Libro
Libro
COORDINADORAS:
Nora M. Basurto Santos. México
Melba Libia Cárdenas. Colombia
Investigaciones sin fronteras:
New and enduring issues in foreign language education
COORDINADORAS:
Diseño:
Fausto Pastoressa Valdés
Presentación 13
Preface 17
Foreword 21
Prólogo 23
Trabajo colaborativo
Collaborative work 27
Políticas lingüísticas
Language policies 155
El diseño curricular:
Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera
Arturo Ramírez Hernández / México 267
13
El CIILE tiene dos objetivos principales: por un lado, contribuir a la genera-
ción del conocimiento por medio de la difusión de investigaciones realizadas en el
campo de las lenguas extranjeras en el contexto nacional e internacional. También,
constituirse en un espacio que permita y aliente el intercambio de experiencias en
torno a la investigación con profesionales nacionales y extranjeros para, de esta
manera, buscar la innovación, la excelencia y consolidar la investigación en nuestro
campo de estudio. Así, en cada una de las siete versiones del evento se ha resaltado
la importancia no solo de presentar conferencias sobre dichos trabajos de investiga-
ción, sino de publicarlos, de tal suerte que su divulgación alcance audiencias más
amplias.
En consonancia con los propósitos de la alianza entre la Universidad Nacional de
Colombia y la Universidad Veracruzana y del CIILE, el libro que presentamos reúne
un selecto grupo de 18 trabajos que fueron sometidos a procesos de evaluación de
pares académicos. Los textos – 9 capítulos escritos en lengua castellana y 9 en len-
gua inglesa — son de la autoría de académicos de Brasil, Colombia, Corea, Estados
Unidos, Inglaterra y México, todos interesados en el fortalecimiento de comunida-
des académicas y en el avance de la investigación en la enseñanza de las lenguas
extranjeras y en la formación de sus docentes. Como reseñamos a continuación,
sus temáticas versan sobre el desarrollo de nuestras competencias de investigación,
asuntos pedagógicos y curriculares, la formación de docentes de lenguas y la defini-
ción y puesta en marcha de políticas lingüísticas, entre otras.
Hemos agrupado los trabajos en seis apartados o secciones, a saber: Trabajo
colaborativo, Prácticas y enfoques de investigación, Políticas lingüísticas, Alter-
nativas para fomentar el aprendizaje de lenguas, Asuntos curriculares en lenguas
extranjeras, y Facetas de la profesión docente. El lector puede colegir a primera
vista que la agrupación podría tener otras alternativas y le concedemos la razón. La
organización de los capítulos en ejes temáticos puede resultar arbitraria y, además,
evidenciar yuxtaposiciones en tanto los tópicos bien podrían conducir a la ubicación
en apartados distintos a los que hemos definido. De ser así, nos complacerá entonces
que se reconozca la relación de los trabajos con asuntos inter y transdisciplinarios,
que reflejan la complejidad de nuestra labor docente y de investigación.
En la primera sección, Trabajo colaborativo, reunimos tres trabajos que reflejan
el papel de las comunidades de aprendizaje para alcanzar metas a nivel curricular y
pedagógico.
Si bien nos une el interés por la investigación en nuestro campo disciplinario,
reconocemos la importancia de revisar, contrastar y ampliar nuestros conocimientos
en torno a las Prácticas y enfoques de investigación. En ellos se centran los tres
14
capítulos que se incluyen en la segunda sección y que tratan sobre el uso de las
entrevistas cognitivas en la investigación de incidentes críticos, la observación de
docentes en el aula y la necesidad de una re-evaluación, y las posibilidades que nos
brinda un software para el estudio de patrones interactivos
A su vez, el apartado denominado Políticas lingüísticas, acopia tres investiga-
ciones. La primera aborda el tema del inglés como idioma global y su relación con
los propósitos de internacionalización de las universidades. La segunda se centra en
el tema de la autonomía lingüística en inmigrantes adultos en Francia y la tercera se
empeña en seguir la senda de la planeación y la política de lenguas extranjeras en un
periodo histórico del sistema educativo público mexicano.
La cuarta sección, Alternativas para fomentar el aprendizaje de lenguas, com-
prende cuatro capítulos. El primero versa sobre el papel de la toma de decisiones y
el agenciamiento como alternativas para fomentar la participación de estudiantes
universitarios en un curso de literatura. El segundo aborda el tema de la tecnología
y los recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español. Por su parte, los
capítulos tres y cuatro de esta sección nos reportan trabajos sobre el componente
ideológico en el aprendizaje del inglés y algunas implicaciones didácticas que se
derivan del estudio de la competencia cultural, para posibilitar el aprendizaje de
lenguas-culturas.
En la quinta sección, Asuntos curriculares en lenguas extranjeras, encontramos
dos escritos que presentan análisis referidos al diseño curricular y al papel que juega
el libro didáctico de español en la formación de los estudiantes.
Finalmente, y puesto que nos interesan las Facetas de la profesión docente, en
la sección 6 agrupamos 3 capítulos dedicados a las trayectorias y funciones de los
profesores de lenguas. El primero de ellos nos informa acerca de la formación de
la identidad y la decisión de convertirse en docentes de inglés en México. El subsi-
guiente trabajo presenta una caracterización del perfil del profesor de español len-
gua extranjera en el contexto colombiano. Por último, podremos conocer acerca del
uso de apostillas o glosas como herramienta de mediación cultural en la didáctica
de la traducción.
Los capítulos que constituyen este libro confirman que la formación de pro-
fesionales en el área de las lenguas extranjeras y la lingüística aplicada, capaces
de incursionar en la investigación, es cada vez mayor y más sólida. Esta es una
preocupación creciente no solo a nivel de postgrado, sino de pregrado; esto último,
con el ánimo de fomentar en los futuros docentes el desarrollo de sus habilidades
para investigar. Éstas se consideran tan importantes como las habilidades y saberes
propios de la disciplina.
15
La selección de los textos que aquí presentamos no hubiera sido posible sin el
apoyo de los pares evaluadores que participaron en los procesos de revisión. Su
generosidad, al dedicar tiempo valioso de sus apretadas agendas a esa labor; sus
aportes para revisar y enriquecer los textos, así como su apoyo al trabajo que reali-
zamos en el campo de la investigación en lenguas extranjeras, merecen todo nuestro
reconocimiento.
Podemos constatar en los textos enunciados que la investigación en lenguas ex-
tranjeras está en constante desarrollo y que si bien las preocupaciones de los investi-
gadores pueden centrarse en contextos diversos, coinciden en su esencia. Nos com-
place compartir con la comunidad académica internacional esta publicación que,
sin duda, será una aportación al conocimiento de nuestra disciplina. Finalmente,
esperamos que sus contenidos aporten el máximo posible para establecer y forta-
lecer redes académicas internacionales comprometidas con la circulación del co-
nocimiento. Saltará a la vista, entonces, que vale la pena el esfuerzo para generar
conocimiento a partir de las investigaciones que realizamos en nuestra labor como
docentes e investigadores.
16
Preface1
In 2009, the Language School at the Universidad Veracruzana and the Department
of Foreign Languages at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota began
working jointly to promote the dissemination of research conducted in the field of
foreign languages not only in the context of the two countries, but also internationally.
To accomplish this, diverse collaboration strategies have been employed. The joint
actions comprise academic events as well as teaching and research activities. An
example of these worth mentioning is the International Colloquium on Research in
Foreign Languages (CIILE for its initials in Spanish) whose venue alternates between
Colombia and Mexico. Other examples are courses and seminars in undergraduate
and graduate curricular programs, as well as the continuous formation and editorial
collaboration for the publication of various research texts.
The research Groups “Foreign Languages and Research” (LEXI, in Spanish),
“Professors of English as a Foreign Language” (PROFILE, for its initials in Spanish) at
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the Research Group “Foreign Languages
in the Public Education System in Mexico”, at the Universidad Veracruzana, have
worked hand in hand to fulfill the previously mentioned activities. It should be
pointed out that the CIILE has become the principal forum to convene preservice
teachers, professors from various education levels and teacher trainers that are
committed to the systematization of their experiences and inquiries through research
projects. The colloquium, as an academic space, favors the presentation of research
in progress and/or research results of individual or collaborative work, thanks to the
efforts of the academic bodies or research groups in the areas of foreign languages
and applied linguistics.
The CIILE has two principal objectives: first, to contribute to the generation of
knowledge through the diffusion of completed research carried out in the field
of foreign languages in the national and international context. Also, it constitutes
17
a space that allows and encourages the exchange of research experiences with na-
tional and foreign professionals. It thereby seeks innovation, excellence and con-
solidation of research in our field of study. Therefore, in each of the seven events
that have already taken place, it has been highlighted that presenting our research
results in conferences is important but it is even more important to publish them
so that their dissemination reaches greater audiences.
In harmony with the intentions of the alliance between the Universidad
Nacional de Colombia and the Universidad Veracruzana and of the CIILE, the
book that we present brings together a select group of 18 works that were submitted
to the evaluation process of academic peers. The texts – nine chapters written in
Spanish and nine in English – are authored by academics from Brazil, Colombia,
Korea, the United States, England and Mexico. All these researchers are interested
in strengthening the academic community and advancing research in the areas
of teaching foreign languages and teacher development. As we will review next,
their topics deal with the development of our research competency, pedagogical
and curricular matters, the preparation of language teachers and the definition and
implementation of linguistic policies, among other topics.
We have grouped the works in six sections: Collaborative work, Research prac-
tices and approaches, Language policies, Alternatives to foster language learning,
Curricular issues in foreign languages, and Facets of the teaching profession. At
first sight, the reader can deduce that these texts could be grouped in alternative
manners, and we agree. The organization of the chapters according to their topics
may seem arbitrary. In addition, it shows the juxtaposition in the topics that could
well be organized in distinct categories than those we have defined. If that were
the case, we would be pleased to then recognize inter- and trans-disciplinary rela-
tionships in regards to the works, which reflects the complexity of our teaching and
investigative work.
In the first section, Collaborative Work, we bring together three works that reflect
the role of the learning communities to reach goals at the curricular and pedagogic
levels. As we are united by our interest for research in our disciplinary field, we
recognize the importance of reviewing, contrasting and expanding our knowledge
in regards to Research Practices and Approaches. In this section, the three chapters
included, deal with the use of cognitive interviews in the investigation of critical
incidents, the observation of teachers in the classroom and the need for a reevalua-
tion, and the possibilities that software provides for the study of interactive patterns.
In the third section called Language Policies gathers three investigations. The
first addresses the topic of English as a global language and its relationship with
18
universities’ objectives of internationalization. The second focuses on the topic of
linguistic autonomy in immigrant adults in France and the third follows the path
of planning and policy in foreign languages in a historic period of the Mexican pub-
lic education system.
The section Options to enhance language learning, includes four chapters. The
first describes the role of decision-making and agency as alternatives to foster the
participation of university students in a literature course. The second covers the topic
of technology and open educational resources for teaching Spanish. Chapters three
and four, in this section, report work about the ideological component of learning
English and some pedagogical implications that derive from the study of cultural
competence, in order to make possible the learning of languages-cultures.
In section five, Curricular issues in foreign languages, we find two texts that
present analysis referring to the curricular design and the role that the Spanish
textbook plays in the development of students.
Finally, and given that we are interested in the Facets of the teaching profession,
in section six, we group three chapters dedicated to the trajectories and functions
of the language professors. The first of them informs us about identity formation
and the decision to become an English teacher in Mexico. The next work presents
a profile characterization of the Spanish as a foreign language professor in the
Colombian context. Lastly, we can learn about the use of notes or commentaries as
a tool for cultural mediation in teaching translation.
The chapters that make up this book confirm that the number of professionals
in the area of foreign languages and applied linguistics, who are capable of doing
research, is becoming greater and stronger. This is a growing concern not only at the
graduate level, but also at the undergraduate level. Because of this, our intention is
to encourage future teachers to develop their research abilities. These are nowadays
considered as important as the proper abilities and knowledge of the teaching
profession.
The selection of the texts that are presented here would not have been possible
without the support of the peer evaluators that participated in the review process.
They all deserve our recognition and gratitude. We would like to acknowledge their
generosity and willingness to dedicate valuable time from their tight schedules to
this work, their efforts to review and enrich the texts, as well as their support for the
work that we are doing in the field of research in foreign languages.
We can learn, as the texts in this book show, that the research in foreign
languages is constantly developing and although the concerns of the researchers are
focused on diverse contexts, they coincide in essence. It is our pleasure to share with
19
the international academic community this publication that, without a shadow of a
doubt, will be a contribution to the knowledge in our discipline. Finally, we hope that
its contents contribute, in the greatest possible way, to establishing and strengthening
international academic networks committed to the dissemination of knowledge. We
trust that it will then become evident that our effort to generate knowledge through
the research that we conduct in our work as teachers and researchers is worthwhile.
20
Foreword
21
The VII CIILE stands out because it is the first time that the research presented has
been captured in print in a peer reviewed collection that can be shared internationally.
The research is from and for diverse professional contexts in the Americas—Brazil,
Colombia, Mexico, and the U.S—and Europe—England, Scotland, and France. It
represents a wide range of state-of-the-art topics, such as community-based field
experiences in teacher education and pedagogy, education of transnational teachers,
transformed conceptions of classroom observations and use of critical incidents in
teacher education, use of e-portfolios and other technological tools, cultural and
ideological issues concerning language teaching, and ways of fostering autonomous
learners. By making different research voices from different contexts public, this
research broadens the professional discourse and practices of research on language
learning and teaching. It raises questions that dominant discourses may have
censored. And it makes this knowledge accessible to a wider audience.
As I was finishing writing this forward, I received the call for papers for the VIII
CIILE to be held in Bogotá. That space for sharing research about language learning
and teaching, formed through the efforts of our colleagues at the Universidad Vera-
cruzana and Universidad Nacional de Colombia, continues to evolve and expand,
enabling us to share our latest research on the teaching of foreign languages. We can
thus look forward to their next publication.
22
Prólogo1
23
propios desafíos y limitaciones. Creamos una comunidad de investigadores, no de-
finida por la cercanía o frecuencia de los encuentros, sino por nuestro compromiso
para entender cómo podemos mejorar el aprendizaje de nuestros estudiantes a través
de nuestra enseñanza e investigación.
El VII CIILE marca una etapa más, que vale la pena subrayar, de esta colabora-
ción entre la Universidad Veracruzana y la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Este
evento destaca de los demás, porque es la primera vez que algunas de las investiga-
ciones presentadas en él han sido capturadas de manera impresa en esta colección,
revisada por pares académicos, la cual puede ser compartida internacionalmente.
Las investigaciones son de y para diversos contextos profesionales de América —
Brasil, Colombia, México, y Estados Unidos — y de Europa — Inglaterra, Escocia
y Francia. Esto representa una amplia gama de lo más actual en cuanto a temas de
investigación. Por citar solo unos ejemplos, encontramos investigaciones sobre las
experiencias de trabajo de campo comunitarias basadas en la educación y la pedago-
gía; la educación de los profesores transnacionales; las concepciones transformadas
acerca de la observación en el salón de clases y el uso de acontecimientos críticos
en la formación de los profesores; el uso de los portafolios electrónicos y otras he-
rramientas tecnológicas; los aspectos culturales e ideológicos sobre la enseñanza
de lenguas; y las maneras de formar aprendices autónomos. Al hacer públicas las
investigaciones provenientes de diversas voces y contextos, se amplía el discurso
profesional y las prácticas en la investigación sobre la enseñanza-aprendizaje de len-
guas. Esto genera preguntas que los discursos dominantes quizá hayan censurado y
es así que el conocimiento se vuelve accesible a un público más amplio.
Cuando estaba terminando de escribir este prólogo, recibí la convocatoria para
las propuestas de ponencias para el VIII CIILE que se llevará a cabo en Bogotá.
Este espacio para compartir investigaciones sobre el aprendizaje y la enseñanza de
idiomas, creado gracias a los esfuerzos de nuestros colegas de la Universidad Ve-
racruzana y la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, continúa desarrollándose y ex-
pandiéndose, permitiéndonos así compartir nuestras más recientes investigaciones
sobre la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. Podemos, entonces, esperar con ansias
sus siguientes publicaciones.
24
Investigaciones sin fronteras:
New and enduring issues in foreign language education
Collaborative work
The role of community explorations
in developing meaningful curriculum
Judy Sharkey
University of New Hampshire, United States
“Human relations are at the heart of schooling. The interactions that take place
between students and teachers and among students are more central to student
success than any method for teaching literacy, or science or math”
(Cummins, 2001, p. 1).
Introduction
29
Judy Sharkey
demographic imperative recognizes that the school age population has grown in-
creasingly diverse—linguistically, racially, culturally, while the teaching popula-
tion remains largely static: female, White, middle-class, native-English speaking,
Christian (Garcia, Jensen, & Scribner, 2009). In Colombia issues of violence and
forced migration affect what can be and is shared in schools (Shultz, Gómez Ca-
ballos, Espinel, Ríos Oliveros, Fonseca, Fernanda and Hernandez Florez, 2014).
How can language teachers and teacher educators respond to the challenges posed
by these restrictive educational policies and pressing social conditions? In this
paper I share a subset of findings from a larger qualitative inquiry into the role of
community-based field experiences in language teacher education in Colombia
and the USA. The examples shared indicate that integrating community investiga-
tions and explorations into second language teacher education programs can help
teachers develop curriculum that reclaim the tenets of humanistic teaching that
Freire and Cummins espouse while still addressing curriculum mandates.
Roots of an inquiry
In 2009, based on shared interests, Amparo Clavijo Olarte and I began a collaborative,
international inquiry into reclaiming the role of local knowledge in second language
teaching and learning. We began designing and integrating a variety of community-
based field assignments into our English language teacher education programs and
inviting our students to read and respond to each other’s work in their different
cities and countries. We have also visited each other’s contexts and I co-taught an
EFL methods course integrating these assignments while a visiting instructor at
a university in Medellín. Initially, we were focused on whether this work could
be done and if so, what were the features of well-designed assignments and how
did our students’ (i.e., teacher learners) interpret these assignments? (Sharkey,
2012; Sharkey & Clavijo Olarte, 2012a). A subsequent stage and the focus of this
paper is to understand how the community experiences affected the ways in which
language teachers in challenging urban contexts connect their students’ lives to their
curriculum.
Another driving force in this inquiry is self-study, a type of practitioner inquiry
that teacher educators conduct with the dual purpose of improving their practice
while also recognizing their role in teachers’ learning (Loughran, 2007).
30
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
1 Pseudonym
31
Judy Sharkey
create learning communities that are more inviting and reflective of their students’
lives, these teachers need to demonstrate an understanding of students’ worlds.
However, they also need support and guidance in finding, exploring, and process-
ing experiences that will help them see and value the communities that define their
students’ out-of-school realities.
By comparison, the vibrant, sprawling cities of Medellín and Bogotá, Colombia,
with populations of approximately 2.5 million and 8 million, respectively, couldn’t
seem more different from Millville. Yet, teachers in public schools serving low-
income children and families experience several similar challenges, specifically
language policies that privilege imported standards (e.g., European Common
Frameworks), teacher tests (e.g., Teaching Knowledge Test by the British Council),
and a definition of bilingual (as Spanish and English) that excludes the multitude
of indigenous languages in Colombia (González, 2012). English has now become
part of the required curriculum but teachers report numerous challenges including
but not limited to lack of access to resources and students’ interest in the language
(González, 2015).
There is no “demographic imperative” in Colombia but there is another social
reality that makes it difficult for teachers to invite students and their families into
the curriculum. The country has become much safer than it was ten years ago, but
in the cities there are still pockets of extreme crime and violence caused by drug
trafficking and gang cultures that make certain neighborhoods very dangerous.
Also, Colombia consistently ranks as the first or second in the world for the largest
internally displaced population (UNHCR, 2013), and current data estimate that one
in eight Colombians is displaced. The poorest areas of the largest cities are home
to significant numbers of desplazados, 400,000 in Bogotá alone (Palacios, 2013).
Ethnic and linguistic minorities are overrepresented in the desplazados, the majori-
ty is from rural areas, and they report high incidents of isolation and discrimination
in urban schools and communities (Doctors without Borders, 2006; Shultz et al.,
2014). Though they have fled their homes, a fear of violence following them leads
to hesitation or refusal to share their stories or situations with those in their new
destinations (Shultz et al, 2014). The history and memories of decades of violence
in the cities and countryside has affected the national psyche to the extent that,
“…people often feel uncomfortable when they hear details of cruelty and violence.
They don’t want to be touched by the pain of others, fearing it could become their
own fate” (Betancourt, cited in Brodzinsky and Schoening, 2012, pp. 14-15). The
challenge for teachers and teacher educators in Colombia is to not ignore the sever-
ity of these impediments to teacher-student/family relationships but to learn how to
32
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
validate these students’ lives and identities while also acknowledging the very real
threats to safety that exist in this work.
Despite the differences in their contexts, Colombian and US American English
language teachers face forces that discourage or block making curriculum for our
most under-served populations meaningful, relevant and humanizing. As teacher
educators we must recognize these challenges and develop contextually appropriate
responses that help teachers experience and value students’ communities.
Locating the project: The role of the local in teaching and learning
The idea and practice of connecting curriculum to students’ lives and interests is
not a new idea; nor is starting with an assets-based rather than deficit perspective to
learners’ realities. Just a few proponents and their contributions include Pestalozzi’s
child-centered approach in Europe (2007/1801); Dewey’s experiential education
in the US (1990/1902); Ashton-Warner’s (1963) language experience approach in
New Zealand (1963); Freire’s culture circles and problem-posing in Brazil (1970;
1987/1969); Moll et al.’s (1992) funds of knowledge in the US; and Cummins’ and
Early’s (2011) identity texts in Canada.
Recognizing that the demographic imperative was creating particular challeng-
es for urban teacher preparation in the USA, Murrell (2001) drew on the work of
Freire, Moll and teacher leaders in the US Civil Rights era and called for the creation
of “community teachers,” educators who knew and valued the people, cultures, lan-
guages and perspectives of the communities in which they taught. Schecter, Solo-
mon and Kittmer (2003) combine the premises of community knowledge and rel-
evant curriculum to promote what they call community-engaged pedagogy where
teacher candidates collaborate with others in their practicum placements to develop
“community as curriculum” lessons and units. Gruenwald (2003) argues for critical
pedagogies of place,
embrac[ing] the link between the classroom and cultural politics …explicitly mak[ing]
the limits and simulations of the classroom problematic…insist[ing] that students and
teachers actually experience and interrogate the places outside of school—as part of
the school curriculum—that are the local context of shared cultural politics (p. 9).
Knowledge of educational contexts has also been listed within the general knowl-
edge base for all teachers but is rarely highlighted or it is understood to mean the
33
Judy Sharkey
school/schooling context and not the communities in which schools are located.
Shulman’s seven categories of teacher knowledge (1987) is the source of the oft-
cited “content knowledge” and “pedagogical content knowledge” in the teacher de-
velopment literature. He lists and then defines “knowledge of educational context”
as ranging from workings of the group or classroom, the governance and financing
of school districts, to the character of communities and cultures” (p. 8). Freeman
and Johnson (1998) argued for a reconceptualization of the knowledge base for sec-
ond language teachers that went beyond content to include the teacher as a learner
of teaching; the activities of language teaching and learning; and the social con-
texts of schools and schooling but they were referring to the sociohistorical context
of schools and schooling and not the specific geographical, physical locale of the
school. However, more recently, there have been calls for language curriculum and
teachers to acknowledge and integrate local knowledge. For example, as Canagara-
jah (2006) argues
Teachers in different communities have to devise curricula and pedagogies that have
local relevance. Teaching materials have to accommodate the values and needs of
diverse settings, with sufficient complexity granted to local knowledge. Curricu-
lum change cannot involve the top-down imposition of expertise from outside the
community but should be a ground up construction taking into account indigenous
resources and knowledge, with a sense of partnership between local and outside ex-
perts (p. 20).
In 2010 TESOL International Association and the National Council for American
Teacher Education (NCATE), the principal accrediting agency of college/university
based teacher education programs in the USA published standards for ESOL teacher
certification that included community knowledge and understanding. In the do-
mains of culture and planning, teacher candidates who exceed expectations, “design
classroom activities that enhance the connection between home and school culture
and language (p.41-42); … act as advocates to support students’ home culture and
heritage language”(p. 42); and “use students’ community and family to locate and
develop culturally appropriate materials”(p. 54).
Bolstering these calls to acknowledge and value students’ realities and worlds is
research that shows increased student engagement and motivation when curriculum
includes local knowledge and contexts (Sharkey et al., under review; McInerney,
Smith, & Brown, 2011; Sobel, 2004). In a recent qualitative inquiry in Bogotá, teach-
ers reported their community-based curriculum projects enhanced their relation-
34
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
ships with students and families (Sharkey, Clavijo Olarte & Ramirez, under review).
This is worth noting because, “relational engagement,” the extent to which students
feel connected to their teachers, peers, and others in their schools (Suárez-Orozco,
Suárez-Orozco, & Todorov, 2008) is linked to academic achievement and that this is
particularly important for adolescent im/migrants. Whether a student can identify
an adult in their school who knows them was an identified factor in their academic
success (ibid).
There are numerous calls for teachers to connect curriculum to students’ lives
and realities (e.g., Canagarajah, 2006; Haneda & Wells, 2010) but few examples of
how and where teachers initially learn to do this work (McDonald, Bowman, &
Brayko, 2013), particularly when their students’ backgrounds are so different from
their own. In this vein, I locate this work within what Cochran-Smith (2004) calls
teacher education as a project in social justice which acknowledges that our most
under-served student populations are typically those “least likely to have access to
educational opportunities congruent with their life experiences” (p. 6). However,
integral to this larger project is the recognition of teachers’ knowledge, practice
and perspectives as valuable contribution to the knowledge base and to educational
reform (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009).
