Veracruz

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

Saltar a navegaciónSaltar a buscar
Este artículo está sobre el estado mexicano. Para la ciudad mexicana, véase
Veracruz (ciudad) . Para otros usos, véase Veracruz (desambiguación) .
Veracruz
Expresar
Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de la Llave Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz
de
Ignacio de la Llave
Escudo de Veracruz
Escudo de armas
Lema(s): más ultra
(Más allá de)
Himno: Himno Veracruzano
Estado de Veracruz dentro de México
Estado de Veracruz dentro de México
Coordenadas: 19°26′N 96°23′WCoordenadas : 19°26′N 96°23′W
País México
Capital Xalapa
Ciudad más grande Veracruz
Área metropolitana más grande Gran Veracruz
Admisión 22 de diciembre de 1823 [1] [2]
Pedido 7mo
Gobierno
• Gobernador Cuitláhuac García Jiménez ( MORENA )
• Senadores [3] Ernesto Pérez Astorga Gloria Sánchez Hernández Julen Rementería
del PuertoMorena
Morena
SARTÉN
• Diputados [4]
diputados federales
Área[5]
• Total 71.826 km 2 (27.732 millas cuadradas)
Clasificado 11
Elevación más alta( Pico de Orizaba ) 5.610 m (18.410 pies)
Población (2020) [6]
• Total 8,062,579
• Rango 3ro
• Densidad 110/km2 ( 290/milla cuadrada)
• Rango de densidad 10
demonio(s) veracruzano (a)
Zona horaria UTC−6 ( CST )
• Verano ( horario de verano ) UTC−5 ( CDT )
código postal
91-96
Codigo de AREA
códigos de área
Código ISO 3166 MX-VER
IDH Aumento0.744 alto
Puesto 28 de 32
PIB US$ 29.825.093,9 mil [ a]
Sitio web www.veracruz.gob.mx _ _ _
^ un. El PIB del estado fue de 381.761.202 miles depesosen 2008, [7] monto
correspondiente a 29.825.093,9 miles dedólares, con un valor de dólar 12,80 pesos
con Humberto Huerta (valor del 3 de junio de 2010). [8]
Veracruz ( español americano: [beɾaˈkɾus] ( escuchar )icono de altavoz de audio ),
formalmente Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( español americano: [beɾaˈkɾuz ðe iɣ
ˈnasjo ðe la ˈʝaβe] ), oficialmente el Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de
Ignacio de la Llave ( español : Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de
la Llave ), es uno de los 31 estados que, junto con la Ciudad de México , integran
las 32 Entidades Federativas de México . Se divide en 212 municipios , y su ciudad
capital es Xalapa-Enríquez .

Veracruz se encuentra en el este de México, limita con los estados de Tamaulipas al

norte, San Luis Potosí e Hidalgo al oeste, Puebla al suroeste, Oaxaca y Chiapas al
sur y Tabasco al sureste. En su este, Veracruz tiene una parte significativa de la
costa del Golfo de México . El estado se destaca por sus poblaciones étnicas e
indígenas mixtas. Su cocina refleja las muchas influencias culturales que han
llegado al estado debido a la importancia del puerto de Veracruz. Además de la
ciudad capital, las ciudades más grandes del estado incluyen
Veracruz ,Coatzacoalcos , Córdoba , Minatitlán , Poza Rica , Boca Del Río y Orizaba
.

Contenido
1 Etimología
2 Geografía
2.1 Geografía política
2.2 geografía natural
2.3 Clima
2.4 ecosistemas
3 Historia
3.1 Precolombino
3.2 Período colonial, 1519–1821
3.3 Independencia
3.4 Siglo XX hasta el presente
4 Economía
4.1 Agricultura
4.2 Recursos naturales
4.3 Campos petrolíferos de Golden Lane
4.4 Industria, transporte y comercio.
4.5 Artesanías
5 Cultura
5.1 Gastronomía
5.2 Museos
5.3 ferias y festivales
5.4 danza y musica
5.5 arte y arquitectura
5.6 Literatura
5.7 Religión
6 Educación
7 Demografía
8 Turismo
9 Sitios arqueológicos
10 Gobierno
11 Infraestructura
11.1 Transporte
11.2 Medios de comunicación
12 Comunidades principales
13 Gente notable
14 Ver también
15 Referencias
dieciséis Otras lecturas
17 enlaces externos
Etimología
El nombre completo del estado es Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave. Veracruz recibió
su nombre de la ciudad de Veracruz (del latín Vera Crux , " Vera Cruz "), que
originalmente se llamaba Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz . El sufijo es en honor a
Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos (1818–1863), quien fue gobernador de Veracruz
de 1861 a 1862. El sello del estado fue autorizado por la legislatura estatal en
1954, adaptando el usado para el puerto de Veracruz y creada por los españoles a
principios de la época colonial del siglo XVI. [10]

Yango fue una ciudad formada por africanos esclavizados que escaparon después de
ser traídos aquí desde Europa por los colonos españoles; llegaron a las montañas,
escapando de las plantaciones, y vivieron allí con los indígenas. La canción La
Bamba fue originalmente cantada por estos fugitivos, quienes hostigaron la Ciudad
de México con levantamientos y ataques a las haciendas . La esclavitud fue abolida
en esta área, años antes de que los peregrinos ingleses desembarcaran en Plymouth
Rock en lo que se convirtió en la Colonia de la Bahía de Massachusetts.

La enorme cadena montañosa detrás de las tierras bajas de Veracruz fue el sitio de
comunidades independientes de refugiados, conocidos como cimarrones , que se
mezclaron con los pueblos indígenas en las montañas. A fines del siglo XVI
surgieron más esclavos y huyeron a estas montañas. La guerra más memorable, librada
por Gaspar Yanga, un esclavo de Gabón , condujo a una revuelta y a un nuevo pueblo
de montaña. Yango dirigió incursiones a lo largo del paso Camino Real entre
Veracruz y la Ciudad de México. En enero de 1609, el virrey de España envió tropas
reales para aplastar a los rebeldes de Yanga. Después de negociaciones y feroces
batallas, finalmente se llegó a una tregua.

Después de 300 años, en 1918, durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los yanganos
acordaron mudarse a un pueblo más cercano a las tierras bajas y aceptar cierta
autoridad local. Asentaron el pueblo de “San Lorenzo de los Negros” dentro de
Veracruz. Fue rebautizado oficialmente como "Yanga" en 1956 y conocido como el
primer pueblo libre para ex esclavos. Los descendientes en el Veracruz
contemporáneo tienden a tener signos visuales de su ascendencia africana: tono de
piel “negrito” y algunas otras características físicas.

Algunos mexicanos desconocen o evitan hablar sobre la afrodescendencia: pero

términos como afromexicano, afromestizo o “jarocho”, término usado dentro y fuera
de Veracruz, se refieren a este legado cultural mixto. Aparece en los nombres de
las calles, la música y la comida, todos extraídos de raíces africanas. [11] [12]

Geografía
Geografía política
El estado es una franja de tierra en forma de media luna encajada entre la Sierra
Madre Oriental al oeste y el Golfo de México al este. [13] Su superficie total es
de 78.815 km 2 (30.431 millas cuadradas), lo que representa alrededor del 3,7% del
territorio total de México. [14] Se extiende unos 650 km (403,9 mi) de norte a sur,
pero su ancho varía entre 212 km (132 mi) y 36 km (22 mi), con un promedio de unos
100 km (62 mi) de ancho. [15] [16] Veracruz comparte fronteras con los estados de
Tamaulipas (al norte), Oaxaca y Chiapas (al sur), Tabasco (al sureste) yPuebla ,
Hidalgo y San Luis Potosí (al oeste). Veracruz tiene 690 km (429 millas) de costa
con el Golfo de México. [17]

Geografía natural

Pico de Orizaba

Río Jamapa
La geografía natural se puede categorizar en nueve regiones: La Sierra de
Zongolica, la Región de Tecolutla, la Región de Huayacocotla, la zona del río
Metlac, la Región de los Tuxtlas, la Región Central, la Región de la Laguna del
Castillo, la Región de Pueblo Viejo-Tamiahua y la Región Laguna de Alvarado. [15]
La topografía cambia drásticamente, elevándose desde las angostas llanuras costeras
hasta las tierras altas de la Sierra Madre oriental. La elevación varía desde el
nivel del mar hasta el Pico de Orizaba , el pico más alto de México a 5.636 m
(18.491 pies) sobre el nivel del mar. [14] [17] La costa consta de franjas arenosas
bajas intercaladas con arroyos y lagunas de marea. [dieciséis]La mayor parte de la
larga costa es angosta y arenosa con dunas inestables, pequeñas lagunas móviles y
puntas. [15]

The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
Mountain ranges include the Sierra de Topila, Sierra de Otontepec, Sierra de
Huayacocotla, Sierra de Coxquihui, Sierra de Chiconquiaco, Sierra de Jalacingo,
Sierra de Axocuapan, Sierra de Huatusco, Sierra de Zongolica and the Sierra de Los
Tuxtla. Major peaks include Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m, 18,491 ft), Cofre de Perote
(4,282 m, 14,048.6 ft), Cerro de Tecomates (3,227 m, 10,587 ft), Cerro del Vigía
Alta (3,055 m, 10,023 ft) and Cerro de 3 Tortas (2,997 m, 9,833 ft). The Pico de
Orizaba is covered in snow year round; the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter.
Major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés.
[15]

More than 40 rivers and tributaries provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric
power; they also carry rich silt down from the eroding highlands, which is
deposited in the valleys and coastal areas.[16] All of the rivers and streams that
cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa, flowing
east to the Gulf of Mexico. The important ones include: Actopan River, Acuatempan
river, Río Blanco, Cazones River, Coatzacoalcos River, Río de La Antigua, Ayyappan
River, Jamapa River, Nautla River, Pánuco River, Papaloapan River, Tecolutla River,
Tonalá River, Tuxpan River and Xoloapa River. The largest in terms of water
discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos and Uxpanapa. The
Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable.[15] Two of Mexico's
most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the
state. Much of the pollution comes from industrial sources, but the discharge of
sewerage and uncontrolled garbage disposal are also major contributors. The state
has very few sewage treatment plants, with only 10% of sewage being treated before
discharge.[18]

The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There is
only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco. Off the coast are the islands of
Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios, Isla de Salmendina, Isla
del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla
Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan,
Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo.[15]

