the action of gold in physiology.[171] Only salts and radioisotopes of
gold are of pharmacological value, since elemental (metallic) gold
is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body (i.e., ingested
gold cannot be attacked by stomach acid). Some gold salts do
have anti-inflammatory properties and at present two are still used
as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar
conditions in the US (sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin).
These drugs have been explored as a means to help to reduce
the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also (historically)
against tuberculosis and some parasites.[172]
Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth
restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold
alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar
mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are
generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of
porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth
such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in
others.
Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in
water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly
controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by
reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal
gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology
and materials science. The technique of immunogold
labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein
molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with
specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and
position of antigens on the surfaces of cells. [173] In ultrathin sections
of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels
appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of
the antigen.[174]
Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive
coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting
materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning
electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied
by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this
application. Gold's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical
charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power
for electrons in the electron beam, helping to limit the depth to
which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves
definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface
and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Gold also
produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by
an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most
commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron
microscope.[175]
The isotope gold-198 (half-life 2.7 days) is used in nuclear
medicine, in some cancer treatments and for treating other
diseases.[176][177]
Cuisine

Cake with gold decoration served at the Amstel Hotel, Amsterdam

  Gold can be used in food and has the E
number 175.[178] In 2016, the European Food
Safety Authority published an opinion on
the re-evaluation of gold as a food additive.
Concerns included the possible presence
of minute amounts of gold nanoparticles in
the food additive, and that gold
nanoparticles have been shown to
be genotoxic in mammalian cells in vitro.[179]
 Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in
some gourmet foods, notably sweets and
drinks as decorative ingredient.[180] Gold
flake was used by the nobility in medieval
Europe as a decoration in food and drinks,
[181]
 in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either
to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the
belief that something that valuable and rare
must be beneficial for one's health.[citation needed]
 Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water
of Danzig)
or Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a
traditional German
herbal liqueur[182] produced in what is
today Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach,
Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf.
There are also some expensive (c. $1000)
cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf.
However, since metallic gold is inert to all
body chemistry, it has no taste, it provides
no nutrition, and it leaves the body
unaltered.[183]
 Vark is a foil composed of a pure metal that
is sometimes gold,[184] and is used
for garnishing sweets in South Asian
cuisine.
Miscellanea
Mirror for the James Webb Space Telescope coated in gold to reflect infrared light

Kamakshi Amman Temple with golden roof, Kanchipuram.

 Gold produces a deep, intense red color

when used as a coloring agent in cranberry
glass.
 In photography, gold toners are used to
shift the color of silver bromide black-and-
white prints towards brown or blue tones, or
to increase their stability. Used on sepia-
toned prints, gold toners produce red tones.
Kodak published formulas for several types
of gold toners, which use gold as the
chloride.[185]
 Gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic
radiation such as infrared and visible light,
as well as radio waves. It is used for the
protective coatings on many
artificial satellites, in infrared protective
 faceplates in thermal-protection suits and
astronauts' helmets, and in electronic
warfare planes such as the EA-6B Prowler.
 Gold is used as the reflective layer on
some high-end CDs.
 Automobiles may use gold for heat
shielding. McLaren uses gold foil in the
engine compartment of its F1 model.[186]
 Gold can be manufactured so thin that it
appears semi-transparent. It is used in
some aircraft cockpit windows for de-
icing or anti-icing by passing electricity
through it. The heat produced by the
resistance of the gold is enough to prevent
ice from forming.[187]
 Gold is attacked by and dissolves in
alkaline solutions of potassium or
sodium cyanide, to form the salt gold
cyanide—a technique that has been used
in extracting metallic gold from ores in
the cyanide process. Gold cyanide is
the electrolyte used in
commercial electroplating of gold onto base
metals and electroforming.
 Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions
are used to make colloidal gold by
reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions.
Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to
make cranberry or red-colored glass,
which, like colloidal gold suspensions,
contains evenly sized spherical gold
nanoparticles.[188]
 Gold, when dispersed in nanoparticles, can
act as a heterogeneous catalyst of
chemical reactions.

Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when
ingested[189] and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the
form of gold leaf.[190] Metallic gold is also a component of the
alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser.
Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in
the Codex Alimentarius). Although the gold ion is toxic, the
acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative
chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or
transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known
chemical process which would be encountered in the human body.
Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to
the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of gold such as
potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic by
virtue of both their cyanide and gold content. There are rare cases
of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide.[191][192] Gold
toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent
such as dimercaprol.
Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the
American Contact Dermatitis Society; gold contact allergies affect
mostly women.[193] Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent
contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel.[194]
A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from
gold mining solution; and was found to contain cyano metal
complexes, such as gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc. The fungus
also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides. [195]

See also

Iron pyrite or "fool's gold"

  Bulk leach extractable gold
 Chrysiasis (dermatological condition)
 Commodity fetishism (Marxist economic
theory)
 Digital gold currency
 GFMS consultancy
 Gold fingerprinting
 Gold phosphine complex
 Gold Prospectors Association of America
 List of countries by gold production
 Mining in Roman Britain
 Prospecting
 Tumbaga
 Iron pyrite

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 "Gold" . Encyclopædia
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 This page was last edited on 10 October 2021, at 07:10 (UTC).
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