This paper is the result of a qualitative inquiry using self-study methodology and
is based on the analysis of 40 teacher learner artifacts produced between 2010 and
2014 by in-service teachers and/or graduate students pursuing master degrees in
applied linguistics or education with a focus on teaching English to speakers of other
languages. The guiding question was, how do community investigations affect the
ways in which language teachers connect their students’ lives to their curriculum?
As mentioned earlier, self-study is a type of practitioner-inquiry undertaken by
teacher educators in an effort to understand how their individual practices enhance
or hinder the larger field of teacher education (Berry, 2007). It requires systematic
investigation and analysis of practice and explicit naming of assumptions and values
and how those shape actions and resultant teacher learner experiences (Cole &
Knowles, 1998). In the last ten years, self-study has gained significant international
momentum and recognition in general teacher education but it is still lacks visibility
in second language teacher education (Sharkey, under review). In a recent analysis of
the self-study literature, Vanassche and Keltchtermans (2015) state that the
35
Judy Sharkey
36
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
“I’m not so scared now. It’s diverse, that’s all”: Seeing the community through
new lenses
Before teachers can make curriculum relevant to their students’ lives they need
to learn about these contexts and realities. Anecdotally, the pre- and in-service
teachers I’ve worked with report learning about their students through in-class
37
Judy Sharkey
The Millville and Medellín students’ comments are typical in their naming of nega-
tive associations but then, they were also pleasantly surprised to find positive as-
pects and features of the places. They, as well as the majority of their participating
classmates and colleagues used the new awareness to generate and/or implement
curriculum ideas. Judy realized she was using her lens instead of her students when
generating examples in classrooms; Kathleen developed numerous, rich activities
including asking her English learners to investigate the histories of the apartment
buildings, knowing they had been home to multiple waves of immigrants over the
last century and a half; Janeth and Claudia identified three rich, interconnected areas
to explore: artistic expression, urban cultures and social issues.
38
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
39
Judy Sharkey
2 There were other options in the community investigation assignment. Safety concerns were taken very seriously.
40
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
the topography of the city; numerous small religious symbols and shrines in and
about storefronts, paths and small parks; pavement in need of repair; myriad small
businesses: stationery shops, carpentry, produce vendors; dogs, chickens, a cow; and
a rich variety of flora, “people take advantage of free spaces to grow trees” (Novem-
ber 2012, class presentation). But as Ana Cristina and Erika shared more of Wilson’s
words and interpretations of his world, the impact of the experience grew more pal-
pable. The student and teacher roles were reversed, the young student now in the role
of expert/cultural informant; the teachers interested learners. Wilson pointed out the
two best restaurants--two small places, one built around a utility pole, the other of
simple construction, plastic sheeting, mud and straw walls. Ana Cristina and Eri-
ka stopped to share an idea for curriculum, “We have these textbooks that always
ask students to make comparisons, for example, ‘Which is taller, the giraffe or the
elephant?’ Why can’t we use things like this –which restaurant is better? Why?”
Then, the tone became more ominous. Wilson had showed his street smarts, offering
the warning, “Teachers, don’t stare at that drug addict. He will hurt you” (presenta-
tion). The next picture on the power point slides featured a paved recreation area,
perhaps for fútbol, surrounded by a green area and with some wooden steps creating
a path up and over a hill. This is where the tour ended. The text accompanying this
photo on the power point slide read: “Up this hill, we are not allowed to cross. We
are strangers.” Wilson had not used the term “invisible borders” (Bustamante, 2014),
meaning the physically unmarked but known boundaries in the comunas with high
levels of drug trafficking and gang activity but this is what he was referring to when
he told his teachers that the group could go no further because he lacked permission
to bring outsiders into this part of the neighborhood. At the end of their walk, Wilson
said, “Teachers, now you see me.”
These words came in the final weeks of the school year and therefore resonated
even more deeply for all of us, because we strive for our students to feel that rec-
ognition early in the school year. Erika and Ana Cristina’s experience generated
admiration and respect for colleagues willing to share their fears yet still pursue a
critical inquiry. Moreover, it was a reminder to all of us that building supportive,
healthy relationships with our students that acknowledges and affirms their realities
sometimes requires us to step out of our comfort zones and really be with students
in their worlds. Here it is worth stating that teachers do not do this work alone. We
have trained colleagues in other disciplines—social work, mental health, commu-
nity planning and organizing, etc., that we can reach out to and help us gain entry
to students’ communities in more safe, supported ways. Ana Cristina and Erika’s
experience inspired me to invite more of these experts into my courses.
41
Judy Sharkey
“If we speak Spanish, why are there ads in English?”: Seeing the community as
language curriculum
The last two decades have seen an increased recognition of language as a situat-
ed, cultural practice (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Gee, 2012). So, as second language
teacher educators it is worth asking ourselves, how do we help teacher learners un-
derstand this perspective if not through asking them to investigate authentic lan-
guage use in context? Meaningful curriculum reflects students’ individual interests
and lives but it also needs to reflect authentic language. The community explorations
have helped teacher learners get outside of textbook examples –as seen by Erika and
Ana Cristina—and identify authentic target language use, purposes, functions in
students’ local communities. Curt, a novice in-service teacher of secondary English
noted how he could use a community investigation assignment to introduce students
to the concept of register,
students could literally walk from one location to another to see how language
changes depending upon context. The mother yelling at her kids on High Street,
for example, sounds different than [sic] the teacher asking her students to get out
their pencils or the homeless woman asking for change. Students could simply
record the words they hear in different settings and compare/contrast each (Sep-
tember, 2010).
Through their initial community exploration, Soledad and Paula, two in-service
teachers working at a university level language program for business students in
Medellín realized that there was an abundance of English used for commercial
purposes in the neighborhood surrounding their school. Their ideas for their students
included having them to a similar mapping activity and investigate the impact of the
use of English in signs and advertisements on businesses.
Curt, Soledad and Paula generated interesting possibilities for future assign-
ments. Two other Medellín teachers designed a unit (not yet taught) where students
would investigate the numerous foreign names of buildings and streets in their
neighborhood and link this to investigations on the intersection of names/naming
and identity — both individual and cultural.
Maribel, a secondary English language teacher at a public school in a socio-
economically depressed barrio in Bogotá and a lecturer in a graduate applied lin-
guistics program conducted a teacher inquiry project in her classroom in order to
deepen her understanding of community-based pedagogies. After participating in
a community-asset mapping exercise as part of a professional development semi-
42
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
nar, Maribel was inspired to have her students do a linguistic landscaping exercise
for the presence of English in area surrounding their school. Students took photo-
graphs of any examples of English they encountered and e-mailed them to Mari-
bel, who then created a powerpoint collection of the photos. She then facilitated a
large group discussion of the photos, asking students to share their thoughts and
generate their own inquiry into the use English in their locale. Danny posed, “If
we speak Spanish in Colombia, why are there ads in English?” (Maribel, Novem-
ber 2012). He assembled a variety of photographs of local businesses, some of im-
ported businesses and signs (e.g., the USA based sandwich shop, Subway) as well
as locally created signs (e.g., “La casa de brunch”). He interviewed storeowners
as to their use of English and presented his findings in a class presentation. His
findings—as well as those of his classmates—raised excellent, critical questions
regarding the positive and negative effects of the use of English in their communi-
ties, including foreign corporate appropriate of local spaces and displacement of
local brands to creative code-switching and Colombian appropriation of English.
In her reflection of the project, Maribel noted that it helped her “engage my stu-
dents in their English learning in a more authentic way” and “the students saw
their environment as a resource…the mapping was really motivating for them…it
showed up in the quality of their work and their reflections “ (Maribel, interview
November 2012).
Maribel’s individual documentation of increased student motivation and engage-
ment is consistent with other studies integrating community resources into school
curriculum (see e.g., McInerney et al., 2011; Sobel, 2004).
In the early stages of integrating community-based field assignments into our lan-
guage teacher education program, teacher learners expressed interest and episte-
mological affinity with the goals of this work but doubted they would be able to
develop and implement such curricula in schools mandating scripted curriculum
and/or specific objectives and standards (Sharkey et al, under review). In response to
this legitimate question, I began integrating specific standards into the community-
mapping activities (ibid). To be philosophically consistent, I couldn’t ask teachers
to recognize their students’ realities if I were not doing the same of my students. In
this case, that meant my doing community explorations of their teaching contexts
43
Judy Sharkey
and integrating their worlds into the teacher education courses and assignments. In
Colombia, we used identified standards and competencies from the Common Euro-
pean Frameworks and the Ministerio de Educación Nacional (2006). In the USA,
we used our appropriate state and national standards for English language learners.
Here, I share two examples.
As graduate students in my ESOL Curriculum course, Allison and Maribeth
partnered with an afterschool program in a primary school where more than half
of the students spoke languages other than English. Their community investiga-
tions strongly influenced the design of their curriculum project, “the multicultural
cooking club,” which met once a week for eight weeks with each session lasting two
hours. Maribeth and Allison’s professional goals for the project included learning
how to design standards based content instruction that was appropriately challeng-
ing for the varying language proficiency levels of students, affirmed students’ identi-
ties and used authentic materials and experiences, goals they felt unable to pursue
during the more scripted school day.
They began the unit by surveying students for their interests and knowledge
about foods from their homes and cultures and the new culture. They asked for
their help in creating bilingual materials for recipes and cooking demonstrations and
inviting students to share daily activities from their households that involved food
–from shopping to preparation. Then subsequent lessons were based on what they
collected from students but included a rich range of activities that addressed the four
modalities in meaningful ways: from reading local supermarket flyers, interview-
ing parents about food memories, following instructions for recipes and reading
multicultural literature connected to food. The culminating class featured students’
preparing a meal they selected and serving it to invited parents and family members.
The club was so successful that the director of after school program asked for a copy
of the curriculum as a model for future offerings.
Later in her graduate studies, and bolstered by her success with the cooking club,
Allison developed her graduate thesis project on the effects of authentic, communi-
ty-based literacy curriculum on student learning. She designed a teacher research
project investigating the level of student learning and engagement in the scripted,
de-contextualized textbook lessons on community and lessons using local knowl-
edge where her eight year old students did many of the community explorations
she did as teacher education student (Strobel, 2013). Not surprisingly, the students’
enjoyment and learning was increased using the local activities but they still met
the mandated standards. Allison’s project was a deeper illustration of Ana Cristina
and Erika’s remark regarding the textbook vs. local examples, “Why can’t we use
44
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
Conclusion
I began this chapter with two quotes emphasizing the importance of relevant,
meaningful curriculum and healthy, affirming teacher-student relationships in
45
Judy Sharkey
schools and schooling. These key principles are not new but have been impeded
by restrictive, subtractive educational policies and practices and societal issues
that have resulted in teachers serving students whose lives differ greatly from their
own. In response to these challenges, colleagues and I began advocating for and
integrating a variety of community-based experiences into our language teacher
education programs. Using self-study, I have analyzed the effects of this work,
attending to participants’ experiences and revising assignments to better meet their
needs and challenges. The examples shared here framed as findings, indicate that
integrating community knowledge and engagement in teacher education—across the
career span—from introductory courses to sustained professional development with
veteran teachers is a powerful, effective response to de-humanizing curriculum and
schooling. The voices, work and experiences of English language teachers, working
in the very different contexts of Colombia and the United States are illustrative but
not exhaustive examples of rich teacher learning across multiple categories: seeing
communities in new ways, seeing students in new ways, the community as language
curriculum, and honoring local knowledge while still meeting curriculum mandates.
The examples here are promising and contribute to the knowledge base on how and
where second language teachers learn to develop meaningful curriculum, especially
in challenging educational and social contexts. However, we must continue to engage
teachers in this work, to honor their experiences and concerns as they meet these
challenges and more importantly, begin to link this work to the effect on student
learning in more rigorous ways.
References
46
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
47
Judy Sharkey
Kretzmann, J. & McKnight, J. (1993). Building communities from the inside out:
A path toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. Evanston, IL:
Institute for Policy Research.
Kumashiro, K. (2009). Against common sense: Teaching and learning toward
social justice. Revised edition. New York: Routledge.
Loughran, J. (2007). Researching teacher education practices: Responding to the
challenges, demands and expectations of self-study. Journal of Teacher Edu-
cation, 58 (1), pp. 12-20.
Marshall, E. & Toohey, K. (2010). Representing family: Community funds of
knowledge, bilingualism, and multimodality. Harvard Educational Review,
80 (2), pp. 221-241.
McDonald, M.A., Bowman, M., & Brayko, D. (2013). Learning to see students: Op-
portunities to develop relational practices of teaching through community-based
placements in teacher education. Teachers College Record, 115 (4), pp. 1-17.
McInerney,P., Smyth, J., & Brown, D. (2011). ‘Coming to a place near you?’
The politics and possibilities of a critical pedagogy of place-based education,
Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39 (1), pp. 3-16.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. (2006). Estándares básicos de competencias
en lenguas extranjeras: Inglés. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional.
Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & González, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge
for teaching: a qualitative approach to connect households and classrooms.
Theory into Practice, 31(2), pp. 132-141.
Murrell, P. (2001). The community teacher: A new framework for effective urban
teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
Palacios, R. A. (2013). Desplazados en Bogotá van por sus tierras. El Espectador.
Retrieved from [Link]
bogota-van-sus-tierras-articulo-438602
Pestalozzi, H. (2007/1801). How Gertrude teaches her children. New York: The
Philosophical Library.
Perron, W. [Wendy Nassar-Perron]. (2011, October 27). EDUC 500: Community
inquiry [Video file]. Retrieved from [Link]
Schecter, S., Solomon, P., & Kittmer, L. (2003). Integrating teacher education in
a community-situated school agenda. In Schecter & Cummins (Eds.). Mul-
tilingual education in practice: Using diversity as a resource. (pp. 81-89).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Sharkey, J. (2012). Community-based pedagogies and literacies in language
teacher education: Promising beginnings, intriguing challenges. Íkala, revista
de lenguaje y cultura, 17 (1), pp. 5-9.
Sharkey, J. (manuscript submitted for publication). Self-study in second language
teacher education practices: Fostering critical praxis among and with teacher
educators.
Sharkey, J. & Clavijo Olarte, A. (2012a). Promoting the value of local knowledge
in ESL/EFL teacher education through community-based fieldwork. Práticas
48
The role of community explorations in developing meaningful curriculum
49
Collaborative writing process
through an e-portfolio
Lorena López Cupita
Universidad de Cundinamarca, Colombia
Introduction
51
Lorena López Cupita
worked collaboratively, and especially when compared to the time it took students
to write on an individual basis. Other studies, such as the one developed by Mitchell
(2007), have also inquired about the involvement of students in collaborative writing
projects. It is possible to assert that not all students participate in the same way as
they develop their texts. Accordingly, Swain (1994) stated that collaborative writing
increased motivation among participants who showed more interest in writing when
they worked in groups rather than when they were alone. Thus, collaborative writing
has had some positive results in the development of writing skills. In this sense,
this methodology of collaborative writing was selected for this study, taking into
consideration the aforementioned experiences in various academic settings.
This study was done with a group of teenage beginner English learners. They had
studied together for two years and were in the process of getting their first English
certification, the Key English Test (KET-University of Cambridge). According
to the needs analysis of their written works, they needed to improve in writing,
especially in organization and coherence of ideas. During the lessons carried out
prior-to the development of the study, students worked together on oral activities,
but rarely worked in groups on writing tasks. Writing was instead a skill worked
on at home and in an isolated way. Hence, collaborative writing was selected as a
possible alternative to help learners improve their writing skills. Based on previous
studies, the researcher believed collaborative learning could be a good option for the
participants of this study, when students worked together they had the possibility of
interacting with others. As a result, learners could help each other in the development
of their written skills and be able to accommodate their own learning gains. This
method seemed particularly beneficial for the participants of this study.
This study is pertinent given that it is connected to the Colombian national
policies of education. According to the Colombian Plan Nacional Decenal de Edu-
cación (2006-2016), one of the main purposes for the coming years is to promote
pedagogical renovations using ICT in education. Today, with the availability of
new technological sources such as Web 2.0, it is feasible to try new alternatives
for teaching and learning in order to innovate and generate positive changes in the
educational field. In this study, this was done through the tool of e-portfolios. This
technological tool allowed learners to track and observe their own writing process
and as a result, they took actions on behalf of their own learning process. Students
explored a new way of learning that perhaps could help them in the development
of their written skills.
52
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
Writing has been studied from different perspectives and analyzed by different
approaches, including the product approach and the process approach. The product
approach is a linear oriented method which is related to linguistic knowledge
about the appropriate use of language, and the development of writing is a result
of imitating texts provided by the teacher (Badger & White, 2000). In the 1980s,
the process approach began to emerge and develop significantly; it was described
in terms of: “the task environment, which included the writing assignment and the
text produced so far, the writer’s long memory, including knowledge of the topic,
knowledge of the audience, and stored writing plans, and a number of cognitive
process, including planning, translating thought into text and revising” (Hayes and
Flower, 1980, p. 89).
In the 1990s, the process approach was revised by some authors. Hayes (1996)
incorporated two major components: the task environment that included a social
component, the audience, and a physical component, motivation and affect, cogni-
tive process, working memory, and long term memory: Hayes mentioned motivation
in the writing process as an important element to take into account. In some research
studies, it has been observed the importance of motivation in the process of writing.
Ariza (2005) conducted a qualitative research study with a group of ninth graders in
53
Lorena López Cupita
a public school in order to improve their writing skills. The researcher used the pro-
cess-oriented approach in order to develop students’ skills. The findings of the study
indicated that students felt motivated towards writing; nevertheless, the researcher
found that writing was hard for her pupils due to the fact that they were not involved
in the practice of this skill. They sometimes expected activities in which they had
to follow patterns as they did before. Melgarejo (2009) carried out a qualitative re-
search study in order to observe children´s perceptions of writing in EFL based on
the writing approach. The results of this study indicated that students felt motivated
to write and they became more aware of their writing practices. In regards to this
study, students felt motivated and they did not give up when they found obstacles
during the process of writing.
On the other hand, according to White and Arndt (1996), Bayham (1995), and
Hyland (2002), the process approach is not a linear process; it is cyclical. This cy-
clical process involves not only the act of writing itself, but also prewriting and
rewriting stages, which are interdependent of each other. In this sense, the writing
approach allows the writer to reformulate their ideas through revising their own
texts. Such cyclical process is imperative, not only because it allows revising the
written texts, but also because it is an opportunity to create a dialog with and among
students, which constitutes a way for the teacher and their peers to follow-up the
process effectively. O’Brein (2004) states that the process approach is a way to dis-
cover meaning rather than a way of developing grammar exercises. Teachers can
help students travel around their thoughts through the following steps: pre-writing,
first draft composing, feedback, second draft writing, and proofreading. In agree-
ment with O’Brein, the process approach is a form to discover meaning. During the
process approach the writer has the possibility of reading and revisiting his/her ideas
and also his/her peers’ thoughts. This study also concurred with such findings, since
in this study, the writer was able to discover his/her own and peers‘ ideas and further
incorporate them in the texts produced.
Collaborative writing
54
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
which writers look for areas and share understandings. Lowrry (2004) defined
collaborative writing as an interactive and social process that envolves a team focused
on a common objective that negotiates, coordinates, and communicates during the
creation of a common document. In this sense, collaborative writing goes beyond
the basic act of a joint composition and includes a process in which participants work
together through a social process in which learners negotiate ideas in order to reach
agreements and strategies so they can elaborate their writings.
e- Portfolios
Type of study
This study was developed through qualitative action research approach. Qualitative
methodology is described as “a study in which the researchers do not set out to test
an hypothesis, but rather to observe what is present with their focus, and conse-
quently with the data, free to vary during the course of the observation” ( Freeman,
1993, p. 11). In this sense, qualitative methodology fits into this research because,
this study aimed at answering the following question: How do A1 English teenage
learners develop their collaborative expository writing process through e-portfolios?
Rather than testing any hypothesis.
55
Lorena López Cupita
This research was carried out at ILUD which is the institute of languages at Uni-
versidad Distrital. The institute was created in 2001. The vision of the institute fo-
cuses on providing an academic space for the city where the citizens recognize their
human potential in order to reach meaningful changes in their familiar and social
contexts. At this moment, the Institute offers different languages such as English,
Chinese, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Spanish for speakers of other languages.
This study was carried out with a group of ten teenagers who were in a begin-
ner level. They had studied at ILUD, for two years and they used a textbook. The
criterion for selecting the participants in this study was convenience sampling. It is
based on :” whoever is available or whoever volunteers to participate in the study”
(Maxwell,1999, p. 32). This criterion for selection was selected because it was be-
lieved that having volunteer students, they could collaborate actively in the process
of this research.
The instruments to collect data, in this study were students’ samples (artefacts) and
audio recordings. These instruments were selected due to the fact that this project
focused on analysing and describing the development of collaborative writing pro-
cess through e-portfolios; so these elements were suitable for this study because they
allowed the researcher to gather information to later describe it and analyse it.
The data analysis of this project is based on the Grounded Theory approach which
refers to a theory derived inductively from data, systematically gathered and ana-
lyzed through a research process to discover categories, concepts and properties and
their interrelationships (Strauss & Corbin,2008). After a long journey of systematic
analysis, the researcher came out with two main categories: Communities of prac-
tice and negotiation of meaning. In the following lines there will be a detail descrip-
tion about them.
56
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
At the beginning of the writing process students needed some information about the
topic that they selected. The teacher guided learners to find some educational web-
57
Lorena López Cupita
sites and videos, so they could explore, examine and reflect upon the topic that they
selected. Learners read some written documents and observed some audio visual
[Link], they synthesized and shared the knowledge that they acquired from
the texts, by working in their groups and synthesizing information in their e–portfo-
lios, as it is illustrated in the following excerpt:
Says
In the world the 15% of births are
a moms under 20 years this cases
aument with the passage of time.
Says
How: The experts affirm that the main causes of this
problem are the raise of poblation and the drought
because this kid of countries are mostly dry!!!
58
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
In this study, students acquired knowledge throughout all the stages of the writing
process. They looked for information inside and outside class time, in order to
document and better support their texts. This new knowledge was integrated by the
participants through the use of their e-portfolios; as it is ilustrated in the following
samples:
Comments
Rosas said… (22 Oct 11, looking at version 2)
I agrre, Many studies and campaigns have attempted to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of
teenage pregnancies. In my daily live I have seen to gils pregnancy they have had to leave school for her
pregnancy and many privileges. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. Recent studies,
Participant 6,
though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming
Inclusion of new
pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers.
information
In my school a girl was in grade 9th, she stay pregnancy, she leaves the school and she assumes the
responsibility and that mistake that they had, in the momnent of she have the baby she had complicates in
Group 2, E-portfolio excerpt. Participant 6, Ocotber 11th, 2011
As the sample indicates, participant 6 looked for information in regards to the topic
of pregnancy in teenagers. This participant invested time from her classtime to
complete this task. During classtime, she presented this information through the
discussion board to her group; later, this information was included in the text that the
group was developing. Then, the information was accepted by the other members of
the group, as is highlighted in the following excerpt:
59
Lorena López Cupita
Little mothers
PREGNANCY
The world have a big problem with the teenagers, today we don’t think in our actions and when we reaction
and see that we have many problems in our life affect your economic situation in some cases and in many
case don’t have solutions, one example can be the pregnancy in the teenagers.
our propouse today is make a invitation for help to this problem decrease in the world and help the
teenagers a To know about contraceptive methods and how to use for the reason we think that a
solutions will be to look in advance is say use anticonceptives (condon, pills, the T, inyections etc…).
other solutions is a campain about pregnancy we think that the people will be more responsabilities and
so understand the consecuens that they have at the moment of remain pregnancy and this campaign will
not only be in words but they will help the future for an not become pregnant.
Many studies and campaigns have attempted to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage
pregnancies. In my daily live I have seen to gils pregnancy they have had to leave school for her
pregnancy and many privileges. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. Recent studies,
though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming
pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers.
In my school a girl was in grade 9th, she stay pregnancy, she leaves the school and she assumes the
responsibility and that mistake that they had, in the momnent of she have the baby she had complicates in
the give bith.
Through the learners’ engagement, they began to negotiate their ideas. In the
previous sample, participant 6 first presented the information to her group and her
arguments were accepted and added in the second draft of the group’s expository
text. According to Lave (1998), engagement relies on the actions that members are
involved in and on the meanings they negotiate with one another. In this light, through
their engagement, students were able to present, read and accept others’ ideas by
getting to negotiate them. Besides,engagement opened a possibility for learners to
promote an active participation by all group members, who were inclined to improve
their texts as new arguments and information was [Link] is illustrated in the
following sample:
60
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
STARVATION IN AFRICA
Africa has many problems. They are so complicated that we want to center in children starvation, specially
in poor countries like Somalia and Congo. This problem starts in the moment that a kid born in Africa
because there aren´t enought resources to keep the poblation.
More than 300 millions of people are living with one dollar by day, 30 millions of children suffer of
starvation and 43% to the poblation but also
dont have water.