Climate

Mountain formation in the south of the state

Veracruz
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 50 2414
32 2816
18 2816
48 3119
73 3321
308 2920
250 2919
125 3121
387 2820
204 2718
54 2514
36 2514
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Comisión Nacional del Agua
Imperial conversion
The large variation of altitude results in a large mixture of climates, from cold,
snow-topped mountain peaks to hot, humid tropical areas on the coast.[17] 32% of
the state is classified as hot and humid, 52% as hot and semi humid, 9% is warm and
humid, 6% as temperate and humid and 1% is classified as cold.[14] Hot and humid
and hot and semi-humid climates dominate from sea level to about 1,000 m (3,280.8
ft) above sea level. Average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 26C with
precipitation varying from 2,000 mm (78.7 in) to just over 3,500 mm (137.8 in) per
year. Cooler and humid climates are found at elevations between 1,000 m (3,280.8
ft) and 1,600 m (5,249.3 ft). These have an average temperature of between 18 and
22C with precipitation varying between 2,000 mm (78.7 in) and 2,500 mm (98.4 in).
Temperate climates are found at higher altitudes, between 1,600 m (5,249.3 ft) and
2,800 m (9,186.4 ft). Temperatures here vary from 12 to 18C with precipitation
varying more, between 500 mm (19.7 in) and 2,500 mm (98.4 in). Cold climates are
found at the highest elevations, reaching up to the Cofre de Perote and the Pico de
Orizaba. There is a small semi arid region around the city of Perote and the west
of the Huasteca area. This is due to a rain shadow caused by the Trans-Mexican
Volcanic Belt and the Sierra Madre Oriental, which do not permit the flow of moist
Gulf air to this region.[15]

Ecosystems

Shore of Lake Catemaco

Bougainvillea
Various types of forest cover the state, but evergreen tropical forest dominate.
[15] The state's ecoregion is of great importance for many plant and animal
species. It is a center of plant endemism and has two separate endemic bird areas.
[19]

The northern part of the state as well as the higher mountain areas, are
convergence zones between lowland evergreen tropical forests and more temperate
flora and fauna. It is also the northernmost occurrence of subhumid tropical forest
in Mexico, although little of this remains, mostly on steep slopes. This tropical
forest is situated in the northeastern coastal plain and extends into southern
Tamaulipas state, on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The soils here are
volcanic and shallow, but with rich organic matter. Species that predominate
include Mayan breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota),
rosadillo (Celtis monoica), Bursera simaruba, Dendropanax arboreus, and Sideroxylon
capiri. This ecoregion extends into the central part of the state, with vegetation
changing to include mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota),
Bernoullia flammea, and Astronium graveolens.[19]

Veracruz has been described as having one of the richest varieties of wildlife in
the western hemisphere. There is an especially diverse array of endemic insects
like the conspicuous Arsenura armida. As well as insects, the state is known for
its many arachnids, and features over 25 species of tarantula (Theraphosidae), of
which many are endemic. The state is part of Birdlife International’s Endemic Bird
Area(EBA) project due to the number of endemic birds here. Some of these include
green-cheeked amazon (Amazona viridigenalis), Tamaulipas crow (Corvus imparatus),
Altamira yellowthroat (Geothlypis flavovelata) and crimson-collared grosbeak
(Rhodothraupis celaeno). Despite much of the deterioration of the forest areas, it
is still an important stopover for migratory birds as well. Many endangered mammal
species can be found here including two endemic rodents (Peromyscus ochraventer,
Neotoma angustapalata), the jaguar (Panthera onca), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis),
jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi) and coati (Nasua narica).[19] The endangered
Baird's tapir may occasionally be spotted in the state's southern jungle regions,
such as Biósfera Los Tuxtlas. This region is also the northernmost extent of the
primate Alouatta palliata, or mantled howler.

Most of Veracruz's native forests have been destroyed and replaced by scrub and
secondary communities of trees. From 1900 to 1987, over 18,553 km2 (7,163.4 sq mi)
of forest had been logged, resulting in the loss of habitat and biodiversity. Much
of the logging is due to commercial timber, search for tropical hardwoods and the
clearing of land for local farmers, especially for cattle grazing. Only 20% of
Veracruz's original ecosystem remains, with 64% transformed by human exploitation.
Despite some efforts at conservation and reclamation, exploitation continues to put
pressure on remaining wild areas.[19]

The state has 31 environmentally protected areas in 21 different municipalities.

Nine are urban parks, three are national parks (Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote
and San José de los Molinos).[15] The Cofre de Perote National Park is 11,700
hectares of pine and oyamel forest, which was created in 1937. The Los Tuxtlas
Biosphere Reserve covers the municipalities of Ángel R. Cabada, Santiago Tuxtla,
San Andres Tuxtla, Catemaco, Soteapan, Mecayapan, Pajapan and Tatahuicapan for a
total of 155,122 ha (383,314.8 acres). It contains various volcanos such as San
Martín and Santa Marta and rich biodiversity as it stretches from sea level to
higher elevations, with 16 climate regions groups into four climate types. Forest
types range from evergreen tropical rainforest to pine. 75% of species here are
also found in Central America and there is a total of 2,368 plant species. Some,
such as Costus dirzoi, Daphnopsis megacarpa, Eugenia sotoesparzae, Inga sinacae,
Miconia ibarrae, Mormodes tuxtlensis and Thelypteris rachyflexuosa, are native only
to this area. Wildlife includes 102 mammal species, 49 amphibian, 109 reptilian,
561 bird species and more. Species in danger of extinction include the jaguar,
spider monkey and anteater.[15]

The Veracruz Reef System is also considered to be a national park and is mostly off
the coast of Veracruz city, Boca del Río and Alvarado. The area includes coral
reefs, seaweed beds and other marine vegetation, covering an area of 52,239 ha
(129,085.4 acres). There are seventeen reefs in total, some of which jut above the
surface to form small islands. This system links with the reef systems of Campeche
and Yucatán.[15]

History
Pre-Columbian

Olmec stone head

The history of the native peoples of the state of Veracruz is complex. In the pre-
Columbian period, the modern-day state of Veracruz was inhabited primarily by four
indigenous cultures. The Huastecs and Otomis occupied the north, while the Totonacs
resided in the north-center. The Olmecs, one of the oldest cultures in the
Americas, became dominant in the southern part of Veracruz.[17] Remains of these
past civilizations can be found in archeological sites such as Pánuco, Castillo de
Teayo, El Zapotal, Las Higueras, Quiahuiztlán, El Tajín, Cempoala, Tres Zapotes and
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán .[20]

The first major civilization in the territory of the current state was that of the
Olmecs. The Olmecs lived in the Coatzacoalcos River region and it became the center
of Olmec culture. The main ceremonial center here was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán.
Other major centers in the state include Tres Zapotes in the city of Veracruz and
La Venta in Tabasco. The culture reached its height about 2600 years ago, with its
best-known artistic expression being the colossal stone heads.[20] These ceremonial
sites were the most complex of that early time period. For this reason, many
anthropologists consider the Olmec civilization to be the mother culture of the
many Mesoamerican cultures that followed it. By 300 BCE, this culture was eclipsed
by other emerging civilizations in Mesoamerica.[17]

Another major group was the Totonacs, who have survived to the present day. Their
region, called Totonacapan, is centered between the Cazones River and the
Papaloapan River in the north of the state. Pre-Columbian Totonacs lived from
hunting, fishing and agriculture, mostly of corn, beans, chili peppers and squash.
This is also the native region of the vanilla bean. Clay sculptures with smiling
faces are indicative of this culture. The major site is El Tajín, located near
Papantla, but the culture reached its apogee in Cempoala (about five miles (8 km)
inland from the current port of Veracruz), when it was conquered by the Aztecs.[20]
When the Spaniards arrived in 1519, the territory was still home to a population of
about 250,000 people living in fifty population centers and speaking four Totonac
dialects. 25,000 were living in Cempoala alone.[17]

The Huastecs are in the far north of the Veracruz and extend into parts of
Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro and Puebla. The language and
agricultural techniques of these people and the Maya are similar; however, only a
few buildings and ceramics remain from the early Huastec culture. This culture also
reached its peak between 1200 and 1519, when it was conquered by the Spanish.[20]

During the 15th and very early 16th century, the Aztecs came to dominate much of
the state and dividing it into tributary provinces, of Tochtepec, Cuetlaxtlan,
Cempoallan, Quauhtochco, Jalapa, Misantla, and Tlatlauhquitepec. The Aztecs were
interested in the area's vegetation and crops such as cedars, fruit, cotton, cacao,
corn, beans and vanilla. However, the Totonacs chafed under Aztec rule, with Aztec
rulers from Axayacatl to Moctezuma II having to send soldiers to quell rebellions.
The Huastecs were subjugated more successfully by the Aztecs and relegated to the
provinces of Atlan and Tochpan.[17]

Colonial period, 1519–1821

Playa Villa Rica, where the Spanish built the first city of Veracruz

Statue of rebel leader Yanga

Veracruz played an important part in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire by
Hernán Cortés and his expedition members. They founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz
on May 18, 1519, as the first Spanish town in what is now Mexico. By doing so,
Cortés threw off the authority of the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, claiming
authority directly from the Spanish crown. A small contingent of the expedition
remained at Veracruz, while the main body of conquerors moved inland.[21]

The Totonacs were some of the first people with whom the Spanish had contact on the
American mainland.[17] The very first contact was with Captain Juan de Grijalva on
the coastline north of the present-day city of Veracruz.[20] Still chafing under
Aztec rule, Totonac ruler Tlacochcalcatl welcomed Hernán Cortés and promised 50,000
warriors to help defeat Tenochtitlan. The Spanish helped the Totonacs expel Aztec
tribute collectors and seize control of some Aztec outposts.[17] The Spanish
founded the port city of Veracruz on the coast, as the first municipality under the
direct control of the king of Spain. Cortés then began his march inland to
Tenochtitlan.[20] During the Conquest, the rest of the Totonac peoples allied
themselves with the Spanish, but the Huastecs, despite also being under Aztec rule,
fought against them. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Cortés sent a regiment to
subdue the Huastecs.[17]

During the early conquest era, Cortés distributed the labor of indigenous
settlements to particular conquerors in an institution known as encomienda. The
indigenous ruler of the settlement was charged with mobilization labor and tribute
that was due to the holder of the encomienda. Veracruz had a number of encomiendas
that changed hands a number of times, but early on came under the direct control of
the Spanish crown rather than individual encomenderos.[22]

During the colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for immigrants from
Spain, African slaves, and all types of luxury goods for import and export. The
first group of Franciscans arrived in Veracruz in 1524, walking barefoot to the
capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain.[23] The route between Veracruz and the
Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital
Tenochtitlan, was the key trade route during the colonial era. Much of the history
of the state is involved with the port city that Cortés founded in 1519. Veracruz
became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the
colony of New Spain and Spain itself.[17] To ensure the port's monopoly, it came to
have control over almost all of New Spain's Gulf coastline.[20] New Spain's silver
and cochineal red dye, were the two most important exports from the port, along
with chocolate, vanilla, chili peppers, and much more were exported. Imported were
livestock (sheep, cows, goats, horses), wheat and other cultivars. From the
Caribbean, slaves, pineapple, and sugar cane were introduced. This made the port a
highly prized target for pirates during the colonial period, with attacks and
sackings frequent.[13][17] This led to the building of the fort of San Juan de
Ulúa, a site Juan de Grijalva visited in 1518,[24] and the fortification of the
city overall.[20]

Much of Totonac and Huastec culture have survived the colonial period into the
present day. Much of the reason for this is that the north of Veracruz is rugged
with thick vegetation and relatively little of the resources the Spanish were
looking for.[17] Veracruz is considered to be where the "mestizo" or mixed
European/indigenous ethnicities began, which is a large part of Mexican cultural
identity.[20]

Though the Spaniards had halted the Aztec wars and human sacrifices an unexpected
problem arose. European diseases[25] decimated the native population of the
province, prompting the importation of African slaves during the colonial period,
starting in the 16th century. The Spanish imported between 500,000 and 1,000,000
West African slaves into Mexico between 1535 and 1767 (miscegenation between
indigenous and African populations began almost immediately). New Spain did not
have any laws prohibiting interracial marriage, hence the correct term is Afro-
Mestizo, which includes all 3 ethnicities: Indigenous, African, and Spanish.