We can solve this problem with different actions, the first one could be make green campaings because the
African earth by miners with products like the diamonds and the gold as we can see in many tv
Group 1. E-portfolio excerpt. Participant 3, October 11th, 2011
Students come to class with a wide range of prior knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes
that have surrounded their lives. This prior knowledge could be formed by natural
curiosity about life and experiences in life. In this study, learners shared their personal
experiences through the social interactions that emerged along the collaborative
writing process. These social interactions emerged when students interacted face
to face at the beginning of each session, and also, when they were writing their
expository texts through their e- [Link] social interactions were key in the
61
Lorena López Cupita
process of expanding the previous knowledge that each student had; it was through
these interactions that students created dialog circles in which they connected with
and were fully engaged in, with the main purpose of providing ideas to continuously
develop and improve their [Link] following excerpt illustrates such situation:
As participant 4 stated his personal experience, his ideas were accepted by the
others members of the group and later were also refined. Group members started
to participate in order to shape the first idea up. Thus, the previous knowledge of
participant 4 generated engagement in the group given that his peers felt encouraged
to participate and elaborate the text. Initial learner’s knowledge was used to produce
new knowledge which was integrated in the group´s expository text, as it is illustrated
in the following sample:
We can solve this problem with different actions, the first one could be make green campaings because
the African earth by miners with products like the diamonds and the gold as we can see in many tv pro-
grammes, magazines, newspapers and in movies like “Diamante de Sangre” where the big industries and
companies use the awesome African resources to their own necessities causing that the poblation can’t
plant plants for their food. The other Africa because there will be more interest in their necesities.
Other important solution that have already put is “camote” produced in Peru. Camote is a type of fruit
made to fight child starvation.
If all the world were more interested in african, problems they would have a better life condition.
Here in Colombia we can make campaigns to colaborate with this problem as giving donations and
colecting food and send them.
That is our (ilegible)
62
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
knowledge did not come from only one group member, but instead, was produced by
the whole group, and was generated and agreed upon the interactions that emerged
in the group. In short, all learners have a store of previous knowledge, they are not
empty pitchers that need to be filled up (Freire, 1970), and the previous knowledge
that they have is a powerful source to build knowledge, based on what they have
already known. In this study, collaborative writing led students to explore their
previous knowledge, integrate and share it with their peers in order to elaborate,
and adequately support their texts while they learn from each other.
In this study, participants created changes in their writings in order to develop their
expository texts. Several times they included new information to their writings by
interacting with their peers based on mutual agreements. The following sample
illustrates how students negotiated ideas in order to reach a possible solution towards
the problem of pregnancy.
63
Lorena López Cupita
7: yo sé, eso de las campañas nunca terminan en nada, eso es sólo hablar paja y ya, y que hacer algo más
al respecto que no sean sólo campañas
6: bueno, entonces cual es la solución
8: sí
7: puede que las campañas ayuden, pero no todos van a recibir de la misma manera, si hacer una solución
que les afecte y les ayude
6: lo único sería como colocar ejemplos como de las otras personas para que no lo vuelvan hacer, digamos
como están sufriendo
7: ahorita, en noviembre Mónica va tener el bebe y ella tiene 14 años, es una niña del colegio.
6: pero mire que la mía ya lo tuvo y está remal por que se agravó de salud
7: y ella ahorita ya no puede salir de la casa, yo que día la fui a visitar y yo eh.
6: entonces,
8: entonces, también ellas por medio de ejemplos se den cuenta
6: eso fue lo mismo que yo dije no (risas)
8: for this reason we believe
64
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
In the previous excerpt, students were working on the conclusion of their expository
text and they did not know how to organize it. As participant 9 suggested to present
the final results of the problem of traffic in Bogotá, the other members agreed with
him and they started providing ideas which were further integrated by particpant
10. As a result they joined their opinions based on their interaction and they could
also start with the co-construction of their own knowledge. In this sense, the dialog
created by participants allowed them to create new ideas and reach functional agree-
ments in order to develop their texts.
65
Lorena López Cupita
Comments
said… (22 Oct 11, looking at version 1)
yes in Africa there are problem but also around the world
said… (22 Oct 11, looking at version 1)
I agree because the article is about all the problematic but it is very GENERAL… you can add more
specific information, for example when started all the problem about starvation, how have survived the
african poblation to this problem, and more causes of this problem…
said… (22 Oct 11, looking at version 1)
I agree with this point of view because Africa has so many problems that is important to center in Starvation. I will
add some arguments about why this people are in that condition and also why the children are more affected. ;)
The previous excerpt shows how students reflected upon their own writing after
receiving feedback from the teacher. Participants started planning their own strate-
gies in order to improve their texts. They suggested some specific actions to other
members of the group and in the next stage of the writing it was evident that these
observations were taken into account.
Second draft
STARVATION IN AFRICA
Africa has many problems. They are so biggest and complicated that we want to center in children starvation
and in their dead, specially in poor countries like Somalia and Congo. This problem starts in the moment that a
kid born and the mother can not feed in Africa because there aren´t enough resources to keep the population
and Africa is known that there are no resources to survive those no longer has
a place to live.
Group, 1, October 29th, 2011.
This students’ expository text presented more support and it was better organized
than its previous version. It is noticeable how students took into account their own
reflections to better improve it. For instance, they declared the reasons why there
was starvation in Africa, and consequently they developed their arguments in a
better [Link] -monitoring allowed learners to be aware and reflect on their own
learning. Students took responsibilities for their own learning by becoming autono-
mous and by taking actions in order to improve their own writings. For example, at
the beginning of each session students met and decided the steps that they had to
follow during the class session. Afterwards, they decided to organize the strategies
the group would follow in order to reach their goal, and they started by establishing
their own agendas as shown in the following excerpts:
66
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
Comments
said… 29 Oct 11, looking at version 3)
laura you have to foc up the first paragraph ((the grammar, spelling and capital letter)) there are your
work and see the conduction if we have foc up and say me please!!
thanks you
WORK!!
aid…(29 Oct 11, looking version 2)
yurani: you have that see of second paragraph (grammar, capital letter and spelling) there are you work
Group 3. Participants 8 and 9. October 29th, 2011
In the former excerpts, learners engaged in a dialog that induced them to create an
agenda that enabled them to take actions to improve their writings. As students had
a clear objective for their class session, such goal setting motivated them to organize
and regulate their own learning pathways. Social interaction emerged among stu-
dents when they interacted in class,and also through the disscussion board. These
interactions allowed learners to expand their thoughts and actions related to com-
munication, reflection and argumentation processes.
Conclusions
The aim of this study was to explore A1 teenage English learners’ development
of collaborative writing process in e-portfolios. The results of this study indicated
that students developed their expository texts by creating communities of practice
and negotiating meaning in groups. The identified communities of practice in the
67
Lorena López Cupita
frame of the present study allowed learners to share similar interests and writing
objectives. This resulted in active engagement among participants, as learners felt a
strong connection with the topic and developed a significant degree of involvement
with the members of the groups. It was also an opportunity to be open-minded,
tolerant, and critical towards their own learning process.
These communities of practice were consolidated during the writing process
due to interactions that emerged among the participants. It was observed that with
these interactions learners provided ideas to their groups that helped them overcome
their deficiencies in the writing process. At other times, the interaction appeared
through their e-portfolios and engagement and commitment for their writing pro-
cess could be observed. Therefore, according to this study, the success of collabora-
tive writing was related to the social interactions that emerged among participants.
Hence, providing time and spaces allowed participants to interact and helped them
become active learners of their own writing process. On the other hand, the nego-
tiation of meaning was an important factor in the development of students’ writing
process. At the beginning of each session, students received guidelines in which the
importance of listening to all the members of the group was stressed. As a result,
students created dialog circles in which they were able to establish agreements to
self-regulate their own writing process. It allowed participants to be aware of their
own writing process and consequently, they were able to formulate their own strate-
gies in order to overcome difficulties in their expository writing process. Learners’
negotiation of meaning led students to control their leaning practices according to
their own necessities.
In short, collaborative writing was beneficial for the group of students of this
study. They had the opportunity to learn together through communites of practices
they formed, allowing them to interact and share the knowledge each of them had.
They learned to negotiate meaning among themselves. This was a process in which
the given parameters helped them realize they needed to listen to their peers. As a
result, they were able to reach agreements and self-regulated their own writing pro-
cess. Thus, they could recognize their own inadequacies and take actions towards
alleviating them.
68
Collaborative writing process through an e-portfolio
References
69
Lorena López Cupita
70
Engaging EFL learners at the
college level through
community – based pedagogy
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Universidad Santo Tomás, Colombia
Introduction
Taking into account that the abilities of writing and reading are specific domains
that should be guided and trained, (Beafourt, 2007), the purpose of this study
looked at integrating learners´ community environments into the EFL classroom
setting in order to connect students´ lives to real life situations. It is based on
the enhancement of the learner’s involvement with the community they belong
to make them aware of real purposes for using the language they learn at college.
This study also described how the social issues the EFL learners explored, at the
time of the pedagogical implementation, served as a means to analyze literacy
development in regards to types of texts pertinent to their fields of knowledge at
the college level.
The study was conducted at a private university in Bogota through the develop-
ment of a reading and writing project proposed as part of the curriculum for students
at the undergraduate levels taking English as a requirement to graduate. There was
a need at the language institute at the university to construct a pedagogical strategy
to start literacy development in EFL for undergraduate learners at USTA, due to
the fact, that learners there were in need of an assertive pedagogy that allows them
to connect their EFL class with the necessities and requirements of their fields of
knowledge in relation to meaningful literacy practices.
I will first explain the problem and the needs analysis process followed to con-
firm the initial concerns for this study. The main research question and sub-ques-
tion underpinning this study are presented as a means of clarifying why the kind
of innovation presented here is favorable for the academic community as a whole.
Then, I will present a review of conceptual and practical foundations for this study.
71
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Subsequently, I will talk about the instructional platform and the methodology im-
plemented in this work. Finally, I will carefully describe the findings presented in
the categories constructed through the data analysis process to answer the research
questions posed and the conclusions derived from this study.
Santo Tomas University, (PEI, 2004), states that one of the goals of the university
and all its schools is “The mission of Santo Tomas University, inspired by the think-
ing of Christian humanist Saint Thomas Aquinas, consists of promoting the training
of people in the field of higher education, through actions and processes of teaching
and learning, in all areas, to respond in an ethical, creative and critical way to the
requirements of human life and be in a position to provide solutions to the problems
and needs of the society and the country through social action. In this way, Santo
Tomas University aims to become an entity of social contribution that promotes tak-
ing action on local issues in communities that have most urgent needs of all kinds
to be solved”(p. 15).
For that reason, Santo Tomas University is aiming at becoming one of those
higher education institutions willing to serve to society starting by identifying and
providing proper solutions to social inequalities in communities through the profes-
sionals that come to study and prepare for life in this institution of higher education
in Colombia.
The researcher of this study works as an EFL teacher for undergraduate learners
who live in Cundinamarca, Colombia and are registered at different undergraduate
programs at Universidad Santo Tomas. As mentioned above, the teacher researcher
works at the language institute at the university, where one of the interests and aims
of the foreign language teaching project is to teach a foreign language in order to
help learners become active leaders who are willing to serve the community they are
part of. However, if we reflect upon the reality, we might find that to reach such an
aim, in relation to the development of English as a foreign language at the different
undergraduate programs at Universidad Santo Tomas, assertive pedagogies in EFL
were needed to allow the learners to develop coherent literacy practices meaning-
ful to their realities, fields of knowledge and needs. That is why, the core of this
study was to dig into the components of a pedagogical proposal that considers each
learners´ priorities in order to base the EFL curriculum on individual learners and
their specific domains´ needs. This leads to increased independence and autonomy
72
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
in learners’ academic background, lives, and community. This is the core of the
community-based pedagogy approach.
I started to collect relevant evidence (surveys, written samples, and field notes).
I looked at students’ comments from a previous survey in order to review their ini-
tial concerns. The results indicated that students needed to receive guidance to bet-
ter perform on their specific domains in relation to the type of academic texts their
specific domains require from them, which are a lot different from one program
to another. For instance, a student from the law faculty was more willing to need
guidance on the issue of writing complaint law petitions and letters than a student
from the sports faculty who shows more interest on learning on writing health and
proficiency reports (See Appendix 1: Needs Analysis Format).
Based on these insights, I concluded that the reading and writing project offered
in the current curriculum, for students at the different undergraduate programs at
USTA, was inappropriate because it was designed without taking into account stu-
dents real communicative needs. They were not seeing real purposes for taking the
English class. Therefore, I decided to design a proposal for a reading and writing
project that reflected learners´ lives and needs that could provide learners with op-
portunities to develop multiple illiteracies, in which their realities were central and
meaningful, while fostering their EFL skills.
Research question
Framed in this particular context, I decided to pose the following research question:
How can integrating the community-based pedagogy along with EFL instruction
contribute to developing meaningful literacy practices in the EFL curriculum at
USTA?
Sub-question
As a second concern, this study looked into finding: How do students at the un-
dergraduate programs at USTA participate in the implementation of a class project
guided by the community-based approach? What kind of literacies do they produce
that impact their particular academic curriculum?
73
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Theoretical framework
The community-based approach and the role of the teacher
One of the main interests for doing this study was derived from the need to conceive
of a more humanized curriculum that better suited the necessities of the learners at the
University along with the university policies (PEI, 2004). The community-based in-
struction approach (Murrel, 2001) aims at preparing teachers to become community
mentors willing to transform their didactics in their classroom in order to make learners
see their own life experiences as valuable and acceptable knowledge to foster learning.
The intention to carry out this study was then to contribute to the development of
appealing literacy practices that involve EFL learners in addressing real life social
issues and providing them with pertinent communicative purposes, concerning their
interests and aims.
In accordance with Freire (1985), Murrel (2001) also invites us to get learners
involved in learning practices that make them find connections with the world
outside, their family context, and their own perceptions in order for the EFL class
to be a space for students to critically assess social issues more pertinent to their
realities, in accordance with their academic context. Moreover, Freire (1985),
states that education in general must be a way to transform peoples´ realities
by empowering them to critically assess their own worlds. Bloome and Willet
(1991) explain that only by making an individual part of a sociocultural group
and engaging him or her in the sociocultural practices of the group, will language
learning, gradually, take place.
with regard to topical, and genre cues, and the knowledge-transforming model,
which involves more reflective problem-solving analysis and goal-setting.
Both the Flower and Hayes, and the Bereiter and Scardamalia writing process
models have served this study as the theoretical basis for using this process approach
to L2 writing instruction in my EFL context. By incorporating pre-writing activities
such brainstorming, choice of meaningful topics, strategy instruction in the stages
of composing, drafting, revising, and editing, multiple drafts and peer-group editing,
the approach then takes into consideration what writers do as they write. This
perspective to writing instruction in an L2 made me reflect upon the necessities of
my own learners and my own teaching context.
Research carried out to promote the integration of linguistic and cultural sources
from the community and the classroom practice undertaken with the participation
of that community (Moll & Ammanti, 2001) revealed that learners used something
called “Funds of Knowledge” to build upon literacies and language learning.
Funds of knowledge are considered “to be essentially present in the nature
of social acts (family practices, social networks, cultural customs, e.g.) and the
exchange of knowledge that fluctuates in those social practices” (Moll & Ammanti,
2001, p. 189). For instance, the researchers described the profiles of different
families from these communities. Each family showed to be literate about a specific
area, most in relation to the family economy, like a family business (e.g. informal
economical activities) or a cultural ritual (e.g. first communion). The fundamental
knowledge required for these practices is only learnt through social interaction
in the community and in family and cultural contexts. This research perspective
called my attention in relation to the value of the linguistic and cultural resources
that are available in every single neighborhood in Bogota (where my students live
and interact everyday), and the issues happening around those places in order to
connect this knowledge of the community into the language curriculum.
During my experience while doing this action research study, I could realize
that I was wrongly assuming that all my learners were supposed to develop all same
literacies in the EFL class. For example, students at the Law faculty were aware
about the political issues happening in our country (e.g. the 8000 process, issues
concerning Petro´s politics) than students at the theology faculty who were more
75
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
interested on social issues from their communities, such as social campaigns for
homeless people in Bogota. The concept of funds of knowledge proposed by the
results of Moll et al research provided this study with useful insights in regards to
the importance of integrating knowledge from the community where learners live, to
their academic life experiences and expectations, in order to guide my own teaching.
This research perspective also made me realized that schools need to work with the
community and promote teachers willing to be more than “knowledge instructors” to
develop a curriculum that fits students´ real needs; not just foreign language needs,
but also academic and social ones.
Although the topic of writing can be seen from different perspectives, I prefer to
relate it following authors like Berlin (2004), Freebody (2008), and Street (2003).
For instance, Street (2003), promotes literacy practices “as a way to make peoples’
voice heard” (p. 75). He makes reference to the importance of undertaking literacy
practices in the language classroom as a way to make people understand, interpret,
and relate to the world and their own realities. In other words, these authors see
writing instruction in the classroom context as an opportunity for learners to state
their own positions, which implies taking learners through a process of decision-
making. According to Beafurt (2007), pupils will not manage and deal with writing
strategies and new knowledge situations unless they have an understanding of both
the need to do so and the method of how to do so. By this, the author means that
learners should be guided and trained throughout the process of writing every time
they have to face up a new different situated context. This is a process that will never
end and the final outcome will be to make learners understand that through writing
they are able to prove their understandings and positions about their world, every
single time they are facing a new knowledge situation or specific domain subject.
In other words, writing practices in EFL are intended to be undertaken as an
opportunity for learners to grow in the field of academic knowledge by allowing
them to express freely and coherently their opinions about their community and
their lives. Also, throughout the act of writing learners become aware that literacy
practices are not developed as isolated topics. That is the reason why, tutoring on
writing techniques are not expected to be magisterial classes on writing just iso-
lated paragraphs. This text is then conceived, in order to make learners conscious
of the fact that their written texts are taking place in a time, at a place, and with a
76
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
Methodology
The proposal is basically organized through the form of a writing plan that is delivered
to students the first day, along with the program for the class. It follows nine stages:
Table 1. Design of the Methodology
77
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
78
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
79
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
80
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
The data for this study were collected from class observations, surveys, research
participants’ written artifacts, and audio-recordings. Each source of data is de-
scribed in detail below. The data from the four different sources were triangulated
and categories were constructed during the data analysis process.
81
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Class observations
I used field notes from class observations to provide this study with an account of a
descriptive text that emerged from my previous observations as a researcher. This
instrument also allowed me to reflect upon the setting, actions, and events based on
the observations and interviews of the students during the pedagogical intervention
stage that took place in 6 out of 12 sessions.
Taking into account that this study was underpinning by the action research ap-
proach (Burns, 1999), class observations provided a detailed and valuable field note
data that allowed the teacher researcher to better understand the situation. Another
advantage of using this type of research instrument was the possibility it gave the
teacher-researcher to become an observer of the setting. Moreover, at times I was
required to include details on aspects of particular interest, such as the activities,
comments, actions, and reactions of the learners.
Students’ artifacts
Audio-recordings
Audio-recordings are one way to foster research participants’ reflective attitude to-
ward their own learning processes. For instance, during this study, two sessions
were conducted with audio-recordings. A format was designed for them that basi-
cally contained information for the sessions: the topic, activity, student interventions
and teacher interventions. They were very useful because they guided the interpreta-
tion of student’s artifacts by having them interacting and commenting on their own
82
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
works and on their peer works. They also provided assertive insights to modify the
teaching practice during the pedagogical intervention stage after they read the tape
scripts of their audio recordings, they made a reflection on things to change on their
papers and how to re-write their ideas, to make themselves understood through their
papers. For instance, it allowed me to realize about the importance of having them
peer-editing their papers during class time. So, I decided to change the peer-editing
stage. It was first designed to be made at home but after revising one of the audio
recording sessions (Step 4 Plenary session), I decided to take into account most of
my student’s suggestions and include the peer-feedback stage in class.
For data analysis, this descriptive study focused on the view of learning as an
experiential one carried out by students and integrated in their literacies. Therefore,
at each stage samples of their writings, audio and video recordings about their
projects were analyzed.
I collected and analyzed 25 student texts. Coding was oriented by the color cod-
ing technique allowing refining initial patterns found. The color-coding technique,
Auerbach and Silverstain (2003), helps the researcher to decide on what should be
named as initial patterns, similar patterns and relevant patterns, “From the start of
data collection, the qualitative analyst is beginning to decide (doing coding proce-
dures e.g. color coding) what things mean regularities, similar patterns, relevant
text, explanations or possible configurations” (pp. 46-49). Color-coding techniques
were used to help in the process of analyzing and identifying which initial patterns
were relevant in relation to students processes not only in regards to their EFL de-
velopment, but also in their academic project expectations construction. As follows,
the categories found are described:
83
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Having students researching and organizing a speech about a topic of their interest
has made them aware of the social problems of their daily context; their neighbor-
hoods, know their community leaders; and investigate how, from their professions
and their own speeches, can they provide in resolving these situations (see Appen-
dix 2). The previous category allowed this research to identify how students made
reference to problems they already identified around them. The participants started
thinking about concerns and situations they would like to change in their communi-
ties. Also, this category exemplified the fact that by implementing such activities
followed by the community-based pedagogy, moved students not only to identify
situations or issues in their communities, but also moved them to start proposing
solutions to manage these situations from their academic backgrounds.
It was also found that by implementing this pedagogical approach to EFL learning,
students found a significant purpose by applying what they do in the EFL classroom
to their academic fields. The purpose was to encourage students to learn by doing,
while being exposed to the orientation in EFL. This activates the awareness of their
own learning processes in EFL due to the fact that they are encouraged to use lan-
guage for communication, and subsequently, instructed in skills to communicate in
the target language (Johnson, 2003). Therefore, the result of the descriptive process
of this application in the EFL classroom, evidenced that curricula and content based
learning of each of the different academic disciplines (law, engineering, medicine,
etc. ...) cannot be detached from what happens in the EFL classroom. Pennac (2003),
states that we as educators, we need to see our students as individuals, citizens,
decision makers, readers, children, siblings, partners, storytelling, e.g., living in a
world full of problems and issues. Therefore, the job of the EFL teacher is to foster
opportunities for their students to combine what they learn in their specific disci-
plines, and relate it to the structure of the foreign language learning instruction (see
Appendix 3).
84
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
Sub-category:
Grammar consolidation processes involved and deepening
of vocabulary in EFL according to language level
Peer-feedback editing and drafts writings edits has served my pupils to realize
about their own level of foreign language learning, what they need in terms of
grammar and vocabulary for example; and what they have achieved, or progressed
so far, if we talk about pre-intermediate and intermediate level language learners
(see Appendix 5).
Conclusions
On the other hand, when trying to answer the main research question proposed in
this study, one could see the importance of having the culture of the community
in the curriculum. This is needed in the majority of teaching settings due to the
fact that learners play different roles every day. They are sons, daughters, brothers,
sisters, cousins, workers, boyfriends, girlfriends, citizens, e.g. and in all these roles
they use different literacies.
Taking into account that our learners should be the main focus of the teaching
process in EFL was one of the main conclusions of this research study, was the need
to conceive learners not as “learners” or people who have constraints in learning,
but as people who construct their own literacies, who are human beings with their
own perceptions and ideas of the world, and who have different backgrounds, jobs,
experiences and needs for communicating.
Another conclusion derived from this experience has to do with the way the
main theoretical core of the study was undertaken: the community-based approach.
In this study, this approach to teaching was integrated into the EFL curriculum in
order to better suit the needs of the learners by including the promotion of urban
teachers in the academic community. But to do so, the teacher-researcher had to
take into account issues such as getting familiar with the setting and knowing her
learners‘backgrounds and academic expectations as well as about life.
Finally, the findings in this research support results that promote the idea of ur-
ban teaching as a way to foster engagement and life-long learning. In other words,
as a final conclusion, EFL teachers are in charge of defining how the EFL curriculum
is managed in their context. They can make changes in their own teaching settings.
So, the EFL teacher must be in disposition to find, and even create, adaptations to
the EFL curriculum he or she is in charge of.
References
86
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
Beufort, Anne. (2007). College Writing and Beyond: A New Framework for Uni-
versity Writing Instruction. UTAH State University Press. Logan: UT.
Bereiter, C & Scardamalia. M. (1987). The Psychology of Written composition.
New York: Routledge.
Berlin, H.( 2004). The CLEF Cross Language Image, pp. 597–613 Springer
Bloome, D. &Willet. (1991). Classrooms and Literacy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative action research for English language teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cassany, D. (1989). Describir el escribir: Como se aprende a escribir. Barcelona:
Paidos.
Elbow, P. (1998). Writing with power techniques for mastering the writing pro-
cess. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Flower, L. & Hayes, J. (1980). The Dynamics of Composing: making plans and
Juggling constraints. Hillsdale.
Freebody, P. (2008). Critical literacy education: On living with innocent lan-
guage. In B.V. Street & N.H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language
and education. (pp.107- 118). New York: Springer.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy for the oppressed. New York: Seatbury
Freire, P. (1985). Politics of education. SouthHadley, MA: Bergun &Garvey
Goodman, K. (1996). La Lectura, la escritura y los textos escritos: una perspec-
tiva transaccional sociopsicolinguistica. En textos en contexto 2, los procesos
de lectura y escritura. Buenos Aires: IRA.
Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: product or praxis? Lewes: Falmer Press.
Johnson, K. (2003). Designing Language Teaching Tasks. Basingstoke: Palgrave
MacMillan.
Moll & Ammanti. (2001).Building Bridges of Home, School and Community:
The Importance of Design. Journal of Education for students placed at RisK.
Volume 6, Issue 1-2.
Murray, D. (1985). A writer teaches writing. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Murrel, J. (2001). The community teacher: A new framework for effective urban
teaching. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Pennac, D. (2003). Como una novella. México: Norma
Street, B. (2003). What’s “new” in new literacy studies? Critical approaches to
literacy in Theory and practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education,
2(5), pp. 77-102.
Tudor, I . (2001). The Dynamics of the language classroom. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press
87
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
Name ________________________________________________________________
Date ________________________________________________________________
88
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
DANIELA MANTILLA
MARIA ALEJANDRA CUELLAR
MARCELA CAMPOS
OSCAR CARDENAS
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
I. more work and equality for these people to avoid unemployed
I.I “Colombia don’t have a normal level to live because have
more indigence than poverty”. More attention from the CAI
(Immediate Care Center) making continuous and effective
monitoring
• Invite the homeless to the park chocolate (college activity)
89
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
90
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
91
Nhora Lucía Reyes Navarro
92
Engaging EFL learners at the college level through community-based pedagogy
Our proyect is about this topic because we see that the problematics are like, this
permanently have had smell independent from the deaness that is done daily to it, this
is owed in the bad ventilation and air conduit that they have equally there are small
the oportunities in which we find to lot paper and soap in the warehouses also some
independent bathrooms are in bad conditions, because the doesn’t close, the entance
of the bathrooms are very small an in an emergency situation there could not be a
good evacuation.
Smelly bathrooms our proyect because we think that this problems because the
doors that are penetrating the halls and stairs are unbearable for students, the bath-
rooms are too small for a faculty so big with so many people running through it, so
we feel very uncomfortable having to endure this every day from morning ninght the
lock of soap and paper dispensers also makes us wonder. what happens with the uni-
versity ?? we would like some order, to placate the smell and for the cleaning ladies
we requiere to clean more.
One partial solutions could be to ventilate the areas example with fans or air
conditioning systems inside the bathrooms.
We are also concerned about the cleaning resources inside the bathrooms such as
enough toilet paper, soap and aromatizers.
Daniela Cruz
Alejandra Caicedo
Karen Viviana Franco
Jeimmi Duarte
93
II
Prácticas y enfoques de investigación
Introduction
There are events in life – not least in professional life – when something happens
that changes our relationship with the world, pointing us in a new direction or gen-
erating insights that profoundly affect the way we view aspects of our world. This
chapter is about how we might come to understand such events better. It is written
on the assumption that such understanding might contribute to a deeper understand-
ing of how we engage with the world. It begins by briefly introducing work that has
sought to understand such events, usually known as critical incidents, before going
on to identify what seems to be a common drawback in current representations of
these. The paper then goes on to describe an interview technique that is specifically
designed to help participants recreate past events in detail, suggesting that this might
offer a useful way of overcoming such limitations. It concludes with an example il-
lustrating the approach recommended in the chapter.
Critical incidents
The origins of the critical incident technique, described in a seminal paper by Flana-
gan (1954) go back to World War II, when it was used in the classification and selec-
tion process for US aircrew. Since then it has been used for a variety of purposes and
in a variety of ways, though the focus in this chapter will be on qualitative applica-
tions in professional contexts, where critical incident analysis is used as a basis for
reflection with the aim of contributing to professional development.
While there is no generally agreed definition of a critical incident, Tripp’s brief
characterisation applies to work that has the professional context in view: ‘The term
critical incident… refers to some event or situation that marked a significant turning
97
Keith Richards
point or change in the life of the subject’ (Tripp, 1994, p. 69). He further notes that
the approach ‘involves working back in time from an account of our current practice
towards aspects of its genesis in order to use that knowledge to change ourselves and
our current practice.’ (Tripp, 1994, p. 671). The accounts of events thus generated
can then serve as the basis for reflection on practice with the goal of contributing
to the professional development of participants. This approach has been used in a
range of professions with positive outcomes and it is not the purpose of this chapter
to call into question the important contribution that this has made (as evidenced,
for example, in Tripp, 2012). Nevertheless, it is not unreasonable to assume that
the quality of recollection is a key factor in its contribution to positive professional
outcomes, while in research contexts more generally the validity of the claims made
will depend on the quality of the data generated by the recall process. Here there are
reasons to be cautious.
Researchers have claimed that the narrative or semi-structured interviews de-
signed to elicit descriptions of critical incidents are adequate for the purpose of
generating rich and detailed descriptions. For Angelides (2001, p. 430), for example,
‘critical incidents proved to be an efficient method for generating rich qualitative
data’ and though the author goes on to propose four ‘probing’ questions for interro-
gating critical incidents, these are around the events rather than within the incidents
themselves (e.g. ‘What conditions sustain and preserve these actions?’). To all in-
tents and purposes, the process of elicitation is treated as unproblematic.
However, anyone who has read extensively in the literature of critical incidents
cannot help but be struck by how thin many of the descriptions are; the brevity and
lack of detail is hard to square with Angelides’ claim that they represent ‘rich quali-
tative data’. As I have indicated, this has not prevented them from making a valuable
contribution in the context of professional development, but from the perspective of
methodological robustness it represents something of a problem. A critical incident
included in a paper by McAllister et al. (2006) will serve to illustrate some of the
shortcomings that can be found in critical incident research.
In order to appreciate the full extent of the problem, it is necessary to bear in mind
the definition the authors offer of a critical incident since this will bear on the exam-
ple they provide:
98
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
I think it is because you want to adapt to stuff and you just go with the flow and if
it worries you just put it in a little pile over there and keep trying. I think maybe the
cleanliness over here got me to start with, ’cause you have my town [a tidy town
competition winner] and then you have clean-up-Australia Day and you have garbage
bins, [but here] the rubbish is everywhere and people just throw it, I still have an is-
sue. I still hold on to mine until I find that one garbage bin so I can put it away. That I
guess kind of gets me. I actually think that it’s so overpopulated, even if they had the
big hole in the ground like the tip and they just threw the rubbish in and didn’t worry
about it at least it is all in one place. And the smoking everywhere and ash all over
the floor but you wear bare feet inside. I just noticed at the gamelan the last couple of
days how there’s ash all over everywhere, the floor everywhere and they stub it into
the wood where they have been playing. It is kind of like a contradiction to do that but
then you take your shoes off for the whole cleanliness thing. It doesn’t really worry
me—it is just an amusing contradiction.
Susan’s engagingly honest comments were made early in her time in Indonesia when
she was still uncomfortable with the language, food and climate and was missing
her family. This is classic ethnocentrism where she compares Indonesian practices
unfavourably with those with which she is familiar in Australia (p. 374).
After this, Susan disappears completely from the paper, appearing only briefly
in the Discussion section with a claim that is not supported by any further data ex-
tract (p. 377): ‘Susan, for example, initially illustrated a highly ethnocentric view
which, with more time and reflection, moderated towards a greater level of cultural
awareness and acceptance.’
The most obvious problem with the critical incident is that it does not conform to
the definition provided. It makes a number of comments on cleanliness in Yogyakarta
but it does not conform to any of the accepted characterisations of a story (e.g.
Labov, 1977; Labov and Waletzky, 1967), there is no climax and no dilemma; in
fact, as it stands it does not even amount to an ‘incident’. The speaker has certainly
identified an issue and offers some pungent descriptions, but it is hard to see this
as a critical incident. The summary of the extract is accurate, and as an example of
99
Keith Richards
My father one day asked me, “How will you make your living when you grow up?”
I thought to myself, “I can’t sing well, I don’t look that glamorous, but I am good at
studying and learning new things”. I studied really hard and my grades soared. This,
I think, was one of the most critical moments in my life.
This is a very brief story, but it is a telling one and even labelled by the speaker as
critical. The question from the father is voiced by the speaker, whose own thoughts
in response are crisply summed up, with the outcome placed squarely before the
reader. As a critical incident it might serve as a good example of how attitudes to
learning might suddenly be transformed. However, as the following example from
the same paper shows, sometimes the critical incident is unsatisfyingly vague in its
representation (Finch, 2010, p. 428):
One boy bothered me almost everyday, so I got stressed and even I didn’t want to go
to school no longer. Finally, I decided to tell my teacher but she didn’t do anything, so
I was really disappointed about it. After that, I hardly talked with teachers.
The critical incident here reaches its climax in the failure of the teacher to do any-
thing. Yet we do not discover what was actually said to the teacher, how the situation
was represented and how the teacher responded, or how the student interpreted those
responses at the time – in fact, so much of the picture is missing that it is hard to know
what conclusions to draw. If we use it as an illustration of how teachers need to act in
response to bullying, for example, we are assuming that being ‘bothered’ by someone
is the same as being bullied, or if we wish to use it to illustrate how teachers need to
be seen to take students’ responses seriously, we have no insight into how the teacher
responded and we do not know how the student interpreted not doing anything.
In the face of situations where we want to find out more and it becomes impor-
tant to delve deeply into a particular incident in order to understand the complex
weave of action and interpretation that accompany all human interaction, it may
be that standard interviewing methods are not our best recourse. The next section
100
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
considers an alternative approach that is specifically designed to elicit the sort of fine
detail that can bring a critical incident into sharp focus.
It is often useful when facing a professional challenge to seek out those whose daily
work involves meeting that challenge. For police officers, success in eliciting accu-
rate and detailed accounts of past events as the basis for preparing witness statements
may make the difference between guilt or innocence in a criminal trial; in short, lives
or freedom might depend on it. Small wonder, then, that police forces have invested a
great deal of effort in establishing the most effective and accurate way of doing this.
The police interview, which is designed to gather information, differs in many
respects from an interrogation, where the aim is to elicit a confession. For example,
the interview is more free flowing, non-accusatory and significantly shorter (for a
fuller comparison of differences, see Gordon & Fleisher, 2011, p. 34). Police forces
have tried different methods of interviewing, but as Menon and Higham (1999) point
out, none of them has proved entirely satisfactory. The ‘standard interview’, they
note, is anything but standard and while the structured interview performs as well as
others in terms of accuracy, it falls short in terms of detail. The guided memory inter-
view, in which witnesses are guided step-by-step through the relevant incident and
probed for descriptions of the environment and their emotional reactions to events,
has been effective and is similar to the cognitive interview in many respects, though
narrower in the range of techniques it uses. Hypnosis, which seemed a promising
option, has in practice proved unreliable as a means of producing accurate accounts.
The most successful method of stimulating accurate and detailed recall to date
is the cognitive interview, a method of eliciting experiential accounts that is rooted
in cognitive psychology. Working on the basis that memory is associative and that
retrieval of an event is more effective if situated within the context of its occurrence,
it aims to use a variety of techniques to stimulate detailed recall of the event and
its temporal, material and affective dimensions. It has been described as ‘one of the
most exciting developments in the investigation of eyewitness memory in the last ten
years’ (Memon & Higham, 1999, p. 192).
The cognitive interview was designed by Geiselman and his colleagues (1984,
1986) and subsequently developed in an enhanced form by Geiselman and Fisher
(1988), in response to the need to deal with problems such as ‘anxious and inarticu-
late witnesses’ (Köhnken, et al., 1999, p. 5). Brunel et al. (2013, p. 846) sum up the
101
Keith Richards
success of this approach: ‘It has been shown many times that the cognitive interview
(CI), when compared to a ‘standard’ police interview or a structured interview, is
more effective when it comes to obtaining full and accurate testimony.’
The principles of the enhanced cognitive interview (henceforth CI) are summed
up by Holliday et al. (2009). In terms of memory and general cognition it employs
uninterrupted single tasks, thus limiting the cognitive processing resources needed,
it adapts its questions to the witness and promotes detailed recall by using context
reinstatement (asking the teller to reconstruct their physical, cognitive and emo-
tional state), multisensory coding (asking them to remember the smells, sounds etc.
associated with the experience) and varied retrieval (changing the perspectives from
which the event is seen or recalled). The social dynamics depend on the development
of rapport and active witness participation, which recognises that the witness is the
‘expert’ and is therefore in control. The communicative aims are to promote exten-
sive, detailed responses by inviting witness to report everything and if necessary to
stimulate this by providing objects that are code compatible (for example, if touch is
involved, the relevant material might be offered to the witness).
The focus in this section is entirely practical: it is designed to introduce the range
of techniques that characterise CI. It is worth remarking at the outset that there is
no agreement on what training is required in order to use CI. Advice ranges from
claims that it requires no previous training and can be learned within a few hours
(Fisher, et al., 1989) to the suggestion that a two-day training programme is needed
(Memon & Higham, 1999). However, Memon and Higham admit that it is not clear
how much training is necessary, and it would seem from published research that
very often interviewers are working from a written guide or set of instructions.
In the absence of any available training sessions, this is the approach I adopted,
drawing on my experience as a qualitative interviewer in the framing of the questions
and responses, and in deciding on what probes were required and when. As with all
interviewing, it is through practice that one becomes familiar with techniques and
sensitive to the ways of using them most productively, but a useful starting point
is a list of the techniques themselves, examples by way of illustration, and some
indication of the thinking behind them. This is what is provided in the list below
(with the exception of the very obvious ‘report everything’ option), with an added
comment summing up the way subsequent research has evaluated the technique.
102
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
The four techniques of the standard CI are followed by a list of four refinements that
feature in the enhanced CI.
103
Keith Richards
Transfer of control: Establish strong rapport. Use open questions, timing the
questions in ways that are sensitive to the respondent’s re-
trieval patterns rather than the interviewer’s protocol.
Mental images: In the contextual retrieval phase, invite the respondent to
form mental image of various parts of the event (e.g. face,
clothes) and probe these. Research indicates that this can
be misleading and that confusion between imagined and
real events can arise, but good source monitoring (e.g. be-
ing careful about assigning a source to a given memory)
can reduce the likelihood error.
Field events: Here events are seen from same field of vision as the origi-
nal events (i.e. through the eyes of the witness as they saw
the event during its occurrence).
Observer events: These are events seen from an observer viewpoint with
the respondent as an actor in the scene (i.e. through the
eyes of someone watching the event, including the wit-
ness, from a distance).
Other researchers have proposed additional techniques. Brunel et al. (2013), for ex-
ample, evaluate an ‘open depth instruction’ which simply involves asking the re-
spondent to describe the event again, but this time concentrating on all the little
details they may not have had the opportunity to report the first time. They are told
that it doesn’t matter if they repeat themselves and are advised to freeze some of the
images if that helps, with the goal of providing as much information as possible. The
authors report positive results (Brunel, et al., 2013, p. 857):
The open depth instruction elicited more ‘new’ correct units of information pertain-
ing to surroundings or actions than the change of perspective instruction or a moti-
vated recall. This suggests that this new instruction stimulates the recall of various
types of information.
104
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
These, then, are the techniques that can be used in the process of cognitive inter-
viewing, all of them designed to elicit maximum information as accurately as pos-
sible. If the researcher’s interest is in the participants current beliefs, then what mat-
ters most is how they recall the events now and what they consider to be critical
moments within them – moments, that is, on which hinge significant shifts in their
understanding of the world. However, where the focus is on the events themselves,
the nature of memory introduces complications that the researcher needs to bear
in mind when interpreting the accounts provided. The next section, therefore, dis-
cusses briefly some important aspects of memory.
I think (.) what I (…) remember there is going to be coloured by what there is now, (.)
but I don’t (…) recall there has been any significant difference. (Laura)
I’m using some of the memor- memory of my present because it’s the same room.
(Jessica)
These two participants in my own research using cognitive interviews seem well
aware that the descriptions of past events that they are offering may be influenced
by their present situation and hence are implicitly recognising the malleable nature
of memory. This has long been recognised as a problem in critical incident research
(see for example Tripp, 1994, p. 69) and it is important to remember that the ways
in which memories are formed and transformed over time mean that an account
elicited through cognitive interviewing can only ever be the best representation the
respondent is capable of at the time of telling.
There is no solution to this problem and, as Cooper et al. (2009) have noted, re-
search has shown conclusively that most individuals are poor at distinguishing truth
from lies, whatever their professional background, so interviewers cannot rely on
their own judgment in this respect. This section therefore has fairly limited aims. It
will highlight two of the most common ways in which memories become distorted,
identify the sort of memory on which cognitive interviews draw and comment on
this with respect to cognitive interviewing as a method.
As Loftus (1979/1996, vii) notes, memories are not simply stored away in the
brain for later retrieval but are susceptible to change in the light of subsequent events:
105
Keith Richards
A growing body of research shows that new, postevent information often becomes
incorporated into memory, supplementing and altering a person’s recollection. New
‘information’ can invade us, like a Trojan horse, precisely because we do not detect
its influence. Understanding how we can become tricked by relevant data about a past
experience is central to understanding the reconstructive nature of memory.
In addition, as Roediger et al. (2001, p. 365) put it, ‘false false memories are con-
tagious; one person’s memory can be infected by another person’s errors’ so where
the events described have already been related many times – which is likely if they
are of particular significance to the teller – the chances of distortion increase. And
in professional contexts, where others may have similar experiences, the memories
of one person may merge with those of another or may incorporate elements of their
account (Barnier & Sutton 2008, pp. 178-179).
Unfortunately, these distortions are likely to occur in episodic memory, which
enables the sort of recall on which critical incident research is based (Tulving,
2002, p. 5):
A feature of episodic memory worth noting is that it is also bound up with the justi-
fication of beliefs since it provides the person recalling events with evidence of how
they are in a position to know about these events (Hoerl, 2001, p. 323). There are also
some reasons to believe that where the experience is emotional, as critical incidents
may well be, techniques such as those in CI designed to recreate emotions or feel-
ings experienced at the time may allow more detailed information to be retrieved
(Sven & Engelberg, 2008, p. 69).
This short section serves as a warning against assuming that interviewee ac-
counts are as accurate a description of incidents as they believe them to be, but this
applies to all data gathered by means of an interview, of whatever type. The next
section is more positive, showing how a cognitive interview can expose important
elements that more conventionally framed narrative interviews may not.
106
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
The example that follows has been selected because the nature of the insight gen-
erated by CI is particularly striking. It is not taken from a professional context but
from a family one. Laura is the mother of two grown up daughters and the inter-
view focuses on a critical incident in the development of one of these. It relates
to a change in the daughter as she entered her teenage years and in it the mother
describes how she discovers that her once very pleasant child has changed and that
their relationship is now different. The example begins with a narrative account of
the incident, then moves to a cognitive interview focusing on one particular scene
within this.
Laura begins her narrative with a description of an evening visit to her daughter’s
school for a parents’ evening. In these evenings, parents of children in a particular
year have short appointments at the school with their child’s teachers at which they
discuss the child’s progress, prospects, behaviour, etc. Laura describes how as the
evening progressed she became increasingly aware that her daughter had changed
for the worse:
The reason this parents’ evening really stands out for me is that when I attended the
evening and I started to erm keep my appointments with with her individual er sub-
ject teachers, erm as the you know the schedule had been arranged, erm what became
increasingly and kind of appallingly clear to me as the evening went on was that she
was going much more off the rails than I had realised or perhaps that I had wanted
to realise, and that it wasn’t only erm a failure in terms of kind of production of her
school work, whatever. Erm I think what was most upsetting was the realisation that
the- the really lovely, easy, sweet-natured honest child that I had always known was
definitely gone, or at least temporarily mislaid. And that, erm that hit me with some
suddenness and some force really, and I realised that my relationship with her could
not be and would not be the same again.
The narrative provides no details of the setting or participants but seeks to capture a
sense of her changing perception leading to the sudden realisation that her relation-
ship with her daughter had changed. When she returns home, she tells her daughter
what the teachers have said about her conduct and is struck by the indifference with
which this is received:
107
Keith Richards
And really her reaction compounded what I had been told by the teachers and what I
was feeling. Because she appeared m- h- completely unmoved by what I was trying
to say to her about ((clears throat)) my shock and my hurt, and my, you know, my
disappointment in what it- looked as if she had become or was becoming.
In view of the importance that Laura clearly assigns to the change in her relationship
with her daughter, I pick up this point and ask her to say more about it:
You said that you were aware that em your relationship with her would never be the
same again or at least had changed, could you say a bit more about that, that change.
I mean how did you see that change, how did you feel at the end of the day different
in terms of that relationship- from the way you had felt at the beginning.
The focus in Laura’s response is on the issue of trust, which she takes to be the most
important aspect of what has occurred. She begins by explaining that her loss of
trust in her daughter had wider implications for her trust in her own outlook on life
because she had trusted in the adequacy of competent parenting and love. However,
learning that her daughter has lied to her and deceived her changes the way she will
interact with her in the future. In the interview, I pick up on the point where Laura
notes her daughter’s response to what she has been told about the teachers’ comments:
You talked about the evening, but noticed when you talked about coming home you’d
had this realisation but until you actually sat down with her and saw her response…
Was there a change there?
108
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
((Expected that when she reported the events of the parents’ evening to her daugh-
ter the latter would show some awareness that she had deserved chastisement.))
I saw no recognition in her that she felt that she either had done anything wrong, or
that she was in any way to blame, or that er (.) It was it was that, it was just- there was
just no (.) there was no really emotion or (.) or feeling (.) or or or (.) or sadness in in
in either what I had been told or how I was responding to it really. She didn’t seem to
care about what her teachers, I s- I suppose bottom line is (.) she didn’t seem to care
about what her teachers had been saying about her, and she didn’t really seem to care
about (…) my clearly very upset and hurt feelings [Right] about the situation.
Laura’s response here emphasises her daughter’s lack of response and her apparent
indifference to both her teachers’ views of her and her mother’s distress.
The account provided by Laura is built around the change in the relationship
with her daughter arising from a loss of trust, which represents what might be de-
scribed as the theme of the story. It is one that she is likely to have told before,
perhaps a number of times (albeit perhaps not in such detail), and the theme serves
to unify it, from the sudden realisation that her relationship with her daughter has
changed to the indifference of her daughter, which serves to emphasise the new
distance between them. However, it is possible that the emphasis on trust as a theme
might have obscured other factors at play in this experience. The cognitive interview
provided an opportunity to discover whether this was in fact the case.
The focus in the cognitive interview is on the encounter with the daughter and it begins
with a mental reinstatement of context, one of the four techniques in a standard CI:
She is (…) as far away (.) on the sofa as (.) she could be from me but she’s not (…)
facing me. [Mm hm] She is actually sitting on the sofa (.) ehm (…) I guess as you
would kind of normally sit on a sofa (.) ehm (.) with her back against the back of the
sofa, [Right] except that (.) obviously I’m (.) I’m (.) I’m (…) I’m sitting on the sofa but
I’m sitting sideways on it, so I’m (.) I’m- (.) looking at her from a sideways position,
she is sitting with (.) on the sofa with her back to the sofa, ehm (.) not (…) e- (.) really
engaging in much if any eye contact with me, ehm and of course in that position in
the position that she took up, ehm, relatively easy not to engage in eye- contact with
me, which would have been more difficult if she had mirrored (.) my (.) position on
the sofa which she clearly (.) wasn’t doing, and I assume didn’t- I- I- assume didn’t
want to do.
109
Keith Richards
What is immediately apparent here is the level of detail provided about their rela-
tive positions on the sofa. What had been mentioned only in passing in the narrative
interview now becomes significant in terms of what is taking place because the
daughter has rejected the opportunity to mirror her mother’s position and is sitting
next to Laura on the sofa looking ahead and thereby avoiding eye contact. The fail-
ure to take up the same position as her mother is not only important in terms of the
interaction that will follow but also a symbolic rejection of her mother’s example.
Laura reports to her daughter what the teachers have said and mentions the
failure to do homework and hand in work, but what she particularly emphasises is
how upset she was to be told, especially by a teacher whom she holds in particu-
larly high regard, that her daughter cannot be trusted. There is no reaction from
her daughter:
She didn’t (.) ehm seek to explain herself, she didn’t seek to (.) defend herself, (…) she
didn’t get (.) angry with me, but she didn’t get (.) upset. Either with me, or (.) upset at
the kind of (.) you know (…) failings (…) that- (.) in her own character and behaviour
that I was presenting her with.
At this point Laura introduces something that she had not even mentioned in the nar-
rative interview: the fact that shortly before this happened she and her husband had
bought her daughter a dog. She explains that there is no direct connection between
the two, which might explain why this was excluded from her first account, the result
of what Spence (1986) has called ‘narrative smoothing’. Nevertheless, in her mind
there is a connection and she feels betrayed:
Apart from that shock and upset I also felt ehm quite betrayed really because not that
long before (.) that, before this happened, we had actually got my daughter a dog,
which was a huge decision, and you know, which had (.) which had (.) you know the
decision was made for various reasons and I think the decision was made for good
reasons but (.) I (.) it was (.) it was a very (.) difficult (.) decision to make to get a dog
in the circumstances is which we- in the house in which we lived and the- the- you
know the lifestyle that we had, and ultimately I think I we had based the decision on
(.) actually this being an important thing to do for her. Ehm and so I felt very betrayed
th- I know that there shouldn’t have been any direct connection but in my mind there
definitely was and I did feel very (.) betrayed by that. Ehm. But she she (.) was appar-
ently totally unmoved by that.
110
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
Using the temporal shift technique, I asked Laura to work backwards and what
emerges from this is that during their talk the memory of buying the dog (‘that
memory’) is something she returns to again and again:
Throughout the conversation that (.) my memory is that’s what I kept going back to
because that for me was the huge thing and that for me (.) and especially in the light
of her reaction or her non reaction, then that for me (.) was (.) was a point (.) was the
point at which I- I realised I was facing (…) er a- a- a- a- a- a (.) ehm (.) a- a- a differ-
ence in in in my relationship with her because I knew it wouldn’t and couldn’t be the
same, because I knew I couldn’t conduct a relationship on the basis of the child that I
thought (…) ehm (.) she still was, when she manifestly wasn’t any more and I I (.) I did
wonder how I was going to (.) really manage a relationship with somebody who at that
point I had basically completely lost (.) trust in. (…) Ehm (.) Perhaps not completely
lost faith in, but I think completely lost trust in at that point. So that was the big thing
that (.) that (.) for me about that evening.