Runaway slaves (cimarrones) became problematic to public order since they

frequently formed robber bands that attacked travelers on highways. Crown efforts
against these groups began in earnest in the late sixteenth century, but a major
rebellion broke out in 1606 in the areas of Villa Rica, Nueva Veracruz, Antón
Lizardo, and the Rio Blanco area. However, the gravest of these occurred in the
Orizaba area, where there were about 500 fugitive slaves. In 1609, a leader named
Gaspar Yanga led an insurrection against the Spanish but was defeated in battle.
Unrest continued, eventually forcing the government to sign an amnesty pact and
giving the Africans the right to form their own community, exacting as a condition
that bandits be suppressed. This was called San Lorenzo de Zerral but today it is
known as the municipality of Yanga. This was the first time slavery was abolished
in the Americas.[20]

In the first half of the seventeenth century, cities such as Córdoba, Orizaba, and
Xalapa were formed or expanded to protect the trade route between Mexico City and
the port of Veracruz. During this time, the Spanish and mixed-ethnicities
population increased as the purely indigenous population continued to fall to a
fraction of pre-Conquest levels (due now to mixing, rather than disease). Almost
all trade in and out of New Spain had to be with Spain except for some limited
trade authorized with England and other Spanish colonies. This would stay in place
until 1778, when the Decreto de Libre Comercio, allowing a limited free trade
within Spanish-held realms, lifted many of these restrictions on trade with Europe.
This would make the port more important than it had been, and led to increased
prosperity for the inhabitants.

Outside of the port, in other areas of the province, the economy was based on
agriculture, livestock, and commerce. In 1720, Xalapa organized the first trade
fair, making it the center for trade between inland Mexican goods and those from
abroad. This would lead to its eventual status as the capital of the state.[20]

In 1746, the state was divided into the civil jurisdictions of Pánuco, Tampico,
Huayacocotla, Huauchinango, Papantla, Misantla, Xalapa, Jalacingo, Veracruz,
Córdoba, Orizaba, Cosamaloapan, Tuxtla, and Cotaxtla.[20]

The port city of Veracruz, and the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, where Cortés landed
three hundred years earlier, was where the loyalist soldiers of the Spanish Crown
made their last stand against the independence movement in 1824.[17]

Independence

Depiction of the Battle of Veracruz during the Mexican–American War

During the Mexican War of Independence, there was support for the insurgents in
many parts of the state, with skirmishes erupting in various parts as early as
1811. A major conspiracy against the colonial government was discovered in the port
in 1812, with rebels taking Ayahualulco and Ixhuacán during the same year. This
forced royalist troops to withdraw to Xalapa. Eventually, this city along with the
port were cut off from Mexico City. Most of the state remained in rebel hands
during the rest of the war although the commercial class of the port did not
support the effort. In 1821, Juan de O'Donojú, the last viceroy of New Spain, came
to the port to leave for Spain. However, until 1823, Spanish troops continued to
occupy San Juan de Ulúa Fort. In 1826, the city would receive the first of its four
titles of "heroic city" for confronting these remaining Spanish troops.[20]

While the last of the Spanish held on in San Juan de Ulúa, Agustín de Iturbide had
been declared the emperor of Mexico in 1822. However, his reign quickly encountered
resistance from those favoring a republican form of government, including from
Antonio López de Santa Anna from his stronghold in Veracruz state. Months later,
Iturbide would go into exile and Santa Anna would eventually hold nine terms as
president.[17][20]

The French intervened in Mexico through Veracruz for the first time in the 1838, in
what became the Pastry War. The port was blockaded. Efforts to defend the country
were coordinated from Xalapa. The port was bombarded, but eventually a settlement
was reached.[20]

During the Mexican–American War, the port was blockaded again, this time by the
Americans. Initial American attempts in 1847 to land in Alvarado were checked, but
the Americans then made a plan to land a few miles south of Veracruz, which
surrendered after a 20-day siege, defeated General Santa Anna's forces at the
Battle of Cerro Gordo, and marched inland through Xalapa towards Mexico City, led
by General Winfield Scott .[17][20] Mexico surrendered shortly after.

The municipalities of Tuxpan and Chicontepec belonged to Puebla until 1853, when
they were annexed to Veracruz to give the state its final form. In 1855, the State
Government Palace was constructed. During the Reform War, the major player was
Ignacio de la Llave whose name is part of the state's official designation. In
1858, the port became the site for the liberal government under Benito Juárez after
he was forced out of Mexico City during the Reform War. Their control of this port
and its customs duties allowed liberal forces to gather resources. Conservative
forces attacked the state but were repelled from both the port and Xalapa.[20]

The Reform War wrecked Mexico's economy and it found itself unable to pay debts it
owed to Europe. As a result, Juárez cancelled Mexico's foreign debt. Spain, Britain
and France, all outraged by this action, decided in October 1861 to force repayment
of their loans by the occupation of the Mexican Gulf Coast. Normally, this move
would have been blocked by the United States under the Monroe Doctrine, however,
that nation was occupied with a Civil War at the time, and the European powers
believed that the Americans could not act. In December, Spanish troops commanded by
general Manuel Gasset occupied the port of Veracruz, without any local resistance,
[26] followed a month later by French and British forces. The Spanish and the
British withdrew after making deals with Juárez, but the French pushed on to
establish the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. However, this was short-lived and
the French were expelled through Veracruz in 1866/67.[17]

In 1863, the state was officially named Veracruz-Llave. After the French were
expelled, the state government was in the port of Veracruz. In 1878, the capital
was transferred to Orizaba. It was later moved to Xalapa in 1885.[20]

By the end of the century, many infrastructure improvements, such as roads and
railways (especially the Ferrocarril Interoceánico) had been completed with the
major cities being Veracruz, Orizaba, Xalapa, Córdoba, Jalacingo, Chicontepec and
Tantoyuca. The discovery of oil in the north of the state attracted foreign firms,
which brought machinery needed for its extraction. These companies included
Huasteca Company Petroleum and El Aguila along with American and English firms.
During the same time period, uprisings against the government under Porfirio Díaz
in the agricultural south of the state were brutally repressed.[20]

20th century to the present

Unrest against the Díaz regime continued until the outbreak of the Mexican
Revolution ousted him from power. The major event leading up to this war in
Veracruz was the cigar-makers strike of 1905, when more than 5,000 workers of the
"El Valle Nacional" company walked off the job. The governor, Teodora A. Dehesa,
unsuccessfully tried to negotiate a settlement. The strike went on for months until
the strikers won. This victory encouraged more actions, until strikes at the
factories in Rio Blanco, Nogales, Santa Rosa and Contón de Orizaba resulted in
dramatic violence in January 1907.[20] No major battles of the Mexican Revolution
were fought in the state, though there were skirmishes and attacks on the port. By
1914 rebel Cándido Agular occupied a number of municipalities in the state and in
1917, Venustiano Carranza transferred the federal government here temporarily.[20]

On April 21, 1914, an incident involving U.S. sailors in Tampico led President
Woodrow Wilson to land American troops in Veracruz, where they remained for six
months. Mexico later responded by severing diplomatic relations.[17]

After the Revolution, agrarian reform, including the redistribution of land and the
creation of ejidos took place here. The oil companies in the north of the state
were nationalized and consolidated into PEMEX in the 1930s by Lázaro Cárdenas. In
the 1950s, more road construction, such as the Mexico City- Poza Rica, Veracruz-
Alvarado- Coatzacoalco and Tinajas-Ciudad Aleman-Tlacoatalpan highways were
constructed. The Universidad Veracruzana was expanded as well. In 1960, the Museum
of Anthropology in Xalapa was inaugurated as well as the Coatzacoalco-Salina Cruz
highway. The Veracruz city international airport was opened in the 1970s.[20]

In the ten years after 2006, at least 3,600 people have disappeared within the
state.[27] Multiple mass graves have been found within the state.[28] This is seen
as part of the over 28,000 missing individuals related to the Mexican Drug War.[29]
Within the state the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas have battled for control.[30]
Additionally, this has led to journalists being targeted and killed within the
state.[31]

Economy
Veracruz has one of Mexico's leading economies, based on agriculture and petroleum.
[16] Using relatively recent night light data and electricity consumption in
comparison with Gross County Product, the informal sector of the local economy in
Veracruz state is shown to have grown during the period of the Fox Administration
though the regional government remained PRI. The assumption that the informal
economy of Mexico is a constant 30% of total economic activity is not supported at
the local level. The small amount of local spatial autocorrelation that was found
suggests a few clusters of high and low literacy rates amongst municipios in
Veracruz but not enough to warrant including an I-statistic as a regressor. Global
spatial autocorrelation is found especially literacy at the macro-regional level
which is an area for further research beyond this study. Improved literacy bolsters
both the informal and formal economies in Veracruz indicating policies designed to
further literacy are vital for growing the regional economy. While indigenous
people are relatively poor, little evidence was found that the informal economy is
a higher percentage of total economic activity in a municipio with a high share of
indigenous people. While the formal economy might have been expanding relative to
the informal economy in 2000, by 2006 this process had been reversed with growing
informality. While rural municipios have smaller economies, they are not different
than urban municipios in the share of the economy that is informal. Programs in the
past that might move economic activity from the informal to the formal sector have
not succeeded suggesting public finance issues such as tax evasion will continue to
plague the state with low government revenues.[32]

Agriculture

Vanilla beans
The primary sector of the economy (agriculture, forestry and fishing) has been
important since pre-Hispanic times and continues to be important both as a source
of income as well as culturally. The state has abundant rainfall and extremely
fertile soils, as well as a long coastline and forest containing a wide variety of
trees and other plants.[17][33]

There is about 1 million hectares of cultivable land, half of which is in private

hands and 43% is ejido or communal land. The rest is occupied by human settlements.
There are 3,620 ejidos parceled out to 270,000 ejido members. 52.5% of agricultural
land is used for the growing of crops or used as pasture and 43.1% is forest or
rainforest. Chief agricultural products include coffee, vanilla, sugarcane,
tobacco, bananas, coconuts, and vegetables, but local farmers depend mainly on corn
and beans.[16] Two corn crops per year are generally produced, planted on 644,936
hectares with a production of 1,114,325 tons. The state is the leading national
producer of coffee, sugarcane, corn, and rice.[17] Coffee is grown on 152,993
hectares producing 400,575 tons. Export earnings from this crop are about US$232
million annually. Most coffee is grown in the mountain areas of Córdoba-Huatusco,
Coatepec-Teocelo-Cosautlán and Misantla-Tlapacoyan-Atzalan. Sugarcane is cultivated
on 254,000 hectares, producing 16,867,958 tons annually. Veracruz is the largest
producer of rice with 24,000 hectares producing 120,000 tons. Much is this crop is
protected by import bans from Asia.[citation needed]

The state grows half of the country's citrus fruit and grows the most kinds. This
occupies 180,577 hectares and produces 2,575,140 tons annually. Varieties include
oranges, tangerines, mandarins, limes and grapefruit. Most citrus is grown in the
north of the state, and much of the lime crop is exported, supporting a packing and
shipping industry. Veracruz is the largest mango producer in the country, grown on
31,640 hectares producing 287,000 tons. Most of this is the manila variety, which
is preferred in Mexico. 95% of this crop is consumed fresh within Mexico although
exports to Canada have begun.[citation needed] Vanilla beans are native to the
state, which is the primary producer for Mexico. Most of this crop is grown in an
area known as Totonacapan in and around Papantla.