And that (.) loss of (.) trust is is th- is the turning point, is the critical thing.
The loss of trust was the ach- a- absolutely critical thing … If she had shown some
contrition or remorse for having ehm, you know, behaved as she clearly had been be-
having, ehm (.) I (.) I- I don’t think the trust would have been so (.) completely damaged
as it was (.) after I’d finished having my talk with her in the kitchen. Because at the
end of that, (.) I just- I couldn’t see any way through (.) what for me was a blank mask.
This seems to be where the critical point in the incident occurs: her daughter’s lack
of reaction causes Laura to feel that she has ‘lost’ her and their relationship will
never be the same. Laura’s pain at this point is reflected in the difficulty she has in
articulating her feelings. The frequent and sometimes extended repetitions, the false
starts and the extended pauses serve to convey a sense of discomfort, almost a sense
that she is still struggling to understand her response.
This is clearly a key moment in the experience, so I check whether it is in fact
a critical point. At the beginning of her response Laura is referring to her daughter
showing signs of remorse:
Is there any point before that where you felt (.) you know, a shifting of the ground as
it were?
When she didn’t, ehm (…) when she didn’t, I- in a way I kind of felt I had all the
ground that I (.) or was aware I was standing on at the moment kind of pulled from
under my feet in terms of (.) where do I go with with with with the relationship that
I I just feel no trust in. Prior to the prior to the (.) my (.) comments about the dog and
111
Keith Richards
how I felt (…) I was still thinking at that point well this might fall (.) something- the-
this might depending on how she reacts to this with- w- with (.) with something of
an understanding or an element of remorse then, that would mean there’s something
inside her which would tell me that there was- there was still some part there, that I
could (.) trust or hope to trust, and when that got no reaction whatsoever when she
clearly (.) couldn’t care less about anything to do with that, then that was kind of my
last little (…) drop of hope gone at that point.
This time Laura explicitly identifies her comments on the dog as a pivotal moment
in the talk. Up to that point she still had some hope that her relationship with her
daughter might be rescued, but her daughter’s indifference drains the last drop of
hope from her.
Having established this as the key point in the incident, I then use perspective
shift to turn attention to what the daughter’s feelings might be:
At any point but particularly in the dog exchange, ‘Did you (.) get any sense of how
she might be feeling or (.) how her perspective might might be revealing itself? Was
there any sense at all.
Ehm (.) to me all I saw in front of me was a child who was ehm (…) er (…) who (.)
was a child who appeared to just (.) care less about (.) anything that I was saying, ehm
she was (.) I think desperately uncomfortable, (.) with ehm (.) with the whole thing,
and ehm (.) e- (.)
Wh- what d’you say- how did she show the er
IE: I think because of her, her, her (.) e- a- (.) physically the way she was. She wasn’t
fidgeting or anything, but she was very kind of ehm (.) slouched and [mm] she was
very (.) she was completely disengaged from me and (.) she had a- she had just a- a
look, on her face, which was just kind of you know (.) yeah I’ve got to sit here and
listen to this and then I just want to be out of here as soon as possible basically.
How did that make you feel then?
That made me feel pretty lousy really.
Laura’s response not only describes her daughter’s attitude but recalls that her pos-
ture reflects this: the sense of disengagement is almost palpable. It remained then
only to check whether Laura had intended to talk about the dog or whether this was
something that occurred to her only when she was talking to her daughter:
Had you (.) do you remember if you’d intended (.) to talk about the dog?
Yes. The dog for me was a huge thing. I was less in favour of getting the dog than
112
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
my husband, (.) ehm (.) and so from that point of view I’d never wanted the dog so I
suppose I would (.) more naturally reach (.) to use the dog if you like as a kind of- not
a bargaining chip but you know it would have been my n- (.) it would have been it
would have- yes the- th- th-dog for me was a was a huge factor because we hadn’t
had the dog that long at that point, it may only have been a matter of months I can’t
remember now, it probably wasn’t more than that. Ehm so for me the dog was a huge
issue and the be- (.) the betrayal therefore (.) that was all tied in together. [mm] I’m
sorry I can’t remember what you just asked me then.
No, you di- I just asked you [yeah] if you planned to talk about the dog but clearly (.)
No- clearly, yes, I think, yeah absolutely I’m sure before I walked out of that school,
you know, the dog was going to form part of it. [Yes] No, the- there will have been
absolutely no doubt about that. For me that was huge and it was (.) eh you know, per-
haps not directly connected but in my mind it was very relevant.
The dog, it emerges, is a ‘huge factor’ that she had planned to raise with her daughter
but it made no appearance in the narrative interview because the theme of that and
the story built around it allowed no space for it. The cognitive interview, however,
brings out its importance as a contributor to the sense of betrayal felt by Laura.
This example has shown how a cognitive interview can reveal aspects of an
experience that may be lost in the process of narrative smoothing that contributes to
a coherent and engaging story. As in the case here, they may turn out to be critical
points in the shift of understanding that is central to critical incidents and their im-
pact on the outlook of the teller. They are therefore essential to a proper understand-
ing of the experience and its ramifications.
(Readers concerned about the damage caused to the mother-daughter relation-
ship by this incident will be relieved to hear that at the end of her teenage years the
daughter reverted to her old self and some years later explained to her parents that
she was at a loss to understand how they could have put up with her terrible behav-
iour as a teenager. Mother and daughter are very close.)
113
Keith Richards
‘Reflective’
‘Critical point’
Present
Perceived as Narrative
behaviour
criterial embedding
beliefs etc.
Discovered as Awareness-
Situational
criterial raising,
embedding
training
‘Prospective’
Figure 1 offers a very tentative model of how we might treat what might be called
‘critical points’ that emerge from cognitive interviews. A critical point would be an
aspect of a critical event, such as the gift of the dog, which is criterial to an inter-
pretation of the event. The model proposes two orientations: one reflective and the
other prospective.
In a reflective orientation, the teller is already aware of the critical point as
criterial and embeds it within the narrative of the event. In this perspective the
representation of the critical point is determined at least in part by the narrative
within which it is set and may change over time as the narrative itself evolves
through changing teller circumstances. Such changes are unimportant in them-
selves because it is how the teller perceives the critical point now that is important,
for it is this perception that influences current beliefs, behaviour, etc. In a different
cognitive interview, for example, Jessica already recognised that the critical point
in her own event, which occurred when she was a very young novice teacher, was
how the class reacted to her decision to ask the student who had copied another
student’s homework word-for-word to read his text to the class immediately after
the student he had copied it from had read his, thus exposing the former as a cheat.
From it she learned something important about relationships with students that fed
114
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
directly into her beliefs about the need for professional distance. These beliefs, and
the experience(s) that gave rise to them can then be used, if required, in professional
training and development.
In a prospective orientation, however, the teller discovers the critical point dur-
ing the cognitive interview, as happened with Laura: the gift of the dog was some-
thing she was well aware of but its significance in the context of the breakdown in
the relationship between her and her daughter was not something that she had appre-
ciated before. Once the criterial significance of this has been recognised, it can then
be placed within the context of the critical event itself, which may be revelatory not
only for the teller but also available for use as an example in awareness-raising and
professional training. Of course, the discovered critical point also becomes available
for incorporation into any future narratives presented by the teller, as indicated by
the thin line in the diagram.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this chapter has been to introduce the cognitive interview and
the techniques associated with it, showing how this can contribute to more effective
elicitation of critical incidents. There is no suggestion here that current approaches
are inadequate or that the cognitive interview is suitable in all contexts (though the
note that follows identifies two other research contexts in which it has proved its
worth), but the chapter does offer the opportunity for readers unfamiliar with this
method to extend their interview repertoire. Where critical incidents are at the core
of a research project, there are compelling arguments for including this method, but
its potential applications are much broader than this. Any researcher interested in
understanding the experiences of others or eliciting narratives from them should
consider very seriously whether it should feature in their research design.
Readers interested in the cognitive interview as used in this chapter can consult
the standard work by Fisher & Geiselman (1992), or the very useful introductions
offered by Memon & Higham (1999) and Holliday et al. (2009). However, for those
who would like to explore its potential in other contexts, two useful guides are avail-
able online:
115
Keith Richards
Shafer and Lohse (n.d.) provides a very basic introduction in which much of the
advice applies to all interviews. However, it focuses on the use of cognitive inter-
views for improving educational materials related to nutrition and may be of interest
to those wishing to improve or evaluate other educational materials.
Beatty and Willis (2007) is dedicated to using cognitive interviews to improve
questions to be used in large-scale surveys. It has little if any relevance outside this,
but it would be of interest to anyone involved in questionnaire design.
References
116
Using cognitive interviews in critical incident research
117
Keith Richards
118
Classroom observation of teachers:
A practice in need of re-evaluation?
Amanda Howard
University of Birmingham, UK
Introduction
The purposeful examination of teaching and/or learning events through the system-
atic processes of data collection and analysis (Bailey, 2001, p. 114)
119
Amanda Howard
Observation in education
A great deal has been written about observation across disciplines, but the focus in
this paper is educational observation, which is usually discussed in terms of either
mainstream education (for example Danielson and McGreal, 2000; Good and Bro-
phy, 2003; Montgomery, 1999; O’Leary, 2014; Peterson, 2000; Scriven, 1981; Wragg,
1999) or ELT (Howard, 2008; Howard and Donaghue, 2015; Powell-Davies, 2013;
Randall and Thornton, 2001; Tilstone, 1998; Wang and Day, 2002). The vast major-
ity of the literature available covers theoretical perspectives of classroom observa-
tion practice, either based in mainstream education or ELT, providing advice about
what should be done in different observational contexts and how participants should
behave. In terms of research into what actually happens in the classroom when a
teacher is being observed, very little has been published to date, although Howard’s
(2008 and 2015) chapters aim to investigate observation by means of the analysis of
lesson transcripts. The current paper, therefore, expands on the concepts introduced
in Howard (ibid), and investigates the actual data that is obtained when classroom
interaction, with and without an observer present, is transcribed and evaluated in
order to investigate the validity and reliability of observation data.
Observation can have a range of purposes when carried out in the classroom, and
potentially the outcome should be different for each, depending on the rationale and
120
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
the individuals involved. Beare (1989, p. 15) suggests five Models, as identified in
Table 1 below. The main feature they have in common is that each Model involves
an additional presence in the classroom in the form of an observer (or observers),
and that person is collecting data about classroom events, depending on the require-
ments of the observation schedule used in that particular context.
Audience The teacher The employer The team The patron or The profession
or manager owner of the
enterprise
In Table 1 it can be seen that Model 1 focuses on teacher improvement, which links
closely with personal PD, and should therefore have a formative function. How-
ever, in order to carry out such an observation, it is necessary for another individual
(the mentor) to be present in the classroom, so that suggestions can be made to the
teacher about their performance. This practice is similar to that described by Ran-
dall and Thornton (2001), who advocate critical friends in their book about advising
and supporting teachers. The critical friend is ‘a colleague who is chosen to work
with a teacher … and, in particular, a colleague who is invited to observe lessons
and provide feedback’ (ibid, p. 20). Of the five models discussed, this would seem to
be the least stressful for the teacher, as the observer has effectively been invited into
the classroom, and the situation ostensibly has a constructive purpose.
121
Amanda Howard
It could be argued that Models 2, 3 and 4 are closely linked, in that they have a
summative function, although 3 and 4 are more likely to use an external auditor if
the educational institution is being judged as a whole. It could also be argued that a
more judgmental Model 6 could be added, as teachers often undergo classroom ap-
praisal by their supervisors for the purpose of contract renewal, which is not neces-
sarily linked to promotion. However, in each of these three Models (2, 3 and 4) the
observers, whether they are supervisors, inspectors or auditors, may well be viewed
as intruders in the classroom. Exceptions only usually occur when teachers are pre-
pared to use an observation as an opportunity to demonstrate their pedagogic skills.
Scriven, writing about similar contexts, argues that summative teacher evaluation is
‘a disaster’ (1981, p. 244) and goes on to state:
To all intents and purposes, there seems to have been little change during the inter-
vening thirty years in terms of understanding about the way in which summative
teacher evaluation is carried out, as the practice described by Scriven above is still
prevalent. Bennet writes of summative observation that:
..such a system turns every appraiser into a judge and jury. The appraiser decides
what constitutes ‘good’ teaching, based presumably on their own years of experi-
ence; the appraiser selects the criteria upon which the final judgement is made; the
appraiser represents the ‘management’ in providing a control mechanism to keep the
profession in line. The appraisee’s role is very much limited to teaching and awaiting
judgement (1992, p. 41).
Interestingly, it seems that the way in which classroom observation affects teachers
does not appear to link to the amount of teaching experience that they have, which
might be thought to be the case. Bennet (ibid) goes on to argue that:
122
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
This suggests that, for many teachers, the process of classroom observation is an
unnerving one, especially when the stakes are high and an element of judgement is
involved. But, whenever observers are employed within a classroom, they are likely
to be evaluating the lesson on the basis of personal experience as a teacher and/or
learner, regardless of their actual purpose for observing.
The final Model (5) suggested by Beare (1989) is defined as being that of obser-
vation for research or professional feedback. The overall aim is described as being
the improvement of student learning, and the observation is carried out by a ‘profes-
sionally expert analyst’. Classroom observations are a common tool for educational
research, and much of what teachers know about the way in which typical lessons
are structured has come from books and articles based on such research. However,
it could be argued that the presence of such an observer, whatever their purpose, can
and does have a significant impact on both teacher and learners in terms in the way
that they behave.
The rationales for classroom observation could therefore be summarized as
follows:
123
Amanda Howard
However, this, in itself, poses a problem. Writing within the context of sociolinguis-
tic research, Labov (1972) argues that the only way to obtain data about how people
talk when they are not being observed is by observing them, and this is known as the
Observer’s Paradox. The presence of an observer in a data collection scenario has a
direct impact on the nature of the information being gathered, and causes the partici-
pants to behave atypically. Therefore, the data that is collected is not representative
of the interaction that might normally occur in that situation. Within the context of a
classroom where an observer is present, this means that the teacher and learners are
not providing a usual representation of their everyday behavior.
Research methodology
In order to establish what impact (if any) an observer has on the behavior of teachers
and learners in the classroom, this particular research study was carried out amongst
British, North American and Australasian English language teachers working in a
tertiary education environment (colleges/universities) in the Middle East. The expe-
rienced teachers taking part were asked to record an observed (model) and a non-
observed (pedagogic) ELT lesson which took place at approximately the same stage
in the syllabus and covered the same topic area in order to facilitate direct compari-
son. In the model lessons, the observations could be carried out for any purpose, so
some participants were recorded during appraisal observations, others were peer ob-
served, whilst others were being observed by college visitors, representing a range
of Beare;s Models (1989). Lessons were recorded by means of small MP3 players in
order to minimize the impact of the presence of recording equipment and reduce the
effect of the Observer’s Paradox.
Model and pedagogic lessons for each teacher were transcribed and compared,
and the research subjects then took part in semi-structured interviews to establish
their overall perceptions of observed lessons. Each recorded lesson was of 40-60
minutes in duration and each transcript was investigated and analyzed in terms of
External and Internal features. The External features covered the aspects of a les-
son that could be pre-planned by the teacher, consisting of elements such as lesson
planning, classroom organization, learner interaction patterns and lesson structure
and sequencing, i.e. the beginning, middle and end. The Internal features were iden-
tified as those which only become evident when the lesson transcript was analyzed,
and, in order to establish what these were, Walsh’s Self Examination of Teacher Talk
(SETT, 2006) framework was used. This system was developed for the ELT envi-
124
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
ronment, and Walsh advocates its use so that teachers can identify and analyze indi-
vidual events occurring in their own classrooms. However, with minor adaptations,
SETT can work equally well in the analysis of any lesson, as Walsh breaks down the
interaction into teacher and student turns. Each teacher turn can be allocated to one
of four Mode categories, as defined in Table 2, below.
125
Amanda Howard
The lesson transcripts provide evidence that there are significant differences be-
tween model and pedagogic lessons, which will probably not come as any great
surprise to many practicing teachers. Firstly, in terms of External features, model
lessons with an observer present, appear to be carefully planned and sequenced,
with each stage moving logically into the next and varied patterns of grouping, in-
teraction and activities. Administrative tasks, such as taking the register, are notable
by their absence when an observer is in the room. In contrast, the External features
of pedagogic lessons seem to represent a much more flexible approach to planning
than those displayed in model lessons and it frequently seems that the teacher needs
to get through a number of (sometimes unrelated) tasks and activities, so sequenc-
ing often appears arbitrary. Lessons are teacher-fronted and administrative tasks
can take many forms, thus there are significant differences between pedagogic and
model lessons.
Wragg (1999) argues that lessons are usually judged by observers in terms of
low-inference features, the advantage being that they are not subjective and relate to
discrete activities that can be seen to take place during a lesson, comparable to the
External lesson features. However, the Internal features of both model and peda-
gogic lessons, established by analyzing the transcripts using SETT, paint a rather
different picture of the commonalities and differences between the two. One of the
most easily identified differences is the fact that pedagogic lessons seem to be taught
to a background of ongoing student conversation, whilst during model lessons learn-
ers apparently give the teacher the full benefit of their attention. However, when the
126
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
transcripts are analyzed in detail it also becomes apparent that the differences in a
teacher’s preferred use of the four SETT modes (Walsh, 2006) are minimal, whether
or not s/he is being observed.
The three examples given below are provided by primary teachers who sub-
sequently moved into ELT, but each has a very different approach to observation.
For example, Alice favors Managerial Mode throughout her lessons, occasionally
moving to Materials Mode to allow learners a degree of controlled interaction, but
very rarely encouraging them to interact for themselves. Extract 1 is taken from
her model lesson, but is also a representative example of Alice’s teacher talk in her
pedagogic lesson:
Extract 1:
What else have you got? No, just do the front page (8 secs) Just the front page (2 secs)
Just the weather words here (4 secs) OK, let’s have a look in the top left hand corner,
there’s a small box there at the top, what are the weather words in that small box there
at the top on the left?
As can be seen from this example, maintaining control over her environment is im-
portant to Alice, and this is also reflected in her other preferred choice of Materials
Mode, where the students are encouraged to practice the target language, but within
a very clearly defined structure (Extract 2).
Extract 2:
Turn 39 Alice Yeah, the wet conditions means weather, and current means
now. So the current conditions are what the weather’s like
in Chicago right now. (2 secs) So if we were living in Chi-
cago and we looked out the window (1 sec) this is what we
would see. (2 secs) In the box on the right hand side (1 sec)
at the top, we have some more weather words. What are the
(.5 secs) what is one of those weather words, Mark?
Turn 40 Student Weather words?
Turn 41 Alice One of the weather words from the box on the right.
Turn 42 Student Sunny?
Turn 43 Alice Sunny
Turn 44 Students Cloudy?
Turn 45 Alice Cloudy
Turn 46 Students Rain?
Turn 47 Alice Rain
127
Amanda Howard
Extract 2 has been taken from Alice’s model lesson and the interaction with her
learners frequently follows the Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) pattern. Ini-
tially it seemed possible that this was just the way that she behaved when being
observed, but these two modes also prevail in her pedagogic lessons.
Beatrice, in contrast to Alice, seems to prefer to focus on Skills and Systems,
and then Classroom Context Mode, giving students greater interactive freedom. In
Extract 3, taken from her model lesson, Beatrice engages in a typical Skills and Sys-
tems interaction with her students:
Extract 3:
Turn 16 Beatrice She was here Wednesday (12 secs) right then.. (3 secs)
did you have a good weekend?
Turn 17 Students What?
Turn 18 Beatrice Did – you – have – a – good – weekend?
Turn 19 Students Yes – no, not good
Turn 20 Beatrice Why not?
Turn 21 Student It’s very boring! We don’t know what we do, where we
go – very hot!
The interaction in Extract 3 takes place near the start of the lesson, when Beatrice is
establishing why certain students are absent: she encourages her learners to contrib-
ute as much to the discussion as possible, which is a common feature of her teaching.
In the teacher interviews, the majority of participants confirm that they would teach
a lesson which was geared to their particular observer and their perceived under-
standing of his/her expectations (Howard, 2008). This has implications for the type
of lesson that is taught, and, as Beatrice says, speaking within the context of ap-
praisal observations:
Extract 4:
It’s not a real reflect (0.5 sec) I don’t think it’s a reflection on your actual ability at
teaching ‘cos you know it’s artificial
128
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
Yup, because it’s almost, it’s almost expected because it’s not (0.5 sec) just an obser-
vation (1 sec) it’s an evaluation (0.5 sec) and so you more or less expect that at some
point there will be at least one criticism (0.5 sec) made in a an (0.5 sec) as a way of
[laughs] improving your teaching, because it’s done in an evaluative way
In Extract 5 Alice seems to be suggesting that the feedback entailed in this type of
observation is always going to have a negative element, regardless of what actually
happens in the classroom. This seems to enhance the overall perception of artificial-
ity during the observation process and the teachers agree that they would certainly
treat observed lessons differently. When asked about the difference between her
model and pedagogic lessons, a third teacher, Caroline, states (Extract 6):
Extract 6:
Well I think the biggest difference for me is that I actually put aside all administrative
tasks, all the other little things that come in like emails, all the little ‘to do’ lists, and
um I actually take time (0.5 sec) to just focus on that lesson and plan … I start think-
ing about exactly how do I want to lay out every minute of the class (0.5 sec) ah think-
ing about what I’ve either done the day before or what I want to do the day before
building up to it (0.5 sec) and um (0.5 sec) what things I want to normally follow up
with and emphasize during that time so that an observer coming in (0.5 sec) doesn’t
actually just have a picture of what’s happening during that specific fifty five minute
period, (0.5 sec) but they sort of see what er what the students have been working
towards … So I would say that that’s perhaps the biggest difference is the amount
(0.5 sec) er the amount of time and the level of thought that goes into planning for that
Caroline is confirming in Extract 6 what seems to be apparent from all the lesson
transcripts of model lessons: she puts aside administrative tasks and concentrates
on her teaching and the factors that she wants to emphasize, so the observer can see
what she and the students have been working towards. She is relatively unusual in
the research sample as she views observation as an opportunity to demonstrate her
teaching skills, but the extent of the planning process still makes the model lesson
atypical of Caroline’s normal pedagogic practice.
129
Amanda Howard
Discussion
As a result of the analysis of the model and pedagogic lesson transcripts, it is in-
teresting to note that whilst the External features of model and pedagogic lessons
are very different, there are many commonalities between the Internal features
for each teacher that took part in the research. However, it is usually the External,
or low-inference features (Wragg, 1999) which are noted by the observer, and the
teacher is able to plan these in advance in order to provide the observer with an ex-
ample of best pedagogic practice (Howard, 2008). Therefore, taking the Observer’s
Paradox into account, this suggests that a model lesson is almost certainly going
to be an atypical example of a teacher’s usual teaching behavior in the classroom.
However, this is the very behavior that an observer records as being a teacher’s
typical classroom practice.
There are additional problems related to the observer’s focus on External fac-
tors during model lessons. Wragg (ibid) records that there is a frequent danger to
the profession posed by incompetent teachers who are able to present an appar-
ently competent lesson when being observed, and it can be argued that they can do
this because they know exactly what the observer is looking for. However, as the
research findings in this study indicate that teachers tend to favor using the same
modes whether or not they are being observed, a SETT analysis (Walsh, 2006) of the
Internal features of model lessons could be utilized to provide a contrasting picture
of a teacher’s abilities and behavior.
As an example of this, having interviewed the participating teachers about their
perceptions of model lessons for this research, it became apparent that Alice usually
received positive post-observation feedback. Interviews with supervisors suggest
that they prefer a clearly structured and sequenced model lesson, and this is what
they were presented with when they observed Alice. However, an analysis of the
Internal features of Alice’s lessons demonstrates that she manages to provide struc-
ture and sequence by avoiding moving beyond Management and Materials Mode,
thus maintaining continuous control over her students. Beatrice, on the other hand,
expected to regularly receive post-observation feedback of a negative nature, as she
is a teacher who takes risks and her lessons have the sequencing, but not the clear
organizational structure, of those taught by Alice. However, an analysis of the In-
ternal features of Beatrice’s lessons, both model and pedagogic, shows that student
interaction is a priority, and, although this is more difficult for an observer to evalu-
ate on an ongoing basis, her transcripts demonstrate that she encourages her learners
to become completely engaged in the lesson from the beginning.
130
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
The research data therefore suggests that although observers generally focus on
discrete items when attending a model lesson (Wragg, 1999), they might perhaps
be better employed in studying the lesson transcript if they want a more realistic
representation of a teacher’s behavior when teaching a class. This applies whether
the observation is formative or summative, and whatever its purpose may be. At the
very least, the results of the study argue for the use of high-inference observation re-
cords, which take account of events occurring in the classroom at a deeper level, and
would support a post-observation conference in which the teacher would be asked to
provide her/his own historic and situational perspective of the lesson.
Conclusion
It seems that there are a number of problem areas associated with classroom obser-
vation as it is currently practiced in many contexts, and that many teachers have
been aware of this for some time. However, observation is viewed by many educa-
tional professionals and researchers as an obvious way to discover what happens in
a classroom when a teacher is teaching. But what the observer actually sees during
a model lesson has usually been pre-planned and is directed specifically towards the
teacher’s understanding of the observers perceived requirements (Howard, 2008),
and/or the actual purpose of the observation. This suggests that classroom observa-
tion may not be fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended, so, to address this
challenge, it seems that there are three possible alternatives at this point:
It is not within the scope of this paper to review the possible alternatives suggested
in 3 above, but evidence does suggest that in may be unwise to use classroom ob-
servation as a universal method for understanding what happens in classrooms on a
daily basis, and that a re-evaluation of the practice should be carried out.
131
Amanda Howard
References
Bailey, K.M. (2001) Observation. In: Carter, R. and Nunan, D. eds. The Cam-
bridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 114-119
Beare, H. (1989) The Australian Policy Context. In: Lokan, J. and McKenzie, P.
eds.. Teacher Appraisal: Issues and Approaches. Victoria, Australia: Austra-
lian Council for Educational Research: v-viii
Bennet, H. (1992) Teacher appraisal; survival and beyond. Harlow: Longman
Danielson, C. and McGreal, T.L. (2000) Teacher Evaluation to Enhance Profes-
sional Practice. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publications
Good, T.L. and Brophy, J.E. (2003) Looking in Classrooms. 9th edn. Boston: Al-
lyn and Bacon
Howard, A. (2008) Teachers being observed: coming to terms with classroom
appraisal. In: Garton, S. and Richards, K. (Eds.) Professional Encounters in
TESOL. London: Palgrave, pp. 87-104
Howard, A. and Donaghue, H. (Eds.) (2015) Teacher Evaluation in Second Lan-
guage Education. London: Bloomsbury
King, M. (2015) Evaluating Experienced Teachers. In Howard, A. and Dona-
ghue, H. (Eds.) Teacher Evaluation in Second Language Education. London:
Bloomsbury, pp. 169-179
Labov, W. (1972) Sociolinguistic Patterns. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsyl-
vania Press
Montgomery, D. (1999) Positive Teacher Appraisal Through Classroom Obser-
vation. London: David Fulton
O’Leary, M. (2014) Classroom Observation: a guide to the effective observation
of teaching and learning. London: Routledge
Peterson, K.D. (2000) Teacher Evaluation: A Comprehensive Guide to New Di-
rections and Practices. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press
Powell-Davies, P. (Ed) (2013) Assessing and Evaluating English Language
Teacher Education, Teaching and Learning: Selected papers from the Second
International Conference of English Language Teacher Educators held in
Hyderabad, India. New Delhi: British Council
Randall, M, and Thornton, B. (2001) Advising and Supporting Teachers. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press
Reed, A.J.S. and Bergemann, V.E. (2005) A Guide to Observation, Participation
and Reflection in the Classroom. 5th edn. New York: McGraw Hill
Scriven, M. 1981. Summative Teacher Evaluation. In: Millman, J. ed. Handbook
of Teaching Evaluation. London: Sage, pp. 244-271
Tilstone, C. (1998) Observing Teaching and Learning: Principles and Practice.
London: David Fulton Publishers
132
Classroom observation of teachers: A practice in need of re-evaluation?
133
Mapping interactional patterns:
The Interactional Discourse Lab
Seongsook Choi
University of Edinburgh, Scotland
Keith Richards
University of Warwick, England
Introduction
135
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
Classrooms are strange places, yet they do not seem so to those who inhabit them.
Over thirty years ago White and Lightbown studied questioning patterns in three
Canadian ESL classrooms and came up with some surprising findings, four of which
are listed above. Anyone asked to reconstruct the sort of interaction exhibiting these
features would in all likelihood produce something surreal, unrecognisable by the
participants involved. However, as Garfinkel (1984, p. 288) noted, the everyday prac-
tices of participants in a particular setting are so taken for granted that they become
to all intents and purposes invisible: ‘a setting, in the same ways that it consists of
a recognized and familiar organization of activities, masks from members’ relevant
notice members’ practical ordering practices’. The implications of this for research-
ers are spelt out by Mannay (2013, p. 94):
Interpretive research aims to investigate the invisibility of everyday life but when a
researcher is working in familiar territory there is a danger that their findings will
be overshadowed by the enclosed, self-contained world of common understanding.
While researchers unfamiliar with a particular setting need to find ways of under-
standing the local ‘strangeness’ that confronts them, the challenges they face are
as nothing compared with those of insider researchers, who must engage with the
formidable problem of identifying what may to them be to invisible. This challenge
is particularly acute in the case of teacher-researchers, who often have extensive ex-
perience of the classroom and are involved in researching their own work or that of
colleagues. For their research to be successful, they must find ways in an immensely
complex context to ‘make strange social context that we [they] assume to understand
by virtue of taken for granted cultural competence’ (Atkinson, et al., 2003, p. 47).
A sense of this complexity can be gleaned from the six dimensions of the class-
room setting identified by Doyle (1986). The first of these, multidimensionality, re-
fers to the need to orchestrate classroom activities, all of which may have multiple
consequences. In the case of teacher questions, for example, waiting for a student
136
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
to respond to a question can affect the student’s motivation, the pace of the lesson
and the attention of the rest of the class. This connects with the second dimension,
simultaneity, which reflects the multiple events that are part and parcel of classroom
life. While waiting for a pupil to respond to a question, for example, the teacher must
be aware of time, monitor the rest of the class, note who else might be bidding to
respond, who might be showing signs of inattention, etc. Because of the immediacy
and unpredictability of classroom events, thinking time in such situations is a luxury
that teachers rarely enjoy. To illustrate the implications of this, Doyle refers to re-
search indicating that an elementary teacher has over 500 exchanges with individual
students in a single day, and in a single year a primary school teacher might produce
around 16,000 examples of public praise and blame. The publicness of classroom
events must be seen in the context of a history in which a shared set of experiences,
routines and norms evolves over time, so that routines established at the beginning
of an academic year will have implications for what follows.
We might seek to understand such a world in many ways. Quantitative research
will provide us with a picture of some of its general characteristics and interviews
will allow us to see it from the perspective of its participants, but in order to un-
derstand the world itself it is necessary to analyse the events themselves, captured
either through fieldnotes or recordings. Fundamental to this is the identification of
patterns of behaviour indicative of the ways things get done and how participants
orient to these. So important are these patterns that some researchers define qualita-
tive research itself in these terms. Auerbach and Silverstein’s (2003, p. 3) succinct
definition is a case in point:
For our purpose, qualitative research can be defined as follows: Qualitative research
is research that involves analyzing and interpreting texts and interviews in order to
discover meaningful patterns descriptive of a particular phenomenon.
When you’re working with text or initial displays, you often note recurring patterns,
themes, or “gestalts” that pull together many separate pieces of data. Something
137
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
jumps out at you and suddenly makes sense… The human mind finds patterns almost
intuitively; it needs no how-to advice. But patterns don’t just happen; we construct
them from our observations of reoccurring phenomena.
Extract 1:
Lines 1-3 illustrate what might be described as the canonical IRF, or triadic, pattern
in which the teacher initiates the sequence by inviting an answer, in this case using
sound stretching to prompt completion, to which a student responds (‘When’). The
teacher then provides a follow-up in the form of an evaluation (hence the alternative
IRE acronym for the pattern) in line 3, repeating the item and following this with an
emphatically stretched confirmation. The next sequence, which begins in the same
line, is addressed to a different student, whose initial response (line 4) is incorrect.
The reaction of the class (untranscribable) seems to make this clear to him and he
begins another response in line 6. Following the teacher’s prompt (‘to’) he completes
his answer but this too is incorrect. The extent to which participants orient to the un-
stated rules for classroom interaction is clear in S3’s correction in line 9: since only
the nominated student has the right to reply and the provision of a correct answer, if
138
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
139
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
The IDLab
The Interactional Discourse Lab (IDLab) is an open source software tool that cap-
tures the interactional dynamics of talk-in-action using both qualitative and quanti-
tative methods. It automatically generates interactive visualisations of the patterns
of interactions from an input transcript that has been tagged by an analyst. The
IDLab processes the tags to visualise the information using R, a statistical program-
ming language ([Link] The generated visuals are then displayed in
three separate panels: speakers and tags, interactions and timeline, each panel up-
dating the relevant statistics and graphs according to the tags selected by the analyst.
The tool is entirely written in R ([Link] a free and open-source lan-
guage designed for statistics. R was chosen for a number of reasons:
140
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
comes with a confidence interval to convey the uncertainty attached to the measure-
ment; frequencies calculated from a large sample will have a narrower confidence
interval (May and Johnson, 2000).
IDLab is not designed to replace traditional analysis and methodologies; rather it
serves to augment existing tools by offering insights into the data that are otherwise
not easily accessible in non-visual text data. Discursis (Angus et al. 2013), a visuali-
sation system that shows the temporal structure of a conversation by representing the
time series of each speaker’s turn as well as shared concepts between them, adopts
a similar approach. However, while Discursis, using word frequency statistics gen-
erated by Leximancer, provides turn-by-turn visual information relating to global
topic structures, IDLab focuses on patterns and dynamics of turn-taking. Both tools
emphasise the importance of visual representation of conversational dynamics.
Tools such as these offer an opportunity to map patterns of talk within specific
domains and are particularly valuable where the focus is on groups that have worked
together over time and where distinctive interactional contours have developed. The
use of interactional topography to describe this process is based on a number of key
considerations: that there are many different landscapes of interaction, that some
features of these change over time while others endure, that tools are now available
to describe such terrains in sufficient detail to be analytically productive, and that
the development of mapping systems is itself of interest. In what follows we demon-
strate the features of IDLab using the data from classroom interaction.
Data
The transcribed data used in this paper are from the International House Teacher
Training DVD series. The students’ level of English is pre-intermediate (A2), the
focus of the lesson is on lexis and skills, and the aim is to provide clarification and
restricted use of lexical set of everyday items. Although there are 15 lessons in this
series, for the purpose of illustration we concentrate on one lesson: DVD 1.
In order to map aspects of the interaction that contribute to its topography, it is first
necessary to tag the data. The limitations of a priori categorisation have been well
debated (e.g. Van Rees, 1992; Schegloff, 2005), so it is important to emphasise that
141
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
the aim at this point is not to develop a definitive analysis but to generate an indica-
tive map of the relevant interactional terrain. The IDLab tool places no limit on the
number of categories used, but a preliminary analysis of the classroom interaction
concentrates on IRF (initiation-response-feedback) and SETT (Self-Evaluation of
Teacher Talk, Walsh, 2006, 2013). Table 1 shows the codes we developed based on
the features of IRF and the SETT model (see Table 2) and used for tagging the data.
SETT
Man (agerial)
Mat (rials)
Sys (skills and systems)
Cla (classroom context)
IRF Code Definition
I I (initation) Any first initiation
II (Reinitiation) Any second or subsequent same-initiation
R R (esponse) Any response in answer to the initiation
C (check, clarify) Response to enable understanding of the initiation
F F (eedback) Any feedback to the response not including
E (valuation) explicit evaluation
Explicit evaluation (e.g. good, well done etc.)
Combination RI (response initiation) Combination of response and initiation
FI (feedback initiation) Combination of feedback and initiation
Other EI (evaluation initiation) Combination of evaluation and initiation
PROmpt Aims to stimulate a response but does not reiniti-
ate (e.g. Go on)
142
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
In order to map the classroom interaction, every turn is tagged with the codes in
table 1. The codes are placed within the slashes; the SETT and IRF categories re-
spectively are separated by a comma indicating the first code as the top level cat-
egory, as shown in the Extract 2.
Extract 2:
143
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
Once the data is tagged, it can be uploaded by browsing, and the IDLab then reads
the tags and visualises the output. What emerges most strikingly from this fairly
basic mapping of the two features is the extent to which it reflects features of rel-
evant activities, orientations and relationships. The IDLab tool generates a number
of outputs that can be used for analysis, but implying no specific analytical order.
We begin with bar charts providing basic information about speaker participation,
highlighting what is indicated by these, then move on to consider a timeline analysis
that sets this basic information into a broader, developmental perspective. Finally,
we consider figures providing further details about relationships between the fea-
tures of SETT and IRF patterns.
Bar charts
Figure 1: Speaker Participation
It is to be expected that the teacher will have more turns than any individual stu-
dent, but a more important question in language teaching is whether students have
adequate opportunities to contribute to classroom talk, so it is encouraging to see
that in this lesson student turns make up approximately 70% of the total used (544
turns out of the total 858 turns). It is also immediately clear that the student partici-
pation in this class is fairly well balanced, leaving aside the ‘S’ turns (n94), which
represent any one unidentified student and the participation of the whole class (SS).
The general overview of the speaker participation in Figure 1 shows well distributed
interaction between teacher and students in this class. However, to gain a better
144
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
In this category, the total speaker participation constitutes 133 turns (approximately
15%) out of the total 858 turns, and it is encouraging to see that teacher talk occu-
pies a far smaller proportion of the talk than does student talk. This is not surprising
because the expectation in this mode would be that the teacher talk would be mostly
centered on scaffolding and extending students’ talk, but it is nevertheless helpful to
have this confirmed. A comparison between teacher talk in this mode and teacher
talk in the lesson overall (Figure 1) is instructive and might be used to great effect
with trainee teachers to highlight the important link between participation struc-
tures and lesson aims.
Looking more closely at the proportional speaker participation for each tag (Fig-
ure 3.1) and the proportional use of tags for each speaker (Figure 3.2) reveals the
distribution of the tags in the classroom context SETT category. As is evident in Fig-
ure 3.1, not only is the students’ use of R(esponse) widely distributed but also, and
perhaps more importantly, a good number of students initiate, which is indicative
145
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
of interaction in which the teacher is not taking the lead. That said, it is also evident
that – perhaps not uncharacteristically – one student emerges as dominant. Although
S2 provides no evaluations, Figure 3.1 indicates that he or she takes the lead, not
only in initiating the most (almost a quarter of the initiations are from this student)
but also in being the only student to use the FI (feedback and initiation) move.
Figure 3.2 displays the proportional use of tags for each individual speaker, i.e.
how much of that speaker’s talk is taken up by each tag, indicating which of the IRF
features are more commonly and distinctively used in this context. It is interesting
and not surprising to see that feature R(esponse) dominates in this context, but what
is more interesting is the extent to which initiation features in the contributions of all
students. With the exception of S3 straightforward I(initiation) features prominently
in the talk of all students, and if combinations of evaluation and initiation (EI) and
feedback and initiation (FI) are included the proportion for even S3 is reasonably
healthy.
The above two examples illustrate how the bar chart generated by the IDLab
allows the researcher to interactively manipulate the tags by selecting interesting
SETT and IRF features to gain information about overall speaker participation as
well as category specific speaker participation.
146
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
Timeline
The visuals provided in Figures 1, 2 and 3 are interesting but they are essentially
static. A timeline of classroom modes (Figure 4), however, reveals a number of as-
pects that add important details to the map. It displays information about the devel-
opmental perspectives of speaker participation and the use of specific features in the
classroom. In the timeline, the speakers are displayed at the top tier, and the bottom
tier presents the tags used by the speakers. It is to be read from the left, the beginning
of the class, to the right, the end of the class, allowing an instant and global view of
interaction patterns of the teacher and students in a classroom and the distribution of
the SETT and IRF features. In practice, specific features can be tracked across the
timeline and relationships identified, and the tool allows particular stretches to be
abstracted and magnified to facilitate closer analysis. However, for the purposes of
this chapter we focus only on the distribution of teaching modes in the SETT model
in order to demonstrate what insights even the most general overview can generate.
The pattern of the total 858 turns and a general indicative view of individual
features of speakers and tags in this class are displayed in figure 4.1, which makes
it immediately apparent that there are distinctive clusters of features on both tiers.
The segmented aspects of the timeline in figures 4.2–4.5 highlight this by showing
the distribution of the SETT modes in this class. Of the four modes, the skills and
systems feature dominates throughout the class while the features the classroom
147
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
context and materials occur at different times: at the beginning, in the middle and
towards the end, suggesting that they have been strategically placed as part of a well-
structured plan. As expected, although the managerial mode is distributed through-
out the lesson, there are distinctive occurrences – even clusters – before the start
of classroom context activities. This is because the teacher gives instructions and
organisational information relating to tasks the students will be engaged in. What is
interesting to observe in this class, however, is that there is no managerial feature at
the beginning of the class, unlike at the end, which might prompt the researcher to
investigate more closely how this teacher starts the class.
Figure 4: Timeline
148
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
Network
The final element in the mapping process comprises the interaction network analy-
sis, which needs to be read in conjunction with other outputs. The size of the circles
in Figure 5 represent the extent of the SETT feature use but not overall speaker
participation, and while the thickness of the lines reflects the turn relationship as a
percentage of overall use for the individual feature which the arrow derives, this has
no implications for the number of turns involved. This output shows only consecu-
tive (i.e. immediately adjacent) turns. For example, over half of the management
turns (50.85%) are followed by other management turns, over a third (37.29%) are
followed by skills and systems turns and the remainder are followed by either class-
room context (11.86%) or materials (5.88%) talk.
The network analysis is included here for the purposes of illustration only, since in
this instance it adds nothing new to the foregoing analysis, though this would not be
the case were the focus on the specific interactional relationships (for example be-
tween different sub-groups or between a manager and their team). The dominance of
skills and systems talk was apparent in the timeline, as was the separation of materi-
als and classroom context talk, hence the lack of contiguity in the latter. In any case,
the netweork, like the timeline, is intended to be no more than indicative and it may
149
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
150
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
Conclusion
In this chapter we have highlighted the importance of patterns in research and point-
ed to their particular relevance in the classroom. We have also suggested that the
challenge of identifying such patterns can be particularly acute for teacher-research-
ers whose extended exposure to classroom norms and routines lends these an every-
day taken-for-granted quality that renders them invisible. The ‘making strange’ that
is required in order to expose them to analytical scrutiny can be achieved with the
help of suitable tools, though to date research into classroom discourse has relied on
close analysis of particular features and/or the quantitative representation of these.
What has been missing up to now, we argued, is a tool that would map interactional
dynamics of group interaction and generate visual representations designed to fa-
cilitate the identification of relevant patterns. The remainder of the chapter was then
dedicated to the description of such a tool, the IDLab, and an illustration of how it
might be applied.
The relevance of such a tool to classroom research does not need to be spelt
out, so we conclude the chapter by indicating the potential uses of the IDLab in
other contexts. The most important of these is teacher education, where direct
access to classroom data is in the form of video recordings, observation or tran-
scripts, all of which can yield valuable insights but none of which provides rep-
resentations of wider patterns. Transcription is a time-consuming affair, but once
collections of transcripts of different kinds of lesson have been built up, these can
be made available to trainee teachers who can then engage in guided exploration
using the IDLab to discover patterns and relationships for themselves. The IDLab
makes comparisons both within and between lessons possible and can be used
with whatever coding system is most appropriate. This also makes it useful for
teachers – and especially novice teachers – who wish to discover more about their
approach to teaching. A single transcribed lesson can be explored from numer-
ous angles, identifying potentially problematic areas, indicating relationships that
might usefully be explored, etc. And because the tool is designed specifically for
use with group interaction, its use is not confined only to the classroom; it can be
used in any professional contexts where meetings feature in order to better under-
stand the interactional dynamics involved.
The IDLab is a newly created tool that is available as an open source programme
([Link] This means that its de-
velopment is not limited to the efforts of its creator but can be distributed amongst
those with an interest in it and the necessary programming skills. Its potential as an
151
Seongsook Choi, Keith Richards
analytical tool and its capacity for local tailoring are therefore unlimited, holding
out the prospect of increasingly penetrative insights into the interactional dynamics
of different groups.
. Falling contour
? Interrogative contour
! Exclamatory contour
: Prior syllable stretched
(.) Micro-pause
(1.5) Pauses timed to seconds and half seconds
underlining Underlined syllable(s) emphasised
(XXXX) Untranscribable
((Description)) Additional information
ºWordº Delivery quieter than the surrounding talk
[ Onset of overlapping talk
References
152
Mapping interactional patterns: the interactional discourse lab
153
III
Políticas lingüísticas
Language policies
English as a global language and the
internationalization of universities
Telma Gimenez
Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Brazil
Introduction
Universities in the developing world have faced one sweeping trend that has pushed
them to reconsider their mission: the internationalization of higher education as part
of the globalizing processes affecting the production and dissemination of knowl-
edge constructed by academic circles as well as the qualification of skilled workers
to operate in a globalized job market. At the heart of this process is the notion of
competitiveness, fueled by neoliberal policies that promote the freedom to choose
in a world without borders. As Delgado-Márquez; Hurtado-Torres; Bondar (2011, p.
268) explain
Globalization drives and is driven by higher education. Higher education trains high-
ly skilled workers and contributes to the research base and capacity for innovation
that determine competitiveness in the knowledge-based global economy.
According to those authors, the close links between globalization and the knowledge
economy have led to changes in the managerial attitudes of universities that have
become more entrepreneurial and hence, more “business-like”, making adjustments
in their program and organizational strategies in order to become global players.
Also, the state has a role to play “since in a global world of higher education, most
national governments want to have international universities that compete and coop-
erate with other universities worldwide” Delgado-Márquez; Hurtado-Torres; Bondar
(2011, p. 268).
It is against this background that I will introduce the Brazilian government ini-
tiative “Science without Borders” and its ancillary program “Languages without
157
Telma Gimenez
At the heart of the debate on internationalization is the language issue, closely as-
sociated with culture and identity. On the one hand there are those who would like to
acknowledge the multiplicity of languages academic mobility is increased, where-
as others fear that we are dangerously approaching the motto “one language, one
world” with English at the center stage. These tensions are far from being solved as
this language is represented discursively in close association with internationaliza-
tion and its push for standardization.
The inevitability of English is reflected not only in some academic circles (with
the pressing need to publish in that language or perish under oblivion), but also by
the media that brings the ordinary citizen´s voice to reinforce the belief that without
English it is very difficult to survive in a globalizing world (Gimenez et al, 2006;
Gimenez, 2014). As a result, the dominant discourse around internationalization
reinforces the role of English as a global language, as more and more universities
struggle to offer their specific area courses in English. In fact, English as a medium
1 When it was launched, the program was called “English without Borders”. Later, other languages were intro-
duced and it became “Languages without Borders”. However, in this text I will keep the original English without
Borders nomenclature.
158
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
of instruction (EMI) is gaining more ground as universities expand their course of-
ferings to attract foreign students. According to a recent British Council report
There is a fast-moving worldwide shift from English being taught as a foreign language
(EFL) to English being the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects such
as science, mathematics, geography and medicine. EMI is increasingly being used
in universities, secondary schools and even primary schools. (Dearden, 2014, p.2).
Although EMI has been closely associated with internationalization and some of the
leading universities in Brazil are beginning to offer courses in various areas through
English, my focus is on another side of what I would call outward internationaliza-
tion: a federal government policy strategy that offers scholarships for students and
academics to study abroad in international “research institutions of excellence” and
one that required a special program to improve the foreign language proficiency
levels of the potential candidates. My purpose is to provide a critique of such a pro-
gram, by bringing an academic perspective that challenges some of its assumptions.
While internationalization processes have often taken for granted a monolithic
view of English, they are followed in parallel with discussions of English as a global
lingua franca (ELF), in which academics have pushed for the need to move away from
close association with a particular country/variety, calling for new definitions of lan-
guage and new paradigms for its teaching based on language diversity (Dewey, 2014).
I would like to focus on the “Languages without Borders - English” (EWB)
program because, paradoxically, it may reinforce the boundaries of language, by
associating it with the American Standard variety on the premise that the major-
ity of the students apply to American universities or that all the universities abroad
demand that students prove their language proficiency through specific tests/certifi-
cates which are oriented to the American variety. Although the term “borderless”
may convey the idea that attachments to particular nation-states are no longer rel-
evant, the test strengthens those connections by favoring a variety associated with
a specific country.
Another aspect that deserves attention is the role played by international tests
in the process of internationalization of higher education. Insofar as this process
draws on the availability of language-related products such as internationally rec-
ognized proficiency tests and teaching materials, largely dependent on the notion of
a standard variety, it tends to push for homogeneity. This notion is associated with
the perspective of English as a native language (ENL), in contrast with English as a
159
Telma Gimenez
Lingua Franca (ELF), a perspective that is more open to the variability inherent in
multicultural encounters.
Generally speaking, ELF refers to those contexts of language use in which
speakers from diverse multilingual and multicultural backgrounds resort to English
in order to communicate. Although there are many controversies surrounding the
ELF concept (see, for instance, O´Regan, 2014), it seems that students abroad would
benefit greatly from an ELF perspective, since the internationalization of higher
education amplifies the diversity of non-English speaking students, especially in the
so-called “centers of excellence”. This means that there is the probability that a great
number of international students will be non-native speakers of English, for whom
an ELF perspective, as interpreted here,could be of help.
This text is organized as follows: first I briefly introduce the topic of internation-
alization and then present the “English without Borders” program, by giving some
details of its enactment and the underlying assumptions about the English language
reflected in the seemingly predominance of the American variety. I then contrast
that with the ELF tenets. Finally, I present some implications of considering ELF in
policy decision-making in the context of the Brazilian program.
160
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
that our public universities are trying to attract foreign students by offering courses
in English (although that is also beginning to appear2), but our concern has been in
how to engage in dialogue with the international research community. According
to the program official website, the Science without Borders program main goal is
Although this text invites further analysis in terms of the meanings of interna-
tionalization underlying the Brazilian strategy, I will not do so here because it
would change of focus of my text. However, it is important to note that this strat-
egy cannot be decoupled from a foreign language policy, something that a private
organization has highlighted in a recent report. According to an evaluation car-
ried out by English First (EF), our country ranks at 38th place among 63 countries
in terms of English language proficiency.3 Despite the fragility of the statistical
significance of the data gathered by that organization4, the report published in
2014 noted the following:
When the Brazilian government initiated the Science without Borders program to
send 100,000 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students
abroad, it discovered that many students could not qualify for the program due to low
2 For instance, the newspaper that circulates at Universidade de São Paulo(USP), one of the most prestigious uni-
versities In Brazil and Latin America, has announced that “colleges will start to offer optional courses in English”
(Jornal do Campus, year 33, n. 443, July 2015. p.6).