Livestock raising is an important activity. There are over 300,000 units of

production most of which raise cattle, with Veracruz being the main beef producer
for the country at 14% of the total. In addition to beef cattle, dairy cattle,
pigs, sheep, goats, horses, domestic fowl, and bees are raised.[16]

From the tropical forests of the inland regions come dyewoods, hardwoods, and
rubber.[17] About 20% of the state's territory is forested, with 220,000 of
temperate forest and 1,200,000 hectares of tropical forests. Logging in the state
produces 128,254 m3 of wood products per year. The most exploited species include
pine, oyamel, cypress and oak. Some tropical hardwoods are harvested as well.

Veracruz's long coastline supports a large fishing industry, producing one-fifth of

Mexico's catch. Most of the country's mojarra, oysters and shrimp come from here.
Other major fish catches include crab, sea bass and red snapper.

Agroindustry focuses on the processing of coffee and sugar products, with citrus
packers holding an important position as well.[citation needed]

Natural resources

Petroleum tower in Poza Rica

Today, the state of Veracruz, rich in natural resources, is an important component
of Mexico's economy. Approximately 35% of Mexico's water supply is found in
Veracruz. There are a number of metallic and non-metallic mineral mining but the
most important resource is oil.[17]

The mountains contain relatively unexploited deposits of gold, silver, iron, and
coal. Although Veracruz is an important source of metals such as iron and copper, a
great deal of its mining involves non-metallic minerals as sulfur, silica,
feldspar, calcium, kaolin and marble. The state is ranked fourth in the nation for
this kind of mining production.[15][17] However, mining only accounts for 1.5% of
economic activity for the entire state.[17]

Veracruz was a pioneer in both the extraction and refining of petroleum products.
[15] The state has about one-fourth of Mexico's petroleum reserves and ranks third
in petroleum production.[15][16] Most of this production is concentrated in the
northern part of the state.[17] Approximately 40,000,000 barrels (6,400,000 m3) of
oil are produced each year and 109,870,000,000 cubic feet (3.111×109 m3) of natural
gas. Petrochemicals represent 28.1% of the state's manufacturing and ranks first
nationally. There are 22 petrochemical plants, with the most important being La
Cangrejera, Jáltipan de Morelos, Poza Rica, Cosoleacaque, Pajaritos and Minatitlán.

Golden Lane Oil Fields

Map of the Golden Lane[34]

The "Golden Lane" ("Dos Bocas-Alamo structure" or The Ridge") refers to a series of
oil fields aligned in an arc onshore and a symmetrical alignment offshore, forming
two sides of a Cretaceous atoll 180 km long.[35] The structure was discovered in
1908 by Weetman Pearson's Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company San diego de la Mar No. 1
well, which flowed 2,500 bbl/day.[35] The Golden Lane oil fields penetrate a
massive elliptical reef platform, identified as the Sierra del Abra limestone
(consisting of reef, backreef and lagoonal facies), which dips southeast.[36] The
site for the discovery well was selected due to the presence of petroleum seeps,
just as was Edward Laurence Doheny's La Paz No. well in the Ebano-Panuco petroleum
district west of Tampico, Tamaulipas, the first Mexican discovery well in 1904.[37]
In 1908, the infamous Dos Bocas oil fire occurred after the San Diego de la Mar No.
3 blowout.[38] This was followed by the Potrero del Llano No. 4 well, flowing
100,000 bbl per day during the three months it was out of control.[38] Doheny's
Cerro Azul No. 4 well, located by Ezequiel Ordonez, became the largest daily
production record holder in 1916 at 260,000 bbl.[38] Geophysical studies, in
particular gravimetry, starting in 1920 led to the discovery of the Poza Rica Field
in 1932 and Moralillo Field in 1948, on the west flank of the Golden Lane in the
Tamabra forereef facies.[39] Refraction seismography surveys started in 1930,
augemented in 1948 with reflection seismography, which led to the discovery of the
southern extent of the atoll with the Ezequiel Ordonez No. 1 well in 1952 and
additional discoveries through 1968.[40] Marine seismic and magnetometer surveys
starting in 1957 showed the extent of the atoll offshore and led to the first
offshore well, Isla de Lobos No. 1-B, in 1963.[40] The depths of wells are on the
order of 500 m onshore and 2000 m offshore.[41]

Industry, transportation and commerce

A portion of the port of Veracruz

Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Plant (LVNPP) in Alto Lucero, Veracruz, produces about
4.5% of Mexico's electrical energy.

The manufacturing industry in Veracruz accounts for between 21% and one-third of
the state's gross domestic product, and approximately 64% of the manufacturing
industry GDP is generated by the chemical and petrochemical sectors.[17] Other
products produced include metals, processed foods, beverages, printing and
publishing, textiles and machinery.[17] Most of the state's industry takes place in
the municipalities of Coatzacoalcos, Minatitlán, Cosoleacaque, Poza Rica, Córdoba,
Orizaba, Tuxpan and Veracruz, with over 5,000 establishments. The rest is divided
among nearly 11,000 smaller establishments. There are five major industrial parks:
Bruno Pagliai, Ixtac, Petroquimico Morelos, Córdoba-Amatlán and Parque 2000. The
largest of these is Bruno Pagliai, which covers 300.8 hectares.

Transportation and commerce are important factors in the state, mostly linked to
importing and exporting through its four deepwater ports. The focus of most of
these activities is the port of Veracruz. It has the most favored position on
Mexico's Gulf coast and is extensively used for exports to the United States, Latin
America and Europe. Seventy-five percent of all port activity in Mexico takes place
in Veracruz. The chief exports of this state are coffee, fresh fruits, fertilizer,
sugar, fish and crustaceans.[17] Other ports include those in Tuxpan and
Coatzacoalcos. Most highway, rail and air connections link to the port of Veracruz
and other ports to the south.[16] The state has 73 companies that have been
classified as high-volume exporters and it is ranked sixth in the country for
exports. The state contains five major food wholesale markets, 146 government
sponsored markets, about 75,000 private stores and 201 supermarkets. Wholesale
vendors focus on agricultural products such as wood, livestock and food products.
The major focal point for international business is the World Trade Center EXPOVER
in Boca del Río. Inaugurated in 1989, the center has facilities to accommodate
5,000 people in 7,000 m2, an exhibition hall of 12,000m2, a business center and
parking for over 800 vehicles.
In the industrial sector, relatively poor municipios are not catching up to
relatively rich ones though the latter are not diverging either. A policy of
encouraging much more domestic and/or foreign investment is called for if poorer
areas are to prosper and the outflow of residents is to stop.[42]

Handcrafts
In the more rural and indigenous areas of the state, a number of handicrafts are
still made and sold both to local buyers and to tourists. Many of these crafts are
produced by communities that specialize in one or more types. Wood furniture and
other items are made by the Huasteca people, mostly using cedar and palm trees. The
best work comes from the towns of Ozulama and Castillo de Teayo. Teocelo and Monte
Blanco are known for bamboo furniture and other items. Musical instruments of wood
such as a guitar called “jarana” are constructed in the Los Tuxtlas area,
especially in Catemaco, with flutes made in Papantla. Wooden masks are made in
Teocelo, and items made with the wood of coffee plants are made in Misantla,
Coatepec, Huastusco and Xico. Corn husks are used to make decorative figures, often
religious, in Nautla and Naranjos de Amatlán. Palm fronds are woven into fans,
shoes and baskets in Jalcomulco, Ozulama and Tlalixcoyan.[43]

Ceramics have been made in almost all parts of Veracruz since the Olmecs. One area
known for its work is Papantla which also includes life sized representations of
folk dancers from the area along with more mundane items of glazed and unglazed
pottery. Minatitlán is known for its production of ceramic cooking utensils which
are also popular in the neighboring municipalities of Actopan and Naolinco. San
Miguel Aguasuelos and Jalcomulco are known for their white clay wares which include
water jars, toys, nativity scenes, bells and more.[43]

Traditional clothing and embroidery can be most easily found in the La Huasteca
area, where elaborately decorated women's blouses can be seen, especially in the El
Higo and Tlalixcoyan area. In Totonacalpan, men are still often seen in white
shirts and pants with a bag to hold personal items. This dress dates back to the
early colonial period and had not changed much since then. Other areas specialize
in wool items such as Naranjos de Amatlán, Minatilán and the city of Veracruz where
items such as dresses, skirts and jackets. These and other textiles such as
tablecloths and napkins are often decorated with cross-stitch. Leather items
include shoes, jackets, bags, wallets, belts and boots and are usually made in the
La Huasteca region, Teocolo, Citlaltépetl and Naolinco.[43]

Culture
Gastronomy

Huachinango (red snapper) a la Veracruzana

The gastronomy of the state is unique in Mexico and mixed Spanish, indigenous, and
other influences.[44] From the pre-Hispanic period, the cuisine of the state was
unique. The staple triumvirate of corn, beans, and squash was supplemented by
tropical fruits, vanilla beans, and an herb called acuyo or hoja santa. Another
important native contribution is seafood, which is featured in many dishes such as,
arroz a la tumbada and caldo de mariscos (seafood soup).[13]

After the conquest and during the colonial period, many other spices and
ingredients were brought and have had a greater influence in the cooking here than
in other parts of the country. From Europe, the Spanish brought saffron, parsley,
thyme, marjoram, bay laurel, and cilantro as well Asian spices such as cloves,
cinnamon, and black pepper. The Spaniards also brought wheat, rice, almonds, olives
and olive oil, garlic, and capers. The latter three are essential ingredients in
what is perhaps the most famous specialty of the region, huachinango a la
veracruzana, red snapper in a spicy tomato sauce. Caribbean imports such as sugar
cane and pineapple were adapted as well as the peanut, brought from Africa by the
Portuguese (although the peanut is originally from South America).[13]
Veracruz cuisine divides into six regions called Sotavento, Centro Norte, Centro
Sur, Sierra, Costa Norte, and Los Tuxtlas. The Sotovento area is in the south of
the state, and the dishes here are heavily based on rice. Common dishes include
arroz a la tumbada, which is rice cooked with seafood or meat and rice with fried
bananas. Seafood dishes are also prominent based mostly on fish and shrimp. A
common ingredient in dishes is a herb called “hoja santa” or “hierba Santa,” which
is a plant of the family Piperaceae. The Centro Norte is centered on Xalapa. Dishes
here tend to be more indigenous in nature, heavily flavored with mild chili
peppers. Common dishes here include Chilehuates, similar to a tamale, stuffed chile
peppers, and enchiladas. Less seafood and more pork and domestic fowl are consumed.
The Centro Sur area is mostly indigenous and encompasses the area of, Huatusco,
Coscomatepec, Cotaxtla, Orizaba, Amatlán, Huilango y las españolas Córdoba y Fortín
de las Flores, la negra Yanga and San Lorenzo de los Negros. Dishes here are
similar to Centro Norte, but chayotes appear more often as this region is a major
producer of the vegetable. Meats in adobo sauce are common as well. The Sierra and
Costa Norte encompass the northern part of the state, such as the Pánuco River area
and Totonacapan. This area is noted for a number of unique dishes such as frijoles
en achuchutl, made with black beans, pork rind, chayotes, squash seeds, and
jalapeño peppers. Bocoles are a kind of filled tortilla made with corn dough,
stuffed with black beans, chorizo, eggs, or seafood, which then are fried in lard.
Tamales are often made with banana leaves. The area is also known for its breads,
especially anise–flavored rolls. The Los Tuxtlas area is centered on the
communities of Santiago, San Andrés and Catemaco, which were the center of the
Olmec civilization. The cuisine in this area features yucca, “chocos” (a type of
edible flower), fish, especially mojarra, and exotic meats such as monkey, and
iguana.[44]

Museums

The Olmec San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 on exhibit in the Museum of Anthropology in
Xalapa
The state capital of Xalapa is also home to a number of important museums. The
Museum of Anthropology contains the second most important collection of
Mesoamerican artifacts in the country. It was built beginning in 1959 over six
hectares. The complex is divided into various halls and galleries by theme,
focusing on the Olmec and Totonac cultures. The Patio Olmeca contains the colossal
head found in 1945 and known as El Rey (The King). Other important artifacts
include giant stelae and San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 (at right). The Museum of
Science and Technology is in Xalapa. It contains more than 400 exhibitions in eight
halls: Life, Ecology, Space, Transportation, Sciences, Energy, Water and Earth. The
Pinoteca Diega Rivera was established by the state in the former Monastery of San
Francisco in Xalapa. Its primary function is to preserve and display Rivera’s works
owned by the state, but it also contains early works by José María Velasco, Jorge
Cuesta and Teodoro A. Dehesa. Near the city is the Hacienda del Lencero, which was
the home and headquarters of President Antonio López de Santa Anna in the 19th
century. It has been preserved and turned into a museum.[44]

In Tuxpan is the Regional Museum of Anthropology with more than 400 pieces from
pre-Hispanic groups in the region, displayed in four halls. Most of the pieces come
from the center of the state and from the Huasteca region.On the edge of the Tuxpan
River.The city also has the Mexican-Cuban Museum. It contains a collection of
photographs from the Cuban Revolution as well as a statue of José Martí .[44]

Other museums are scattered in other parts of the state. The Salvador Ferrando
Museum is located in Tlacotalpan and contains many everyday items and art from the
16th to the 19th centuries.The Tuxteco Regional Museum in Santiago de Tuxtla
contains Olmec and Totonac artifacts including art objects, farming implements,
utensils and more. In the garden area, there are giant stone sculptures from the
Tres Zapotes site. The Jardín Central (Central Garden) of the municipality of
Tierra Blanca has a number of Totonac archeological pieces on display. The
Archeological Museum of Córdoba is in the city of the same name with three
exhibition halls containing artifacts from the Maya, Olmec, Toltec and Huastec
cultures. There is also a collection of historical photographs of the city. The
Veracruz State Art Museum (Museo de Arte del Estado de Veracruz) is located in
Orizaba in what was the monastery associated with the Concordia Church. Its
collection includes works by Diego Rivera, Ignacio Rosas and Gonzalo Argüelles. It
also contains a collection of historical photographs related to Veracruz and art.
The Malintzin Archeological Museum is in the municipality of Nogales. It is a small
museum with one hall, with photographs and documents. It is located in the church
where Malinche and Juan de Jaramillo were supposedly married.[44]

Fairs and festivals

The state is noted for its quantity and variety of festivals. The most important of
these is Carnival in the city of Veracruz. This city's version of the event begins
with the “burning of bad humor,” which is represented in effigy. A number of kings
and queens are "crowned" including categories for children but the most important
is the Rey Feo (Ugly King) and the Reina del Carnaval (Queen of the Carnival). The
latter is accompanies by cadets from the Naval Academy during the parade. This
celebration is repeated all along the Veracruz coastline with other significant
festivities taking place in Alvarado, Coatzacoalcos, San Rafael and Villa José
Cardel. Minatitlán's celebration draws people from the nearby states of Oaxaca and
Tabasco.[45] Day of the Dead is celebrated in almost all of Mexico from 31 Oct to 2
November but there are local twists in the state. In some places, it is
commemorated during the months of August and September. In Papantla, boards or
tables are placed on rooftops, which have been adorned with flowers, plant matter
and more. In Tantoyuca, it is commemorated with costumes and music, similar to
Carnival.[44]

The Christian celebration of Candlemas is fused with traditions associated with

Chalchiuhtlicua, the goddess of water, rivers, lakes and ocean. She was replaced by
the Virgin of Candlemas, the protector of fishermen, making this celebration
particularly important on the coast, especially in Tlacotalpan, where it is
celebrated with much pomp. In Jáltipan de Morelos, ethnic Nahuas and Popolucas
dress in elaborate costumes and arrange their hair in intricate styles. In Santa
María Magdalena, on 22 July, bulls are set free to roam the streets. Corn harvest
festivals are prominent in the Huasteca region in municipalities such as Chontla,
Chicontepec, and Ixhuatlán de Madero. These generally include native dances and
foods based on corn.[44][45]

Dance and music

"La malagueña" (3:31)

Son huasteco, performed by Los Hijos de la Malinche of Jalitpan, Veracruz
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The state is well known in the country for its music and dance. The fandango is a
dance brought over from Spanish. Today the state has two varieties: the jarocho and
the huasteco.[44] Indigenous and folk dances in the state are most often associated
with rituals and religious festivals. These include one called Los Lisceres also
called the Tigres from the Los Tuxtlas region. Participants wear Olmec style masks
which represent the rain god Tlalóc. Another is Los Guaguas in which the
participants pay homage to the sun, and Los Santiagos, which is related to the
veneration of Saint James, patron saint of Hernán Cortés. One last one is called
Los Negritos (The Little Black Ones) which was created by African slaves. According
to tradition, the origin of this dance lies in a story about a boy who was bitten
by a snake and the rituals his family held to heal him.[46]

However, the state's most famous dance is as much a ritual and daredevil act as
movements performed to music. The Danza de los Voladores (Dance of the Flyers) is a
ceremony/ritual which has its roots in the pre-Hispanic period and presently best
known as associated with the town of Papantla, Veracruz. It is believed to have
originated with the Nahua, Huastec and Otomi peoples in central Mexico, and then
spread throughout most of Mesoamerica. The ritual consists of dance and the
climbing of a 30-meter pole from which four of the five participants then launch
themselves tied with ropes to descend to the ground. The fifth remains on top of
the pole, dancing and playing a flute and drum. According to myth, the ritual was
created to ask the gods to end a severe drought. Although the ritual did not
originate with the Totonac people, today it is most strongly associated with them,
especially those in and around Papantla, as the ceremony has died off in most other
places.[47] The ceremony was named an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in
order to help the ritual survive and thrive in the modern world.[48]

The state's best-known musical style is called the "son". A “son” is a musical
variation which traces its origins to Spain and developed during the 17th and 18th
centuries. It is the state's most popular musical style shows influences from the
many peoples who have lived here such as indigenous groups, Portuguese, Italians,
Africans, French and others. The music is generally performed by harps, violins and
guitars, with an occasional wind instrument. Son huasteco (also called son
huapango) is a variety of son played in the north of the state mostly among the
Totonacs. Son jarocho is the better known and more popular variety played in the
south of the state. The famous Grammy award-winning song "La Bamba" by Los Lobos is
said have its roots in a traditional folk song from Veracruz (hence the reference
to the "Marinero" in that song).[44][49]

The state has produced a number of musicians famous in the country. One of the best
known is Francisco Gabilondo Soler. Gabilondo Soler is best known for creating a
character known as “Cri-cri”, a singing cricket for a radio show in the first half
of the 20th century. As a musician, he specialized in writing children's songs such
as "Abuelito", "Caminito de la escuela", "El baile de los muñecos", "El burrito"
and "La negrita Cucurumbé". A number of his works have been translated into other
languages. Another famous musician is Agustín Lara, who has had more international
fame. Nicknamed "Flaco de oro" (golden skinny one), he always insisted that he was
born in Tlacotalpan, Veracruz and not Mexico City as records show. Lara formed his
first band in 1930 called El Son de Marabú and toured almost continuously in Mexico
and abroad during his career. His most famous compositions include "Veracruz",
"Noche de Ronda" and "Solamente una vez".[49] Other prominent musicians include
Toña "La Negra" or María Antonia del Carmen Peregino, Narcisco Serradel, Lorenzo
Barcelata and María Greever.[44]

Art and architecture

Mural depicting the history of Papantla in the town square by Teodoro Cano García
During the colonial era, a movement called the “estilo veracruzano” (Veracruz
style) developed mostly focusing on landscapes in the state with a certain amount
of indigenous influence although the painters themselves were criollo or Mexico-
born Spanish. These paintings focus on the mountains, valles, coasts, volcanos and
other natural phenomena in the state. Most of the proponents of this were born in
Veracruz itself and include José Justo Montiel (1824–1899), Gonzalo Argüelles
Bringas (1877–1942), Eugenio Landecio (teacher of José María Velasco), Natal Pesado
and Ignacio Rosas.[50]

However, most of Veracruz's best-known artists are from the 19th and 20th
centuries. In the 19th century, these include Miguel Mata Reyes, Salvador Ferrando,
José María Jara, Enrique Guerra and Alberto Fuster. Miguel Mata Reyes is best known
for his contributions to the design of the Palacio de Bellas Artes as well a
portrait of Antonio López de Santa Anna. Salvador Ferrando was a portrait and
landscape artist from the north of the state. Until recently, most of his work had
been hidden in a museum named after him in the Tlacotalpan region. Much of it now
is on display at the Museo de Arte de Veracruz in Orizaba. José María Jara is noted
for his paintings of Veracruz customs, whose works include El Velorio, which was
presented at the World's Fair in Paris. Enrique Guerra was an important sculptor at
the end of the 19th century. His best-known works are bas reliefs and include
Asesinato de César, Coroliano, Thais and Crisálida. Alberto Fuster was most active
at the end of the century and is noted for bringing symbolism painting to Mexico
from his stay in Europe. His works include El progreso, Safo en el templo de Delfos
and Nativa con loro.[50]