3 EPI Index for 2014 informed Brazil had a low proficiency level score of 49.96.
4 The levels are established by a self-selected group of respondents who check their proficiency levels by answer-
ing online questions through the English First website.
161
Telma Gimenez
The efforts to qualify as many students and academics as possible in English may
be better understood when we look at their countries of destination. According to
the statistics publicly available ([Link]/web/csf/painel-
de-controle), 78,173 scholarships have been granted so far (July 2015), with 43,660
(i.e. 55%) to English-speaking countries: United States, United Kingdom, Canada
and Australia. The United States alone received 22.064 students (28%), the largest
contingent.
EwB, managed by a team of academics, is a program that aims at one level, to
prepare candidates to meet the requirements of foreign universities, and at another
level, increase the opportunities for English language learning in Brazilian uni-
versities in order to facilitate internationalization. Financed by the federal govern-
ment, its actions include the administration of language proficiency tests, distance
learning and face-to-face classes. These strategies apparently favor the American
variety of English, since TOEFL ITP was the test chosen and offered free of charge
(although acquired by the Brazilian government) to 500.000 students6. These tests
are administered by the Brazilian universities involved in the implementation of
the program, through specific procedures managed by a certified organization –
MasterTest. The distance courses are accessed via passwords (also acquired by
the Brazilian government in negotiation with National Geographic and Cengage
Learning, which already supplied publications to another governmental program
– ‘Portal de Periódicos’). My English Online is offered also free of charge to uni-
versity undergraduate and postgraduate students and staff. It focuses on reading,
oral skills and grammar. According to the website ([Link])
the learner will have access to interactive reading (sources from the National Geo-
graphic), grammar exercises (with immediate feedback), dictionaries, oral practice
5 I will not comment on the businesses created by the perceived demand for English, which could be the focus of
another text on linguistic commodification in the age of neoliberal globalization.
6 The difficulty of administering computer-based tests on such a scale led to negotiations with host universities
that accepted the paper-based version of the test and thus enabled thousands of undergraduate candidates to pur-
sue their studies abroad.
162
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
and follow-up tests. The face-to- face classes are offered by 63 NucLi7 in federal
universities and the tutors are either graduates in Languages (‘Letras’) or English
language speakers with high proficiency levels. They are helped by American na-
tive speakers of English, through a partnership that brings ETAs (English Teach-
ing Assistants), from different parts of the United States, to facilitate “immersion
in the culture of English native speakers” ([Link]
presencial).
Although the decisions that led to an apparent preference for a view that English
is closely associated with the United States are justified in terms of the sheer number
of candidates going to universities in that country, one cannot forget that 72% of the
students go to universities in countries where other varieties of English exist (such as
Australia or the United Kingdom) or where EMI predominates. This chapter argues
that the justification that TOEFL is an internationally recognized test does not seem
strong enough to reject a plurilithic view of English, a view advocated by scholars
interested in developing the ELF perspective.
ELF can be viewed as a term that tries to accommodate the variability in language
use in international contexts where English is used as a means of communication.
According to a leading researcher in this area, ELF refers to “any use of English
among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communica-
tive medium of choice, and often the only option” (Seidlhofer, 2011: 7). However,
the English used in such contexts can take forms that defy the American standard
variety as users may resort to all kinds of linguistic resources they have in order to
communicate successfully.
Hypothetically, the academic success in universities abroad may have less to
do with strict adherence to a standard variety and more with strategic maneuvering
across multilingual settings, since universities are now becoming “international”.
This means that there is a greater chance of having to interact with non-native
speakers of English (including professors) who, from all corners of the world, at-
tend or teach in the “research institutions of excellence”. An excessive focus on a
particular variety may not be helpful in negotiating the transcultural instability of
7 NuLli (Núcleos de Ensino de Idiomas) were language centers created with the purpose of teaching those cours-
es, also financed by the government.
163
Telma Gimenez
164
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
The best preparation for such a context is one that does not converge to homoge-
neity but expands the horizons. However, this is not what the test requires. The skills
needed in these contexts, according to TOEFL ITP, are in 3 areas:
The testing strand of the EwB program can potentially convey the idea that as long
as a candidate achieves the required score he or she will be able to succeed as an
academic, because in this initial assessment he or she can read or recognize “struc-
tural and grammatical points in standard written English”. Since the test focuses on
receptive skills (even writing is assessed in terms of ‘recognition’), the candidate´s
ability to perform productively in the international university is out of the radar
screen. Therefore, the test has limitations as a measure of the candidate´s academic
potential.
Surely these concerns are not considered lightly by the team responsible for the
program management. In a previous text, Gimenez & Passoni (2014) have already
noted that the program coordinators reported being aware of the potential washback
effects of the program and constantly monitoring the program in order to make the
necessary adjustments. Some initial assessments of the program have been done in
terms of perceptions and potential for the education of the teachers and instructors
in charge of the courses in the NucLis (Sarmento and Kirsch, 2015).
In fact, further studies on the washback effects of the TOEFL ITP in classrooms
have yet to be carried out. They will probably provide a better picture of the effects
of the policy decisions on the teaching of English and on the students´ attitudes
towards other varieties of English and the intercultural strategies required by con-
texts of lingua franca communication. In other words, washback studies may reveal
whether the orientation adopted in pedagogic practices are aligned with or challenge
the strict preparation for the test based on a standard American variety, although I
suspect the former is stronger.
Gimenez and Passoni (2014) also noted the policy-makers´ difficulty in adopting
reconfiguration-oriented policies (Park & Wee, 2014), when the internationalization
of higher education depends so heavily on standardized assessment tools converted
165
Telma Gimenez
into “products” in a global market. As a result, the ideology that associates the lan-
guage to native-speakers of a particular variety of the language is reinforced by local
decisions that are not immune to the external pressure of service providers who push
for ENL:
The decisions adopted within the EwB program seem to be in line with what Park
& Wee (2014) call accommodation-oriented policies, i.e. the ones that accept the
existing structure of the linguistic market dominated by the English language in its
standard American variety. According to those authors
When we focus on the specific issue of global English, however, we find that many
national-level policies are highly accommodating to the dominant ideologies of the
global language market. For example, we often find in language policy a privileging
of the traditional native speaker or a lack of critical engagement with the assump-
tions of neoliberal personhood and the associations between English and economic
neutrality. (Park, Wee, 2014, p. 167).
[…] the ELF project explicitly contests the dominant ideologies of native speaker-
hood and standard English to legitimize the English used by those who were re-
jected as non-native speakers, and attempts to realize this change through specific
proposals to reform English-language teaching in the Expanding Circle. (Park, Wee,
2014, p.168)
166
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
Although it is not be possible to overhaul the global market completely, the propo-
nents of ELF as a perspective to inform teaching practices believe it is possible to
introduce alternatives at a local level, such as favoring an intercultural approach to
teaching rather than a reliance on native speaker models These alternative practices
may, in the end, lead to transformations in the ideologies that sustain the market,
as we see in the inclusion of a “World Englishes” paradigm in teacher training pro-
grams (Dewey, 2014). After all, English in a globalizing world is a language that
shares of the features of our times: mobility, adaptability and fluidity. Additionally,
ELF researchers emphasize that nowadays a great number of interactions are de-
territorialized and that ELF usage means that the language has travelled away from
native speaker’s countries and can no longer be geographically located:
the very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can have
custody over it. (Widdowson, 2000, p. 42).
Interactions in ELF are hardly predictable, and many of its features are produced
online, as some researchers have already noticed:
[…] the consequence of increased mobility and the global interconnected system of
social organization it gives rise to is that it is has a profound effect on the way that
people interact and on the cultural practices which mediate this interaction (Seargent,
2012, p. 159).
ELF involves online modification of English language resources to suit the particular
communicative needs of interlocutors, resulting in innovative uses of lexicogram-
matical, pragmatic and sociocultural forms (and so is a legitimate manifestation of
English in its own right) (Cogo, Dewey, 2012, p.18).
The point I want to make is that the fact that English is a language with differential
value in the internationalization of higher education does not automatically translate
in it being solely associated with a particular native speaker variety. Although in the
early stages ELF research had been associated with codification, its current develop-
ments can contribute to challenge the predominant views often reinforced by policy
choices, since it focuses on contexts of use and does not propose an alternative va-
167
Telma Gimenez
Concluding remarks
In this text I have presented a critique of a government policy initiative in Brazil that
promotes the English language as it relates to the efforts for internationalization of
science and technology. The EwB program, financed by the federal government, was
introduced in terms of its apparent preference for a standard variety of English that
associates it with ENL and reflects an accommodation-oriented policy. In contrast,
I argued that a reconfiguration-oriented policy would invest in promoting an ELF
perspective, which acknowledges the multiplicity of students´ linguacultural back-
grounds as the internationalization of higher education gains further acceptance and
elevates English to the status of a global language. An ELF perspective is relevant
because academics in international universities are likely to navigate among diverse
linguistic and cultural practices; therefore efforts to develop awareness of the multi-
lingual realities they are going to face would seem more helpful.
However, large scale policy decisions related to internationalization still need to
rely on standardization and therefore end up reinforcing predominant ideologies that
favor native speakers and the associated linguistic products they make available in
the global market.
The internationalization of higher education is exposing some of the tensions
emerging from a market oriented view of education, one in which not only one lan-
guage enjoys privileged status but one of its varieties has better market value because
it is already commodified and accepted as the norm. In this scenario, if multilingual
realities are erased by the acceptance of English as the language of international-
ization, the multiplicity in English becomes invisible in policies that (intentionally
or not) promote one particular variety. Alternative perspectives to the status quo of
these varieties, such as ELF, face enormous challenges for they are conceptually
grounded on the opposite of standardization. Further developments in this area
will show whether these tensions can be resolved; at least they may give visibility
to other aspects of internationalization hidden under the native speaker ideology.
168
English as a global language and the internationalization of universities
References
169
Telma Gimenez
Park, J.S., Wee, L. (2014). Markets of English – linguistic capital and language
policy in a globalizing world. London, UK: Routledge.
Sarmento, S., & Kirsch, W. (2015) Inglês sem fronteiras: uma mirada ao contexto
da prática pelo prisma da formação de professores. Ilha do Desterro, 68(1),
pp. 47-59.
Seargent, P. (2012). Exploring World Englishes – language in a global context.
London, UK: Routledge.
Widdowson, H. (2000). Object of language and the language subject: on the me-
diating role of Applied Linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20,
pp. 21–33.
Zhou, Y., Divya, J-S., Topping, K. and Todman, J. (2008). Theoretical models of
culture shock and adaptation in international students in higher education.
Studies in Higher Education, 33(1), pp. 63–75.
170
Autonomía lingüística y social de
los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
Erwan Morel1
Universidad Veracruzana, México
Introducción
171
Erwan Morel
172
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
El docente es quien define la pedagogía, mientras que los niños son receptores de la
formación. Con el concepto de andragogía, se admite que, en el caso del adulto, lo
que determina la necesidad es una obligación de actuar. Los adultos son actores y
responsables de su formación (Etienne, 2004, p. 61).
De hecho, se trata aquí de un campo delimitado por unos contornos precisos dentro
de la enseñanza-aprendizaje de las lenguas, lo cual implica una intervención didác-
tica igualmente específica, que tome en cuenta el contexto preciso de adquisición: el
de la inmersión de los inmigrantes adultos en un entorno homoglota. A esta espe-
cificidad del público adulto, también hay que agregar la de los perfiles de los apren-
dientes, cada vez más diversificados, con la complejización y enriquecimiento subse-
cuente del marco formativo, caracterizado por un alto grado de heterogeneidad en el
salón de clase: diversidad de las nacionalidades, de las microculturas nacionales, de
las culturas educativas, de los sistemas lingüísticos propios de las L1, L2 y, a veces,
L3 en contacto, de la edad de los aprendientes, así como de las causas de su migra-
ción (reagrupamiento familiar, migración económica, climática, asilo político, etc.).
La adquisición del francés en contexto homoglota no fue objeto de una larga tradi-
ción de investigación en didáctica de las lenguas, a la inversa del aprendizaje de las
lenguas en contexto institucional heteroglota. Conforme a la descripción propuesta
por Rémy Porquier (1974), un medio es homoglota si el aprendizaje de un idioma se
realiza dentro del entorno lingüístico del propio idioma (lo cual corresponde a la si-
tuación de enseñanza-aprendizaje del francés para los inmigrantes adultos en Fran-
cia); y heteroglota cuando el aprendizaje de un idioma se lleva a cabo fuera de su
entorno lingüístico (por ejemplo, la enseñanza-aprendizaje de la lengua francesa en
México). Cabe mencionar, sin embargo, la importancia de las investigaciones rea-
lizadas por Clive Perdue en el marco del proyecto translingüístico ESF (European
Science Foundation) durante los años 1990, el cual analiza el proceso de interlengua
a partir de producciones orales de inmigrantes adultos. La enseñanza del idioma
francés para los inmigrantes se inserta en el marco de un contexto sociodidáctico
específico en Francia, lo cual aleja dicho campo del FLS, ya que, en opinión de Jean-
173
Erwan Morel
Pierre Cuq: “(…) a mediano plazo y de forma general, el fin predecible del proceso
de aprendizaje del idioma francés en el caso de los inmigrantes es el monolingüismo
y la asimilación” (1992, p. 14). Este monolingüismo presentado por Cuq como hori-
zonte del proceso de aprendizaje podría entonces aplicarse de igual forma al público
de inmigrantes jóvenes escolarizados, el cual se enfrenta al francés como lengua de
escolarización en un proceso que lleva desde el FLE hasta la adquisición de saberes
cercanos al Francés como lengua materna (FLM por sus siglas en francés).
Si bien esta perspectiva permite una mejor aprehensión de la especificidad del
contexto de formación, cabe objetar que el monolingüismo, considerado como un
fin en sí, constituya el fin predecible del proceso de aprendizaje para los inmigran-
tes (jóvenes escolarizados y adultos), y, más particularmente, si se toman en cuen-
ta las investigaciones existentes en el campo del plurilingüismo (Castellotti, 2001).
Efectivamente, las orientaciones de los investigadores procedentes del campo de la
sociolingüística y el plurilingüismo no son ajenas a esta temática sobre la autonomía
lingüística y social de los inmigrantes, ya que las interacciones entre el idioma fran-
cés y la(s) primera(s) lengua(s) de socialización dentro de un grupo de aprendientes
contribuyen a su riqueza identitaria y cultural, cada uno de ellos posee su propia
lectura, su propia variación lingüística (incluso en francés, para los inmigrantes de
habla francesa). En oposición completa a un monolingüismo anhelado en reitera-
das ocasiones por ciertas políticas lingüísticas “verticales” y en sentido único, el
plurilingüismo en este contexto de formación debe ser considerado como una opor-
tunidad y un enriquecimiento pluricultural necesario para la emancipación de los
valores de tolerancia y respeto en nuestras sociedades actuales.
Al igual que el FLSCO, el FLI considera el idioma francés a la vez como objeto
de estudio y medio de comunicación para los aprendientes. La constante exposición
al idioma de aprendizaje le confiere al proceso de adquisición algunas características
específicas, marcadas por un ineludible efecto de aculturación lingüística. El proce-
so de apropiación del francés por estos inmigrantes “bajo la presión permanente del
idioma francés” (Adami, 2008) es, por ende, muy peculiar, no sólo a nivel cognitivo
sino también en el aspecto sociolingüístico:
174
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
175
Erwan Morel
El conocimiento que tiene uno de sus propios procesos cognitivos, productos y todo
lo relativo, por ejemplo, las propiedades pertinentes para el aprendizaje de informa-
ciones y datos. La metacognición se relaciona entre otras con la evaluación activa, la
regulación y la organización de estos procesos en función de los objetos cognitivos o
datos que afectan, generalmente al servicio de una meta u objetivo concreto (Flavell,
en Noël, 1991, p. 8).
Para entender de qué manera el FLI emerge como un nuevo campo disciplinar, re-
sulta pertinente cuestionar la historia, con el fin de entender mejor cómo se generó
una política lingüística enfocada en la necesidad de conocer el idioma francés para
vivir e integrarse en Francia.
176
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
177
Erwan Morel
Se considera que la enseñanza del francés es “la primera etapa constituyendo una
fase crucial en el proceso de integración” (Consejo Superior de la Integración, 2006)
y, por primera vez, se convierte en una condición necesaria para una integración
duradera en Francia: de tal forma, la expedición de los permisos de residencia para
los inmigrantes en Francia se ve legalmente condicionada por la firma del CAI, la
formación lingüística gratuita y obligatoria (350 horas máximo) y la obtención del
Diploma inicial de lengua francesa (DILF, por sus siglas en francés) o, en su de-
fecto, por un resultado aprobatorio en el examen diagnóstico de lengua al llegar en
Francia. Este nivel A.1.1 requerido para tramitar el permiso migratorio representa
de cierta manera una especialidad francesa en materia de evaluación certificativa,
ya que no está registrado entre las especificaciones iniciales del Marco Común Eu-
ropeo para las Lenguas (MCERL). Al igual que Alemania u Holanda por ejemplo,
el nivel requerido a los inmigrantes para aspirar a la naturalización en Francia es el
DELF B1. Sin embargo, el peso de la lengua tiene un tinte político más marcado en
Francia que en los demás países europeos, en la medida en que se encuentra elevada
al rango de valor republicano, al igual que la democracia, la laicidad, los derechos y
obligaciones cívicos y la instrucción pública.
El FLI nació en este contexto evolutivo, instituido por un marco legislativo im-
plementado y adoptado entre octubre y noviembre de 2011. Se expresa en términos
didácticos y de ingeniería de formación a través del Referencial FLI (Vicher, 2011).
Dicho texto, redactado por profesionales del campo e investigadores con amplia
trayectoria en este ámbito, está ligado a la creación del sello de calidad FLI® (para
los organismos de formación) y de la validez oficial FLI® (para las asociaciones de
voluntarios) con la finalidad de dotar a la enseñanza del francés para los inmigrantes
de un control de calidad, formalizando las buenas prácticas en materia de interven-
ción pedagógica.
No tardaron en surgir críticas en el mundo universitario francés en contra de
esta denominación FLI que algunos tacharon de “Francés como lengua para una
integración controlada” (FLIC )3 cuestionando un modelo asimilacionista en el que
la lengua y el conocimiento de los valores republicanos son los factores esenciales de
3 En francés, “flic” es uno de los términos populares para designar a los policías, similar a “poli” en México (N. d. T.)
178
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
4 Las competencias clave o competencias básicas emanan de las reflexiones del Informe Mundial de la UNESCO
Hacia las sociedades del conocimiento recordando que actualmente “con la rapidez de los progresos técnicos, las
competencias pierden rápidamente actualidad, es conveniente fomentar en los distintos ámbitos del conocimiento
la adquisición de mecanismos de aprendizaje flexibles, en vez de imponer un conjunto de conocimientos muy
definido. Aprender a aprender significa aprender a reflexionar, dudar, adaptarse con la mayor rapidez posible y
saber cuestionar el legado cultural propio respetando los consensos. Estos son los pilares en los que deben des-
cansar las sociedades del conocimiento”. Recuperado el 21 de septiembre de 2015 de [Link]
images/0014/001419/[Link].
5 Competencias clave para el aprendizaje permanente, Leyes de la Unión Europea, recuperado el 21 de septiem-
bre de 2015 de [Link]
179
Erwan Morel
Contexto específico
6 Base de datos de la Unión Europea equipada con un sistema automatizado de reconocimiento de huellas digi-
tales de los candidatos para el asilo, en apoyo al convenio de Dublín (N. d. T.)
180
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
Taller de francés
Acción de Programa lingüistico (gratuito) Formación como lengua
formación lingüistica (gratuita) extranjera (150€por
aprendiente para 60
horas de clase)
Dirección de la
Financia Pôle Emploi (Agencia Nacional Fondo Social educación
de Empleo) Europeo (FSE) permanente (DEP) –
Fondo Social Europeo (FSE) Rectoría de Amiens
7 Coallia es una asociación que se dedica a promover la autonomía social de los inmigrantes adultos, en lo par-
ticular en el ámbito de la formación lingüística. Los GRETA son organismos de la Educación Nacional en Francia
que se dedican a la formación profesional de los adultos en general, también reciben a inmigrantes.
Itinér’air es una asociación implantada en los barrios prioritarios de la ciudad de Beauvais, dedicada a la inserción
social y lingüística de los adultos, en su gran mayoría son inmigrantes que firman el contrato CAI.
UTAB (por sus siglas en francés): remite a la Universidad para todas las Edades de Beauvais (Université Tous
Âges de Beauvais), departamento de formación continua de la Universidad pública de Picardie Jules Verne.
181
Erwan Morel
182
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
Se recopilaron datos sobre los tipos de público, los perfiles de los formadores, el
número de grupos, el número de aprendientes por grupo, el número de horas y los
tipos de dispositivos, el papel de los organismos que prescribían las formaciones,
los financiamientos y el equipo disponible. Los formadores fueron entrevistados
acerca de:
183
Erwan Morel
184
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
UTAB ITINER’AIR COALLIA GRETA
Estrategias de aprendizaje
Aprendizaje en autonomía
185
Erwan Morel
entre los organismos fue de sólo el 12.3%, lo cual le dio a la metacognición una
importancia considerable, ya que correspondió a más de la mitad de los inmigrantes
adultos en formación lingüística (un mínimo del 67.7% para el GRETA). También
resultó de las encuestas que el interés por el plurilingüismo fue más elevado entre
los aprendientes que entre los formadores, los cuales no siempre sabían cómo ex-
plotar esta riqueza en su salón de clase: consideraban que los idiomas representados
en un mismo grupo eran demasiado distintos (por ejemplo entre los locutores de
árabe, de wolof, de chino y de turco). Los formadores manifestaron la necesidad de
un conocimiento, por elemental que fuera, de los sistemas lingüísticos presentes y se
sintieron, a veces, incapaces de proponer un abordaje plurilingüe en la clase.
El aprendizaje en autonomía fue más importante para la UTAB y COALLIA
pero, en el caso de este último, se trató principalmente de un proceso cognitivo
adoptado por los participantes durante las horas de formación. En este caso también,
pese a la variación de los porcentajes, estos permanecieron elevados y mostraron una
vez más que los inmigrantes adultos eran capaces de implicarse por iniciativa propia
en un aprendizaje autónomo sin depender directamente del formador. Manifestaron
en diversos grados aprender de forma autónoma, movilizando estrategias diversas
(en el campo socioafectivo, mediante Internet y libros consultados en la biblioteca o
en la universidad, impregnándose del contexto de inmersión, etc.), apuntando todas
ellas hacia un objetivo común: un aprendizaje más allá del marco estricto de la for-
mación, que les permitió realizar progresos significativos en el dominio de la lengua
para integrarse más fácilmente a la sociedad francesa.
La hipótesis inicial se vio confirmada en la UTAB ya que los aprendientes,
adoptando una actitud reflexiva (gracias al portafolio que elaboramos, entre otros
dispositivos) se mostraron globalmente autónomos en su aprendizaje y en la vida co-
tidiana. Pero esta misma hipótesis resultó parcialmente inválida en los demás orga-
nismos de formación. Las implicaciones didácticas fueron esenciales para la cons-
trucción de la autonomía lingüística y social y las prácticas docentes desempeñaron
un papel esencial en dicho proceso. Se comprobó, sin embargo, que el análisis de la
autonomía social (producto deseado al final del proceso de investigación) suponía
una construcción mucho más compleja que la de una simple relación causa/efecto
entre las variables seleccionadas.
186
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
Propuestas didácticas
187
Erwan Morel
Conclusión
Referencias
188
Autonomía lingüística y social de los inmigrantes adultos en Francia
189
La planeación y la política de las lenguas
extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
Introducción
1 Se denomina Porfiriato a un periodo de 35 años de la historia de México durante el cual gobernó el General
Porfirio Díaz. Este período coincide con una notable influencia económica sobre México de países como Gran
Bretaña, Alemania y Francia. En las dos últimas décadas del régimen el 38% de las inversiones extranjeras eran
ya de capital norteamericano (García, 2002).
2 La enseñanza de las LE hace su aparición en 1551, con la creación de la Real Pontificia Universidad de México.
En el currículo se integraron cursos de leyes, medicina, latín, español, náhuatl, italiano y francés (Álvarez, 1989).
De acuerdo con la Legislación Educativa de Veracruz, ya desde 1874 era un requisito poseer fluidez en inglés,
francés y latín para convertirse en abogado en el estado de Veracruz.
191
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
inclusión y/o la exclusión del estudio de las LE así como la evolución que la ense-
ñanza-aprendizaje de éstas ha tenido dentro del sistema educativo público mexica-
no, particularmente en Veracruz. Por lo anterior, de manera exploratoria buscamos
responder a las siguientes preguntas: ¿Existía una política lingüística en el Estado
durante el Porfiriato? ¿La legislación propiciaba el desarrollo del aprendizaje de las
LE? Nos referiremos al Porfiriato al periodo comprendido entre 1876 y 1910.