There are three important artists from the 20th century, Carlos Bracho, Norberto
Martínez and Teodoro Cano García. Active in the first half of the century, sculptor
Carlos Bracho's work has been compared to that of Juan Rulfo. His works have been
done in plaster, bronze, terracotta and green onyx and include monumental works
which can be found in the cities of Xalapa, Puebla, Pachuca and Mexico City. His
best-known works are El abrazo, Cabeza verde and El campesino se apodera de la
tierra. Norberto Martínez only lived 45 years but is considered one of the most
prolific of Mexican painters who dedicated most of his works to social themes. A
number of these are early murals such as El comercio in the Jáuregi de Xalapa
market as well as an untitled work in a private home in Córdoba which deals with
the fusion of the Spanish, indigenous and African ethnicities in Mexico. Later
works include the three murals in the main stairwell of the School of Law at the
University of Xalapa and El hombre y el conocimiento at the Universidad
Veracruzana. Teodoro Cano García is one of Mexico's most famous muralists of the
late 20th century, famous for the promotion of the Totonac culture of his hometown
of Papantla. He has created paintings, sculptures, etchings, photography and mixed
media works with his murals and sculptures most acclaimed. Examples of his work can
be seen in various parts of public buildings in Papantla.[50]

Most of Veracruz's older architecture can be found in the inland cities of Xalapa
and Córdoba. Despite being the first Spanish settlement, the city of Veracruz lost
most its older structures to the various invasions it has suffered. Architecture
from the 16th to the 19th century includes colonial Spanish, Moorish, Neo gothic
and Neoclassical. From the 20th century on, a number of names stand out. Armando
Bravo Ramírez remodeled the State Government Palace and the facade of the Capillas
de Ánimas, both in Xalapa. Other prominent names responsible for many projects in
the state include Luis González Aparicio, Bernal Lascuraín Rangel and Luis Manuel
Tello Deschamps.[50]

Literature
The literary arts reached their peak in Veracruz starting in the 19th century and
extends to the “Generation of the 1950s.” Salvador Díaz Mirón is one of Veracruz's
most-distinguished poets. Over his lifetime from the latter 19th to early 20th
centuries, he worked as a professor, politician and journalist contributing to
periodicals such as El Veracruzano, El Orden, and El Imparcial. His creative works
include some of the first Romantic pieces produced in Mexico such as Oda a Víctor
Hugo, Ojos verdes, Gloria and Voces interiores. Other works include Poesías A
Tirsa, Nox (also known as Claudia) and his last works such as Al buen cura and La
mujer de nieve. He became a member of the Academia Mexicana de la Lengua and is
buried at the Rotonda de los Hombres Ilustres in Mexico City. María Enriqueta
Camarillo was one of a number of women writers to gain prominence in Mexico at the
end of the 19th century. While she wrote a number of works such as Jirón del mundo,
Sorpresas de la vida and El Secreto, she is best known for Rosas de la infancia,
with which many Mexicans learned to read.[51]

Writers born at the end of the 19th century, such as Gregorio López y Fuentes,
Manuel Maples Arce and Jorge Mateo Cuesta Porte-Petit were often concerned with
social issues. Works of this type include El Indio by López, Metrópolis by Maples
and a poem called Canto a un dios mineral by Cuesta. The following generation, born
in the first decades of the 20th century, became known as the Generation of the
1950s. During this time Veracruz's literary tradition consolidated and decided to
break type. One example is Juan Hernández Ramírez’s writing of poetry in the
Nahuatl spoken in the La Huasteca area of Veracruz. One important name from this
generation is Emilio Carballido who wrote about 100 plays as well as scripts for
radio and television. Some of his works include Rosalba y los llaveros, Felicidad
and Las visitaciones del Diablo. In 1996, he won the Premio Nacional de Literatura
and in 2002 he received the Ariel de Oro for his work in cinema.[51]

Religion
The Catholic patron saint of Veracruz is Rafael Guízar y Valencia.[52]

Education
Public education in the state is supervised by the state Dirección General de
Educación Popular and the Dirección General de Educación Media Superior y Superior.
The current system is the result of a number of reforms which took place in the
1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, 302 new school campuses were created statewide
and 257 schools were remodeled. These included new schools for special education,
distance learning and technological institutes, giving the state one of the highest
number of school campuses in the country. There are a total of 20,479 schools, with
nearly 2 million students and about 85,000 teachers. 93% of schools are in the
basic education category (preschool, primary and middle schools. Preschools also
include those geared towards the indigenous populations, focusing on bilingual and
bicultural education in both the indigenous language/culture and Spanish. One major
focus of these and other schools is to eliminate illiteracy in indigenous
communities. The "Medio Superior" level includes vocational high school and
technical colleges. These account for 6.6% of schools in the public system. The
Superior level includes teachers’ colleges and universities. There are 166
institutes at this level, with about 68,000 students studying 221 different majors.
There are also 63 master's degree programs and six PhDs.[53] These institutions
serve about 135,000 students accounting for about 19% of the college-aged
population (19- to 24-year-olds), slightly below the national average of 24%.[54]

The major state university is the Universidad Veracruzana, with offers 56

bachelor's degrees, 37 masters and 5 PhDs. It is based in the capital of Xalapa and
is noted for its large and varied sports programs. There are campuses in fourteen
other cities.[53] About 37% of university students attend the main public
university, with a student population of 47,000 undergraduates and 2,000
postgraduates.[54] Other important schools include Instituto Tecnologico de
Veracruz in Veracruz, Universidad Anáhuac in Xalapa, Universidad de Xalapa in
Xalapa, ITESM in Córdoba, Universidad Cristóbal Colón in Veracruz, the Veracruz
Naval Academy and the Instituto Tecnológico del Mar.[53]

Demographics

Veracruz lighthouse
Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1895[55] 863,220 —
1900 981,030 +13.6%
1910 1,132,859 +15.5%
1921 1,159,935 +2.4%
1930 1,377,293 +18.7%
1940 1,619,338 +17.6%
1950 2,040,231 +26.0%
1960 2,727,899 +33.7%
1970 3,815,422 +39.9%
1980 5,387,680 +41.2%
1990 6,228,239 +15.6%
1995 6,737,324 +8.2%
2000 6,908,975 +2.5%
2005 7,110,214 +2.9%
2010 7,643,194 +7.5%
2015 8,112,505 +6.1%
2020[6] 8,062,579 −0.6%
The state of Veracruz, especially its port, has been a crossroads for various
cultures since the very early colonial period. The port of Veracruz has brought
cargo, sailors, seamen, and slaves from various parts of the world, especially from
the Caribbean and Europe. The state has indigenous cultural influences mixed with
those from Europe, Africa and the Afro-Caribbean. These can be best seen in the
music, the culinary traditions and in the people themselves.[13]

The number of ethnic communities in the state has been calculated at 2,062. The
most numerous include the Nahuas, Totonacs, Huastecs, Popolucs, Zapotecas,
Chinantecas, Otomis, Mazatecas, Tepehuas, Mixtecas, Zoques, Mixes, Mayas and
Tzotzils, all indigenous groups. The largest are Nahuas, who make up over half of
the indigenous population. Most native communities can be found in 68
municipalities especially in Tehuipango, Mixtla de Altamirano, Astacinga, Soledad
Atzompa, Atlahuilco, Tequila, Tlaquilpan, Los Reyes, Magdalena, San Andres
Tenejapan, Tantoyuca, Zongolica, Chicontepec, Papantla, Ixhuatlán de Madero,
Soteapan, Playa Vicente, Mecayapan y Coyutla, Benito Juárez, Coxquihi, Espinal,
Filomeno Mata, Ixcatepec, Mecatlán and Zozocolco de Hidalgo. In 1998, about 10% of
the population spoke an indigenous language; however, this does not take into
account all indigenous peoples. The census of 2005 counted 605,135 as speaking an
indigenous language.[56]

There are also small immigrant communities of Spaniards, Italians, Basque and
Lebanese.[44] Africans were first brought to Mexico through slavery to the Veracruz
port. At one point, they outnumbered Europeans and a significant number ran away
from haciendas and plantations to form their own communities, sometimes allied with
indigenous groups. One such rebellion was led by Yanga, who successfully negotiated
a free African community with Spanish authorities in 1609. Like other groups, many
of African descent would intermarry with other groups, with the category of
“mulatto” existing in the old colonial caste system for those with African blood.
Today, the vast majority of Afro-Mexicans in Veracruz and other parts of the
country are spread out and intermixed with the rest of the population.[57]
According to the 2020 Census, 2.67% of Veracruz's population identified as Black,
Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.[58]

With a population of 7,110,214 (2005), Veracruz is the third most populous entity
in the country, after the Federal District of Mexico City and the State of Mexico.
Population growth has slowed in the state in the last decades, due to lower
birthrates and the exodus of migrants, mostly men. Women outnumber men. One reason
for the decline in birthrates is the elevation of education levels, especially
among women. Another is urbanization, with about one-third of the state's
population living in urban centers, especially Veracruz, Xalapa, Coatzacoalcos,
Minatitlán and Papantla. Most (90%) of the state's communities, outside of
municipal seats have fewer than 500 people and contain only 21% of the total
population. The migration of men outside the state has put more women into the
state's workforce.[56] Approximately 75% of the population is under 45 years of age
and 30% under the age of 15.[59]

Life expectancy is just under the norm for the rest of the country. The
overwhelming majority of people in the state are Catholic, however, there is a
significant Protestant minority and a number who profess the Jewish faith.[56]

Tourism
Tourism mostly centers on the port city of Veracruz but there are other
destinations.[44] There are over 1,000 hotels in the state, over half of which are
small, family-owned enterprises. Almost all of the four and five-star
establishments are in metropolitan area of Veracruz. Many of the state major
historical and cultural monuments are located in the port of Veracruz. Some of
these include the Aquarium, the Museum of the city (Museo de la Ciudad), The
Agustín Lara Museum, the Santiago Fortress (Baluarte de Santiago) the "Las
Atarazanas" Museum and the San Juan de Ulúa Fort.[44]

To the north of the port city is the Sierra or Totonacalpan area of the state, home
to the Totonac people. This is home to the important pre-Hispanic city of El Tajín
and the present-day city of Papantla. The modern city is best known as the home of
the Totonac version of the “danza de voladores”; there, the dancers spin from 80 ft
(24.4 m) high poles. The area is also the native habitat of the vanilla bean.[13]

To the south of the port is on the coast, is Catemaco. This is in a tropical area.
The area's two main features are Lake Catemaco, which is located in the crater of
an extinct volcano and Isla Tanaxpillo just off the coast. This island is also
called the island of the monkeys or baboons due to a group of feral monkeys that
escaped and found refuge here.[13][44]

Inland is the coffee-growing region in and around the cities of Coatepec and
Xalapa. Orizaba is best known for the volcano nearby but also has a large waterfall
called El Elefante and a Cañon (Canyon) de Río Blanco.[44]

Archeological sites

El Tajín, Niche pyramid

The state contains numerous remains of pre-Hispanic Olmec, Totonac, and Huastec
cities. El Tajín, a ruined city that reached its apex between the 9th and 13th
centuries ad, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992.[16]

El Zapotal is an archeological site which was discovered in 1971 in a region known

at Mixtequlla (between the Blanco and Papaloapan Rivers). This site is noted for
its clay figurines with smiling faces, part of an extremely large offering in honor
of the god of death Mictlantecuhtli.[44]

Cempoala is an archeological site located on the coast between the modern

settlements of La Antigua and Ciudad Cardel. It was occupied when Hernán Cortés
arrived, and he managed to form an alliance with the Totonacs here against the
Aztecs. In the center of the site, there is a large plaza surrounded by temples and
the palace of the Totonac chief. The site also has a small museum.[44]

Quiahuiztlán is on the coast on a small mountain named Bernal. It is cut into the
mountain as a series of terraces. It is located very close to where Cortés founded
the initial Spanish settlement of Villa Rica de la Vera-Cruz.[44]

The Castillo de Teayo (Teayo Castle) is really a pyramid, whose original name was
Zapotitlán. It is located on the border between Huasctec and Totonac lands. It was
abandoned in the 19th century.[44]

The largest and most important site is El Tajín, located near the city of Papantla.
The name is from the Totonac language and means “thunder,” but no one knows what
the true name of this city was. It is also unknown if the Totonac built it, but
since they have dominated the region for centuries, they lay claim to it.The city
developed from the end of the Classic period and the beginning of the Post Classic
period, between 800 and 1150 C.E. It is divided into five zones, the Plaza del
Arroyo Group, the Central Zone, the Gran Xicalcoliuhqui, Tajín Chico and the Column
Complex. Its signature building is the Pyramid of the Niches, named after the 365
niches built into the levels of the structure. The site has a large number of
Mesoamerican ball game courts, one with details reliefs showing the beheading of a
ballplayer and his role in the afterlife.[44]

The Tres Zapotes site is located the community of the same name. Covering 1.5
hectares, the main building has a square base, which is surrounded by gardens and
trees. The most important find from his is Stele “C” which is on display at the
Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.[44]

El Pital is a site in the municipality of Martínez de la Torre. It consists of a

mound with a pyramid base and stairs on the east side.The site's culture is
considered to be a link between the coastal and highland cultures of the region.
[44]

Los Idolos is a site in the municipal city of Misantla, and was an important
ceremonial site for the Totonacapan region. It consists of four rectangular patios
linked by platforms and flat-topped mounds. Many of the structures are decorated
with smooth river stone, thought to have come from the Misantla River.[44]

The Centro Ceremonial Cuajilote is located on the Bobos River. It consists of a

large plaza 400 meters long lined with structures. In the center of the plaza there
are three shrines, one of which contains phallic figures.[44]

Government
Veracruz became a state in 1824. Its government is headed by a governor, who is
elected to a single term of six years. Members of the unicameral legislature, the
State Congress, are elected to three-year terms. The state is divided into 212
local governmental units called municipios (municipalities), each of which is
headquartered in a prominent city, town, or village.[16] The newest of these are
the municipalities of San Rafael and Santiago Sochiapan which were created in 2003.
[60] These municipalities are grouped into regions called Huasteca Alta (with ten
municipalities), Huasteca Baja (with 23 municipalities), Totonac (with 15
municipalities), Nautla (with 11 municipalities), Capital (with 33 municipalities),
Sotavento (with 12 municipalities), De las Montañas (with 57 municipalities),
Papaloapan (with 22 municipalities), De los Tuxtlas (with four municipalities) and
Olmeca (with 25 municipalities) .[61]

Freedom of the Press violations

According to many journalists' organizations, Veracruz is one of the most dangerous
places for journalists especially after governor Javier Duarte de Ochoa came to
power in December 2010.[62]

Infrastructure
Transport
The road system in the state contains 16,039 km (9,966.2 mi), representing 5.1% of
the roads nationwide. For each 100 km2 (38.6 sq mi) of territory, there are 22 km
(13.7 mi) of roads. 3,144.5 km (1,953.9 mi) are part of the federal highway system.
State roads comprise 2,176 km (1,352.1 mi) with the rest maintained by local
authorities. There are over 3,000 km (1,864.1 mi) of rural roads, but only 71.5 km
(44.4 mi) are paved.[53]

The state contains 1,675.3 km (1,041.0 mi) of railway. Most of this is conceded by
the federal government to private companies, with strategic stretches maintained
directly by the government. Some of the private companies include Kansas City
Southern de México and Ferrosur. These lines are used almost exclusively for the
transportation of freight, which in 1999 added up to 37 million tons. Three rail
lines serve the port of Veracruz exclusively. One is dedicated to the port of
Coatzacalcos.[53]

The ports of Veracruz are Tuxpan, Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Pajaritos, Minatitlán-

Nanchital, Tecolutla, Nautla, Alvarado and Tlacotalpan. The first three are the
ports for heavy cargo ships, with Veracruz the most important of the three. The
others are small ports for small ships, fishing boats and tourism. All ports are
operated privately with the exception of Pajaritos, which is operated by PEMEX.
Port traffic in Veracruz account for 10% of all commercial traffic in the country,
23.4% of the port traffic of Mexico and 21% of all port traffic in the Gulf of
Mexico and Caribbean. Goods imported through the state reach 16 out of Mexico's 31
states plus Mexico City. The port of Veracruz alone handles over 12 million tons of
freight per year. Coatzacoalcos is important for its handling of petroleum
products.[53]

The state contains three major airports. “El Tajín” in Tihuatlán serving Poza Rica
and “Canticas” in Minatitlán provide national service. “Heriberto Jara Corona” in
the city of Veracruz provides national and international service. There are also 31
smaller regional airfields in municipalities such as Acayucán, Cazones de Herrera,
Córdoba, Cuitlahuac, Juán Rodríguez Clara, Ozuluama, Platón Sánchez, Playa Vicente,
Soconusco, Tamalín, Tamiahua, Tecolutla, Temapache, Tempoal and Tierra Blanca.[53]

Media
There are 59 local newspapers and 40 magazines published in the state. These
include El Dictamen,[citation needed] El Sol del Centro,[citation needed] la
Opinión de Minatitlán,[citation needed] Diario de Xalapa, El Diario de Minatitlán,
El Mundo de Córdoba, El Mundo de Orizaba, El Sol de Córdoba, El Sol de Orizaba,
Esto de Veracruz, Imagen de Veracruz, La Jornada Veracruz, La Opinión de Poza Rica,
Liberal del Sur, Milenio El Portal, Noreste Diario Regional Independiente, and
Sotavento.[63][64]

There are 202 radio stations (57 AM, 35 FM). Most are commercial or private but
some are operated by non-profits and governmental agencies. There are 22 television
stations; two channels are local, and the rest are repeaters from national
broadcasters. Five companies provide cable and satellite television. Telmex
controls over 75% of the telephone service in the state.[53]

Major communities
Acayucan
Alvarado
Boca del Río
Camarón de Tejeda
Catemaco
Coatepec
Coatzacoalcos
Córdoba
El Jícaro, Veracruz
Martínez de la Torre
Minatitlán
Orizaba
Papantla (Papantla de Olarte)
Poza Rica
Santiago Tuxtla
San Andrés Tuxtla
Tuxpan (Túxpam/Túxpam de Rodríguez Cano)
Veracruz
Xalapa (Xalapa-Enríquez)
Notable People
Lorena Alarcon-Casas Wright, physician-endocrinologist[65] and Associate Professor
at the University of Washington School of Medicine.[66]
Verónica Valerio (born 1991), singer, harpist and composer
See also
Misantla Totonac
Municipalities of Veracuz
Portals:

Geography

North America

Latin America

Mexico
References
"Las Diputaciones Provinciales" (PDF) (in Spanish). p. 15.
Nettie Lee Benson; Colegio de México. Centro de Estudios Históricos; Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México (1994). La diputación provincial y el federalismo
mexicano. UNAM. pp. 227–. ISBN 978-968-12-0586-7. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
"Senadores por Veracruz LXIV Legislatura". Senado de la Republica. Retrieved April
9, 2019.
"Álbum de Diputados y Diputadas Federales 2018-2021. Segundo año de ejercicio
constitucional" (PDF). Camara de Diputados. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
"Resumen". Cuentame INEGI. Retrieved February 12, 2013.
"México en cifras". January 2016.
"Mexico en Cifras". INEGI. Archived from the original on April 20, 2011. Retrieved
April 9, 2011.
"Reporte: Jueves 3 de Junio del 2010. Cierre del peso mexicano".
Pesomexicano.com.mx. Retrieved August 10, 2010.
"Relieve". Cuentame INEGI. Archived from the original on June 17, 2010. Retrieved
October 20, 2010.
"Nomenclatura" [Nomenclature]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz
de Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo
y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011.
Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Afro-Mexicans Fight for Visibility and Recognition". Pulitzer Center. Pulitzer
Center. 2019.
"Looking for African Roots: Yanga, Veracruz: First Free Town for Slaves in
America".
Hursh Graber, Karen (January 1, 2006). "The cuisine of Veracruz: a tasty blend of
cultures". Mexconnect. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Estado de Veracruz" [State of Veracruz] (in Spanish). Veracruz: Secretaria de
Desarrollo Economico y Portuario. 2006. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Medio Fisico" [Environment]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz de
Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y
el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011.
Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Veracruz". Encyclopædia. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
Schmal, John P. (2004). "The History of Veracruz". Houston Institute for Culture.
Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"En el estado de Veracruz, los dos ríos más contaminados de México: Salvemos el
Agua" [In the state of Veracruz, the two most contaminated rivers in Mexico: Lets
sabe the water]. Potamología (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología
del Agua. January 1, 2010. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Veracruz moist forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved
August 3, 2010.
"Historia" [History]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz de Ignacio
de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el
Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved
August 3, 2010.
Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico.
Prentice Hall 2003, p. 57.
Peter Gerhard, A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain, Revised Edition.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.
Altman, et al. The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 119.
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 173
Magner, Lois N. "The Impact of European Disease on Native Americans".
Encyclopedia.com. Cengage. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
The New York Times, "The Expedition to Mexico," January 3, 1861
"Mexico finds 166 bodies in mass grave". France24. 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6
September 2018.
Woody, Christopher (11 June 2018). "A former Mexican governor has been accused of
involvement in forced disappearances, and it points to a sinister problem with
Mexico's police". Business Insider. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
José de Córdoba (15 March 2017). "Grieving Mothers Lead Authorities to Mass Grave
in Mexico". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
Garrido, Edgar (19 March 2017). Cameron-Moore, Simon (ed.). "Mexico drug war
investigators unearth 47 more skulls in mass graves". Retrieved 6 September 2018.
Wade, Lizzie (14 December 2016). "How forensic anthropologists are helping the
families of Mexico's disappeared seek justice". Science. Retrieved 6 September
2018.
"Mexico drugs war: Mass grave found in Veracruz". BBC News. 19 June 2014.
Retrieved 6 September 2018.
Imison, Paul (17 August 2015). "How Veracruz Became the Most Dangerous State in
Mexico for Journalists". Vice. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
Brock, Gregory; Jie Tan; Robert Yarbrough (2014). "The Informal Economy of
Veracruz State during the Fox Administration". Journal of Developing Areas. 48 (2):
153–168. doi:10.1353/jda.2014.0033. S2CID 154520420.
Moritzky, Charles E. (January 1, 2006). "Veracruz: traveling the Central High
Plains of Mexico". Mexconnect. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
Viniegra O., F., and Castillo-Tejero, C., 1970, Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz,
Mexico, in Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, AAPG Memoir 14, Halbouty, M.T.
editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 310.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, Mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, p. 309, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, pp. 314 and 316, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, Mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, pp. 309-311, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, Mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, p. 311, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, Mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, pp. 311 and 317, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, p. 312, 1970.
Viniegra O., L., and Castillo-Tejero, C.,Golden Lane Fields, Veracruz, Mexico, in
Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir 14, pp. 311-312, 1970.
Brock, Gregory (2014). ""The Long Run Industrial Growth of Veracruz State, 1955-
2008". Journal of Economic Studies. 41 (6): 821–832. doi:10.1108/JES-02-2013-0020.
S2CID 154695456.
González, pp. 40–42
"Atractivos Culturales y Turísticos" [Cultural and Tourist Attractions].
Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (in
Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal.
2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
 González, p. 23
González, p. 22
Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K (1987). El Tajin: A Guide for Visitors. pp. 75–76. ISBN
968-499-293-9.
"'Flying Men' are now Cultural Heritage". McClatchy – Tribune Business News.
Washington, DC. 2009-10-01.
González, pp. 20–21
González, pp. 12–15
González, pp. 16–18
Patron saint of Veracruz Archived 2013-03-13 at the Wayback Machine at Catholic-
Hierarchy.org. Retrieved 06.April 2013
"Infraestructura" [Infrastructure]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el
Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16,
2011. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Higher education and research in the State of Veracruz". Organisation for
Economic Co-Operation and Development. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Mexico: extended population list". GeoHive. Archived from the original on March
11, 2012. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
"Perfil Sociodemografico" [Socio-demographic profile]. Enciclopedia de los
Municipios de México Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico:
Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived
from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
Patrisia Gonzales and Roberto Rodriguez (March 3, 1996). "African Roots Stretch
Deep Into Mexico". Mexconnect. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Panorama".
"Veracruz Ignacio de la Llave Número de habitantes" [Veracruz Ignacio de la Llave
Number of inhabitants] (in Spanish). Mexico: INEGI. 2005. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Gobierno" [Government]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz de
Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y
el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011.
Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Regionalización" [Regions]. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Veracruz de
Ignacio de la Llave (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y
el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011.
Retrieved August 3, 2010.
"Threats and censorship at peak in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Michoacán and Zacatecas -
Reporters without borders". RSF. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
"Publicaciones periódicas en Veracruz". Sistema de Información Cultural (in
Spanish). Gobierno de Mexico. Retrieved March 7, 2020.
"Latin American & Mexican Online News". Research Guides. US: University of Texas
at San Antonio Libraries. Archived from the original on March 7, 2020.
"Defying the Odds". UW Medicine: Shortening the Distance to Healthier Lives. 2018-
04-02. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
"LatinX Diabetes Clinic opens at UW Medicine in SLU". newsroom.uw.edu. 2020-09-24.
Retrieved 2021-05-30.
Further reading
Booker, Jackie R. Veracruz Merchants, 1770-1829: A Mercantile Elite in Late Bourbon
and Early Independent Mexico. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press 1993.
Carroll, Patrick J. Blacks in Colonial Veracruz. Austin: University of Texas Press
1991.
Jiménez González, Victor Manuel, ed. (2010). Veracruz Guia para descubrir los
encantos del estado [Veracruz Guide to discover the charms of the state] (in
Spanish) (first ed.). Mexico: Editorial Oceano de Mexico SA de CV. ISBN 978-607-
400-323-9.
Knaut, Andrew L. "Yellow Fever and the Late Colonial Public Health Response in the
Port of Veracruz." Hispanic American Historical Review 77:4 (1997) 619–644.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Veracruz.
 Geographic data related to Veracruz at OpenStreetMap
(in Spanish) Veracruz State government official website
vte
Veracruz State of Veracruz
Xalapa (capital)
Municipalities of Veracruz
Huasteca Alta Region
ChalmaChiconamelChinampa de GorostizaEl HigoNaranjos AmatlánOzuluama de
MascareñasPánucoPlatón SánchezPueblo ViejoTamalínTamiahuaTampico
AltoTantimaTantoyucaTempoal de Sánchez
Huasteca Baja Region
Álamo TemapacheBenito JuárezCastillo de TeayoCerro AzulChicontepec de
TejedaChontlaCitlaltépetlHuayacocotlaIlamatlánIxcatepecIxhuatlán de
MaderoTancocoTepetzintlaTexcatepecTlachichilcoTuxpanZacualpanZontecomatlán de López
y Fuentes
Totonaca Region
Cazones de HerreraChumatlánCoahuitlanCoatzintlaCoxquihuiCoyutlaEspinalFilomeno
MataGutiérrez ZamoraMecatlánPapantlaPoza RicaTecolutlaTihuatlánZozocolco de Hidalgo
Nautla Region
AtzalánColipaJuchique de FerrerMartínez de la TorreMisantlaNautlaSan
RafaelTenochtitlánTlapacoyanVega de AlatorreYecuatla
Capital Region
AcajeteAcatlánActopanAlto
LuceroAltotongaApazapanAyahualulcoBanderillaChiconquiacoCoacoatzintlaCoatepecCosaut
lán de CarvajalEmiliano Zapata (Dos Ríos)IxhuacánJalacingoJalcomulcoJilotepecLas
MinasLas Vigas de RamírezLandero y CossMiahuatlánNaolincoPeroteRafael
LucioTatatilaTeoceloTepetlánTlacolulanTlalnelhuayocanTonayánVilla AldamaXalapaXico
Sotavento Region
Boca del RíoCotaxtlaJamapaLa Antigua (José Cardel)Manlio Fabio
AltamiranoMedellínPuente NacionalSoledad de DobladoTlalixcoyanÚrsulo GalvánVeracruz
Mountains Region
AcultzingoAlpatláhuacAmatlán de los
ReyesAquilaAstacingaAtlahuilcoAtoyacAtzacanCalcahualcoCamarón de TejedaCamerino Z.
MendozaCarrillo Puerto
(Tamarindo)ChocamánCoetzalaComapaCórdobaCoscomatepecCuichapaCuitláhuacFortín de las
FloresHuatuscoHuiloapan de CuauhtémocIxhuatlán del
CaféIxhuatlancilloIxtaczoquitlánLa PerlaLos ReyesMagdalenaMaltrataMariano
EscobedoMixtla de AltamiranoNaranjalNogalesOmealcaOrizabaPaso del MachoRafael
DelgadoRío BlancoSan Andrés TenejapanSochiapaSoledad
AtzompaTehuipangoTenampaTepatlaxcoTequilaTezonapaTlacotepec de
MejíaTlaltetelaTlaquilpaTlilapanTomatlánTotutlaXoxocotlaYangaZentlaZongolica
Papaloapan Region
AculaÁngel R. CabadaAlvaradoAmatitlánCarlos A. CarrilloChacaltianguisCosamaloapan
de CarpioIgnacio de la LlaveIslaIxmatlahuacanJosé AzuetaJuan Rodríguez ClaraLerdo
de TejadaOtatitlánPlaya VicenteSaltabarrancaSantiago Sochiapan (Xochiapa)Tierra
BlancaTlacojalpanTlacotalpanTres VallesTuxtilla
Los Tuxtlas Region
CatemacoSan Andrés TuxtlaSantiago TuxtlaHueyapan de Ocampo
Olmeca Region
AcayucanAgua DulceChinamecaCoatzacoalcosCosoleacaqueHidalgotitlánIxhuatlán del
SuresteJáltipanJesús CarranzaLas
ChoapasMecayapanMinatitlánMoloacánNanchitalOlutaOteapanPajapanSan Juan
EvangelistaSayula de AlemánSoconuscoSoteapanTatahuicapanTexistepecUxpanapaZaragoza
vte
Mexico States of Mexico
AguascalientesBaja CaliforniaBaja California
SurCampecheChiapasChihuahuaCoahuilaColimaDurangoGuanajuatoGuerreroHidalgoJaliscoMéx
icoMexico CityMichoacánMorelosNayaritNuevo LeónOaxacaPueblaQuerétaroQuintana RooSan
Luis PotosíSinaloaSonoraTabascoTamaulipasTlaxcalaVeracruzYucatánZacatecas
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
General
Integrated Authority File (Germany)Online PWN
National libraries
Czech Republic
Other
MusicBrainz areaNational Archives (US)
Categories: VeracruzStates of MexicoGulf Coast of MexicoStates and territories
established in 18241824 establecimientos en México
Menú de Navegación
Sin iniciar sesión
Hablar
Contribuciones
Crear una cuenta
Iniciar sesión
ArtículoHablar
LeerEditarVer historial
Búsqueda
Buscar Wikipedia
Pagina principal
Contenido
Eventos actuales
Artículo aleatorio
Acerca de Wikipedia
Contáctenos
Donar
Contribuir
Ayudar
aprender a editar
portal de la comunidad
Cambios recientes
Subir archivo
Instrumentos
Que enlaces aqui
Cambios relacionados
páginas especiales
Enlace Permanente
Información de la página
Citar esta página
Elemento de wikidata
Imprimir/exportar
Descargar como PDF
Versión imprimible
En otros proyectos
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiviaje
Idiomas
africaans
‫العربية‬
Aragonés
_____________________________________________
aymar aru
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Brezhoneg
català
cebuano
Čeština
Cymraeg
danés
Alemán
Este
Ελληνικά
ingles
esperanto
Euskera
‫فارسی‬
francés
Frysk
gaélico
한국어
zara
Hrvatski
ilocano
bahasa indonesia
interlingua
Ирон
italiano
‫עברית‬
Kapampangan
ქართული
Kernówek
Kiswahili
Кырык мары
Ladino
latinos
Latviešu
Lietuvių
magiar
Македонски
Malagasy
मराठी
‫مازرونی‬
ِ
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk bokmål
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
‫پنجابی‬
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
‫اردو‬
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
吴语
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 January 2022, at 11:51 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAcerca de WikipediaDescargos de responsabilidadContacto
WikipediaVista móvilDesarrolladoresEstadísticasDeclaración de cookiesWikimedia
FoundationPowered by MediaWiki