Los objetivos propuestos:
Metodología
192
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
Revisión de la literatura
3 Para ilustrar mejor lo antes mencionado, aconsejamos revisar el libro coordinado por José Luis Ramírez Rome-
ro (2007), Las investigaciones sobre la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras en México.
193
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
Contexto histórico-educativo
El periodo que nos ocupa está permeado por movimientos armados, en 1810 se inicia
la Guerra de Independencia, movimiento revolucionario que buscaba un cambio en
la sociedad colonial de México y que concluye en 1821 con una contrarrevolución
que no perseguía cambios reales. Esta situación determinó que la Independencia no
resolviera los más serios conflictos sociales del país (Bolaños, 2002, p. 14). La gue-
rra de Independencia no modificó la jerarquía social que existía y no se planteó un
reordenamiento de las clases sociales aunque sí se buscó plantear reformas jurídicas
que disminuyeran las diferencias entre los individuos.
Ornelas (1995, p. 209) menciona que, según ciertas estimaciones, “en 1910 más
del 85% de la población adulta y más del 78% de la población total era analfabeta”.
Estas cifras son importantes porque muestran que la educación permeaba poco al
pueblo. No obstante la distancia evidente entre el pueblo y la escuela, las autoridades
del país no buscaron modificar o modernizar el modelo de institución de educación
superior proveniente de la época colonial (Márquez, 2002).
A pesar del panorama que prevalecía en el país, la generación liberal se empeñó
en construir un México moderno y para ello emitieron leyes que dieron paso a un
marco jurídico dentro del cual debía desenvolverse la educación pública y revisa-
ron conceptos y principios de las teorías pedagógicas para obtener la renovación de
la educación mexicana. Hacia 1870 se empezaron a divulgar los esfuerzos que, en
materia educativa, habían realizado distinguidos maestros del país; en este nuevo
contexto surgieron preocupaciones relacionadas con el método didáctico, la ense-
ñanza objetiva y la educación integral (Bolaños, 2002, pp. 33-34). En la capital del
país, se organizaron congresos educativos donde se abordaron diferentes aspectos
relacionados con los libros de texto, los útiles escolares, los métodos de enseñanza,
los horarios, la distribución del trabajo escolar según las diferentes edades de los es-
colares y la falta de capacitación de los profesores. El objetivo era mejorar el sistema
de educación de forma integral (Moreno, 2001, p. 70). Para 1882 ya eran notables los
resultados de la aplicación de la reforma iniciada.
En este período, en el estado de Veracruz se llevó a cabo la reforma pedagógica
encabezada por los maestros Carlos A. Carrillo, Enrique Laubscher y Enrique C.
Rébsamen. En Orizaba se fundó en 1883 la primera escuela moderna de México, allí
se pusieron en práctica los principios de la enseñanza objetiva. Se fundó en 1886 La
Escuela Normal Veracruzana de Xalapa.
Jiménez (2007, p. 249) nos dice que el último tercio del siglo XIX fue un momento
favorable para la educación y las ciencias mexicanas. La apertura a los extranjeros y
194
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
la movilidad de la clase acomodada que tiene lugar durante el siglo XIX en el país,
permitieron el acceso y el contacto con las publicaciones y los adelantos europeos,
ya fuera de manera directa o indirecta. Continúa señalando que “la visión de lo
moderno implicó en el siglo XIX un cosmopolitismo que impulsó la difusión de
las artes, la ciencia, la tecnología y las costumbres” (p. 236). Este cosmopolitismo
despertó el interés por los idiomas.
Contexto legislativo-educativo
El hecho de que para los españoles haya sido una preocupación la implantación de su
lengua es muestra de que México fue uno de los primeros países en el mundo en po-
ner en práctica una política lingüística. La heterogeneidad lingüística del país exigió
durante varios siglos la intervención de la Corona española para buscar la aceptación
del español entre los mexicanos. A través del tiempo, el conflicto lingüístico con el
español determinó la política y el público en la enseñanza-aprendizaje de las lenguas
195
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
196
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
197
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
1. Ley Orgánica de Instrucción Pública, No. 123, del 14 de agosto de 1873, Lan-
dero y Coss.
2. Ley Orgánica de Instrucción Pública y Plan de Estatutos Preparatorios Ge-
nerales y Especiales de 1874. En ese año la educación se dividió en primaria
elemental y superior.
3. Circular del 16 de febrero de 1878.
4. Reforma educativa realizada por Juan Enríquez en 1885.
5. Circular del 23 al 28 de abril de 1887, se presenta el programa de estudios de
instrucción primaria elemental y superior dirigida a las escuelas cantonales.
6. Plan de estudios y reglamento para la admisión de estudiantes en la Escuela
Normal, 18 de noviembre de 1886.
7. Circular 30, 25 de octubre de 1897, establecimiento de las Escuelas Munici-
pales.
8. Ley 49 del 18 de diciembre de 1897. Reformas a la Ley Orgánica de Instruc-
ción Pública en el estado de Veracruz-Llave.
9. Ley 2 del 13 de mayo de 1907. Reforma del Plan de estudios preparatorios en
el estado de Veracruz-Llave.
10. Ley 21 del 30 de octubre de 1908. Reforma del Plan de estudios y la organi-
zación de las escuelas de enseñanza superior para señoritas.
Título 1V, Capítulo 1, artículo 64.- La Instrucción primaria superior que se imparte
en las escuelas comprenderá el conocimiento perfecto de la formación elemental y
también las:
VII.- En el año de 1887, los alumnos de las escuelas cantonales trabajarán en el cur-
so de francés con una guía autorizada por el director para cubrir la falta de libro de
texto. (Título IV, Capítulo 1)
200
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
201
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
El tiempo dedicado al aprendizaje de las lenguas vivas durante los estudios pre-
paratorios era de cinco horas a la semana durante el año escolar lo que nos daría
aproximadamente unas 300 horas para francés en los dos años que le dedicaban y
390 horas para inglés, a lo largo de tres años que lo estudiaban. El hecho de que el
número de horas de estudio que dedicaban a las lenguas fuese elevado, nos hace
suponer que los estudiantes adquirían un nivel de lengua intermedio.
La política de modernizar al país y lograr el progreso se hizo en gran parte por
medio de la educación, y los inmigrantes jugaron un papel importante para alcan-
zar el objetivo, en especial los franceses, ya que abrieron escuelas privadas donde
el aprendizaje del francés devino una actividad (Munguía, 2010). Los educadores
franceses se dispersaron a lo largo del país y la acogida en las clases acomodadas de
México fue muy favorable.
El método
El término “método” puede emplearse de dos maneras: una, el material que se utili-
za para la enseñanza-aprendizaje de una lengua y que toma en cuenta los materiales
de apoyo y el o los libros del profesor, del estudiante y el libro de trabajo; otra, el
conjunto de procedimientos y técnicas que se utilizan para la enseñanza-aprendizaje
de la lengua extranjera, de manera razonada y científica, lo que obliga al profesor a
recurrir a los principios teóricos metodológicos (Billières, 2015). En la legislación
que estudiamos a continuación se señalan las materias que conforman los planes de
estudio y se indica cómo enseñar y que métodos utilizar.
Ley Orgánica de 1873. Título V, Capítulo 1, Métodos de enseñanza y sistemas de
premios y correcciones. Capítulo III de la Instrucción Profesional:
Método de enseñanza, Título V, Capítulo 1: Los métodos de enseñanza y sistema
de premios y correcciones.
Artículo 76.- Las personas encargadas de la enseñanza de los niños o de los
jóvenes deben aplicar, en el curso, el método explicativo. Los profesores, durante la
enseñanza, deben privilegiar el espíritu sobre la letra.
Artículo 77.- Con el objeto de facilitar el método de enseñanza en las escuelas
de instrucción secundaria, los estudiantes recibirán, con anticipación, el programa
de materias que seguirán durante el año escolar.
Artículo 78.- Los profesores de la universidad de lenguas extranjeras empujarán
a los estudiantes a aplicar sus estudios en la vida diaria, por supuesto en la medida
de lo posible.
202
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
En la circular del 16 de febrero de 1878 aparece una lista de libros de texto apro-
bados y aconsejados a los directores de las escuelas y a las autoridades municipales,
sobre las lenguas extranjeras. Los libros de texto para enseñar francés en las escue-
las de enseñanza elemental serán El Método Robertson y El traductor francés; para
enseñar inglés, El Método Robertson-Wicar of Wakefield.
VII.- En el año de 1887, los alumnos de las escuelas cantonales trabajarán en el
curso de francés con una guía autorizada por el director para cubrir la falta de libro
de texto. (Título IV, Capítulo 1).
Artículo 4.- Del Plan de estudios de la Escuela Preparatoria. La enseñanza en las
escuelas preparatorias revestirá un carácter teórico-práctico y se ofrecerá simultá-
neamente a todos los estudiantes en una clase: la enseñanza debe hacerse lentamente
y tomando en cuenta la duración del curso y el tiempo disponible. Hay que respetar
y recapitular frecuentemente los conocimientos adquiridos para memorizarlos. Pri-
mer año: Latín (Formas lexicográficas de la lengua latina; ejercicios de traducción de
autores fáciles de entender), Francés (reglas de pronunciación, elementos de gramá-
tica; ejercicios de lectura y traducción, las clases). Segundo año: Latín (conocimien-
to gramatical de la lengua latina; ejercicios de traducción y sujeto, las clases eran
diarias), Francés (estudio de gramática francesa, versión español-francés, ejercicios
prácticos de conversación y escritura). Tercer año: Latín (ejercicios de traducción de
autores clásicos con la exposición del profesor ya que servía de complemento para
la enseñanza de historia de la literatura latina; raíces griegas), Inglés (utilización
del método Robertson). En el quinto año se estudiaba Inglés (utilizando el método
Robertson y ejercicios de traducción).
Artículo17.- En los cursos de lenguas vivas, es necesario que los estudiantes
se hagan entender cuando se les escucha y cuando leen. Hay que hacer que los
estudiantes hablen en clase. El método que se utilizará es el método directo. Las
Academias de Inglés se esforzarán para que los estudiantes perfeccionen las con-
versaciones, reproduciendo las actividades cotidianas de un hombre en la sociedad.
En el artículo 2 del Plan para la Escuela de enseñanza superior para señoritas se
señala: La enseñanza de la lengua inglesa y de la lengua francesa será sobre todo
práctica y los profesores buscarán que las señoritas adquieran gradual y metódica-
mente un vocabulario lo más completo posible, serán también capaces de construir
frases comunes en situaciones de la vida social y del hogar.
Los cursos de idiomas impartidos a las señoritas en las zonas urbanas a lo lar-
go de los cuatros años de formación eran, en promedio, de 360 hrs. para inglés y
330 hrs. para francés. El número de horas que dedicaban al aprendizaje del inglés
y del francés era muy parecido al de los estudiantes de preparatoria y también se
203
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
4 Son tentativas que buscaban destronar el método de gramática-traducción y dar paso a métodos que privilegi-
aran la vida cotidiana. En estos nuevos métodos se considera que la necesidad de aprender las lenguas segundas o
extranjeras viene de la necesidad que tienen los seres humanos de hablarse y comprenderse, de intercambiar sus
ideas y los productos de sus actividades.
5 El Méthode Robertson, llamado así por su autor Théodore Robertson, es un método para la enseñanza de las
lenguas extranjeras. El método Robertson se utiliza para enseñar las lenguas francesa, alemana, inglesa, italiana
y española, aún el latín.
204
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
…tanto en Francia como en México veía una tendencia a aprender mejor, a fondo, a
familiarizarse con un número mucho más extenso de materias. Sin embargo, la ense-
ñanza no era tan completa como era de desear, ya que en ninguno de estos dos países
se prestaba la atención merecida a los idiomas modernos. Los alumnos franceses, por
ejemplo, estudiaban alemán e inglés pero terminaban sus cursos sin poder hablar nin-
guno de los dos, en México por lo general no se hacía ni el intento (Munguía, 2010, p. 12).
205
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
podemos constatar que los apoyos financieros a las escuelas dependían de la situa-
ción económica de cada cantón.
En 1875, José Díaz Covarrubias, educador veracruzano que fue Secretario de Justi-
cia y de Instrucción Pública, presentó un diagnóstico donde advertía la falta de un
profesorado debidamente capacitado para su actividad y, al mismo tiempo, hacía
ver lo mal retribuidos que estaban. Se menciona que, de 8,000 maestros que había,
6,000 carecían de preparación específica para la docencia. Esta falta de profesores
capacitados impulsó la creación de las escuelas Normales que tuvieron como uno
de sus objetivos principales la formación de cuadros capacitados para la enseñanza,
no solamente de materias disciplinarias sino también de lenguas extranjeras. Para
responder a esa demanda se incluyeron los capítulos referentes a la educación pro-
fesional. Se observa en el articulado la inclusión de los cursos de idiomas en el Plan
de estudios, con un número importante de horas.
En la enseñanza de los idiomas, como en el resto de la enseñanza en México, el
déficit de profesores era generalizado. En los periódicos como El Oriente de Xalapa
y El Mercurio de Veracruz se pueden encontrar anuncios de extranjeros que ofrecían
sus servicios como profesores de francés o de inglés, entre otros idiomas, princi-
palmente para señoritas (Galí, 1998). Se trataba de clases particulares para gente de
clase acomodada y no para estudiantes de escuelas públicas. La misma autora nos
dice que es probable que las clases particulares en francés hayan tomado un impulso
importante dada la presencia de los extranjeros y la enorme cantidad de libros en
francés que circulaban en el país. Esta actividad se llevaba a cabo en los colegios
religiosos particulares y también en los colegios fundados por franceses en ciudades
como México y Puebla a mediados del siglo XIX (Galí, 1998).
No se encontraron evidencias sobre profesores extranjeros en las escuelas públi-
cas para enseñar idiomas, pero sí se confirmó que, entre los educadores extranjeros,
hubo algunos que fueron muy exitosos con sus cursos particulares y sus métodos
de enseñanza, como Mathieu de Fossey. Esa fama hizo que tanto las escuelas públi-
cas como las privadas depositaran sus expectativas en los educadores extranjeros
(Munguía, 2010).
Para poder ir dando solución a esta problemática, los responsables de la educa-
ción incluyeron, en la legislación, los capítulos referentes a la educación profesional.
Es probable que la formación de los profesores que daban LE correspondiera a la
206
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
capacitación de la Escuela Normal, éstos seguían un curso de tres horas por semana
lo que haría un promedio de 320 horas a lo largo de los cuatro años de formación
en LE en la Normal. Es probable también que fueran exalumnos de los profesores
extranjeros.
Ley 49 del 18 de diciembre de 1897. Reformas a la Ley Orgánica de Instrucción
Pública en el Estado de Veracruz-Llave.
Capítulo III de la Instrucción Profesional
Artículo 69.- El objetivo de la instrucción profesional es el de instruir a las personas
en las escuelas y que obtengan un diploma que certifique su aptitud en toda la Re-
pública. La instrucción profesional comprenderá las materias señaladas, para cada
profesión, en el Plan de estudios establecido en México.
Título VI, Capítulo 1: De los responsables directos de la enseñanza de los pro-
fesores en general.
Artículo 100.- El estado establecerá una Escuela Normal para la formación de
buenos profesores de instrucción primaria. Su organización será objeto de una ley
especial.
En el Plan de estudios y en el Reglamento para la admisión de los alumnos en la
Escuela Normal del 18 de noviembre de 1886 se señalaba que las lenguas extran-
jeras para formar profesores de instrucción primaria elemental eran las siguientes:
en el primer año, Francés, tres horas por semana, en el segundo año, Francés tres
horas por semana, en el tercer año, Inglés (primer año) tres horas por semana. En
esta circular no se indica qué método deben seguir los profesores en los cursos de
lenguas vivas.
Conclusiones
207
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
Referencias
208
La planeación y la política de las lenguas extranjeras en el Porfiriato (1876-1910)
209
María Magdalena Hernández Alarcón, Nora M. Basurto Santos, Anaïs Elsa Cabrera Loranca
210
IV
Alternativas para fomentar
el aprendizaje de lenguas
Irlanda Olave
Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Mexico
Introduction
213
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
214
Choice and agency for student engagement
Literature review
Researchers suggest that giving students choices and opportunities for the agency on
their own educational initiatives is a way to connect their interest to academic tasks.
(Brozo, Shiel, and Topping 2008; Cleary and Zimmerman, 2004)
The interest of students to participate in the learning process in the classroom
seems to be activated if they are offered participation choices. Fredericks, Blumen-
feld and Paris (2004) identified three dimensions of student participation, as ex-
plained below:
1. Behavioral engagement
Learners who are behaviorally engaged would act in accordance with school norms
such as consistent attendance and punctuality, and would demonstrate involvement
in class for example by voluntarily participating in class and by turning in assign-
ments on time. They would also typically participate in nonacademic school activi-
ties such as athletics or school governance.
2. Emotional engagement
Learners who engage emotionally would have a positive disposition towards school
and would experience positive emotional reactions to their education such as: identi-
fication, enjoyment, sense of belonging to school, and would seek success in school-
related outcomes. These students’ positive emotions would be directed toward aca-
demic content, their friends, and/or the teacher or teachers.
3. Cognitive engagement
215
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
As noted by Fredricks, J., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. (2004), the dimen-
sions of engagement incorporate several aspects that may be difficult to research.
For instance, behavioral engagement refers to doing the work, following the norms
of school and becoming involved in extra-curricular activities; emotional engage-
ment includes learners showing interest and positive emotions towards the learning
process, their teachers, and/or their peers; and cognitive engagement incorporates
motivation, effort, and strategy use. These authors warn us that some of the defini-
tions overlap almost completely with prior literatures, and that the frontiers of these
dimensions have not yet been well limited, however, we believe that studies like the
present one are necessary for creating interventions that target specific aspects of
the three dimensions, even when they may need more construction. The hope is that
such interventions can benefit students so that they can later meet the challenges of
an ever changing society.
Methodology
The research methodology used in this study was qualitative. According to Hernán-
dez, Fernandez, y Baptista (2006) qualitative research is based on an inductive pro-
cess, that is, the researcher explores, describes, and then generates theoretical per-
spectives, ranging from the particular to the general. In education, Sandín (2003)
explains, qualitative research is a systematic activity aimed at understanding in
depth educational and social phenomena, and changing practices and scenarios, to
aid teachers in their decision-making processes and also to help researchers in the
discovery and development of an organized body of knowledge.
216
Choice and agency for student engagement
Thus, we chose to use the qualitative method in this research because we con-
sidered it was an appropriate means to explore and describe what happened when
learners were presented with choices and became agents of their learning processes.
Although we were familiar with the context and research subjects, we wanted to
know whether an educational scenario where we offered students choices and op-
portunities for agency could favor the gradual engagement of this group of learners.
Therefore, in this study we aimed to establish learning scenarios where learners
could become behaviorally, emotionally and cognitively engaged in their own learn-
ing process.
Participants in this study were twenty one students in the sixth semester taking
an L2 literature course at the Lengua Inglesa Major from the Universidad Autónoma
de Chihuahua. These informants have taken literature courses on the third, fourth,
and fifth semesters, and they are familiar with authors and works from American
Literature from the 19th and 20th Century. In a first phase of the study we inter-
viewed students about past British and American literature courses, and collected
their feedback concerning which activities best engaged them in those classes.
Based on student responses, on the second phase of the study, we tailored the
learning scenario on an L2 Twentieth Century British Literature course to replicate
activities that informants expressed as most engaging. We used qualitative data.
First we analyzed the students’ responses and tailored the learning scenario based
on their feedback, later we observed and documented the informants’ classroom
behaviors.
Researchers suggest a correlation between student choice and student engage-
ment, hence we used student feedback from a survey we designed to guide our
intervention in creating the learning scenario. The interview included a variety of
questions concerning what activities students found most engaging. For example for
behavioral engagement we asked students to tell us about their adherence to class-
room rules, attendance rate, homework, in- class and extracurricular participation.
For emotional engagement we asked students questions about what made them feel
happy or anxious about school and what made them feel they had supportive or posi-
tive relationships with professors and other students. For cognitive engagement we
asked students to tell us about their learning goals, their future aspirations and about
their learning strategies to understand the material in their L2 literature courses and
we observed them in class and took notes on their behavior.
217
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
Findings
In the first phrase of the study informants expressed that in Literature courses, they
wanted to have a chance to decide how to be evaluated and how to obtain extra credit.
They also told us that they preferred classes where they could ask and answer questions.
Most students told us that they read the work sent home regularly, especially
when their teacher announced the homework verbally; when discussion was done in
class, students clearly preferred that the teacher asked them directly instead of when
the teacher asked for volunteers to participate in class. About receiving feedback,
students told us that they preferred to be corrected right away. They told us that they
wanted to receive clear instructions from the teacher about activities in class. As
regards the evaluation, most of the students told us they preferred continuous assess-
ment through partial examinations instead of a final exam. Students also preferred
short questions or multiple choice quizzes over essays. The following are examples
of some of our informant’s responses:
Informant 5: I don’t like writing essays; I don’t think there are necessary.
Informant 6: I prefer multiple choice quizzes than writing essays.
Informant 7: Sometimes I don’t have time to read the stories at home.
Informant 8: The teacher does not always give us a chance to improve our grades,
I think that is unfair because you are supposed to know a lot in a final exam.
Informant 12: What I do not appreciate are those classes where the teacher talks
and talks for the whole fifty minutes.
Informant 14: I think that essay assignments are too difficult to complete.
Informant 15: I like it when the teacher asks me to participate in class.
Informant 22: I like the classes of Frank, because he always asks us questions
and listens to our answers.
Informants expressed that they sometimes did not read the selections before class:
“I don’t have time to read the stories at home” and that writing an essay was either
too difficult or too irrelevant: “I think that essay assignments are too difficult”, “Es-
says are not necessary”. They told us that they wanted to have more opportunity
to participate in class discussions even if their comments were simple so that they
could receive feedback from their teacher and they could connect with the content
of stories and poems to what they already know to make sense of the material on the
literature anthologies: “I like the classes of Frank because he asks us questions and
listens to our answers”.
218
Choice and agency for student engagement
Crafted choices
In the second phase of the study, based on the student responses, we tailored the
learning scenario to replicate activities that literature students expressed as most
engaging. We gathered data using the learners’ responses to our survey and infor-
mal observations of student engagement. To indicate students’ motivation, we docu-
mented their behavior in the classroom after analyzing their survey responses. We
used qualitative data analysis.
We wanted a classroom where students could make connections between texts
and their life experiences. Before assigning a piece of text to be read, we made sure
that students understood the purpose for reading, and regularly asked informants to
discuss in class similarities and contrasts between their own life experiences and
what they were reading in the class selections. Informants were also told that in
every unit they could choose between presenting a fifteen question quiz and writing
a two page essay on a topic proposed by the teacher. Here is a sample of such tasks:
James Explain a situation from your life where the opposite of what you
Joyce’s had expected occurred. Make sure you define the term ʺepiphanyʺ
Araby. in your essay and reflect on what happened to Araby’s protagonist
in the story.
Katherine Explain to what extent you agree with the statement that even the
Mansfield’s smallest remark may inflict damage if our words are not well-
Miss Brill. chosen. Make sure you define the term ʺdramatic ironyʺ in your
essay and reflect on what happened to the protagonist in the story.
Doris Explain to what extent you agree with the statement that society
Lessing‘s erects barriers among people that need to be overcome. Make
No sure you reflect on what happened to the protagonist in the story.
Witchcraft
for Sale.
219
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
Virginia Explain to what extent you agree with the statement that we are
Woolf’s constrained by the restrictions of time and aging. Make sure you
The Death of the Moth. define the term “allegory” in your essay and reflect on what hap-
pened to the moth in the essay.
W.H. Not much is worse than feeling all alone in the world, feeling like
Auden’s no one cares or understands. Every detail of ʺFuneral Bluesʺ and
Funeral ʺMuseé Des Beaux Arts” by Auden drips in loneliness and soli-
Blues and Musee tude. These poems, so similar in theme, leave the audience with
Des Beaux Arts a feeling that human beings are in complete and total desolation.
Auden knows how to use his words to convey the intense feelings
in the poems, write about the topic of loneliness in these poems.
Support your statements by specific references to the poems.
Informants were also told that they could choose whether to obtain extra credit or
not, by posting on the internet a “selfie” in a background related to a story or poem
read in class and a caption that explained their understanding of each selection.
With these activities we wanted students to become part of an outside community
of learners who would see each other posts and would be able to analyze each other
texts and to edit one another’s writing assignments. By being able to share online
posts we thought students would be able not only to connect with other learners but
also to appreciate different ways of approaching the same texts analyzed in class.
Here is a sample of such tasks:
James Joyce’s Post a photograph (not for internet, but one you’ve taken) of a
Araby. teenager shopping in a supermarket or a mall, then write a caption
that is related to your understanding of James Joyce’s short story.
Katherine Post a photograph (not for internet, but one you’ve taken) of an
Mansfield’s old woman sitting on a bench in a park, then write a caption that
Miss Brill. is related to your theme of Katherine Mansfield’s short story.
Doris Lessing‘s No Post a photograph (not for internet, but one you’ve taken) of a Tara-
Witchcraft for Sale. humara selling something, what is the theme of Lessing’s’ story.
Virginia Woolf’s The Post a photo (not for internet, but one you’ve taken) of a a fly on a
Death of the Moth. window. What is the theme of Woolf’s essay?
W.H. Auden’s Musee Post a selfie in front of a painting. Write what is the theme of the
Des Beaux Arts poem: ”Musee des Beaux Arts”
220
Choice and agency for student engagement
Our informants’ responses after giving them choices and agency focused on the fol-
lowing main points:
Behavioral engagement
Informant 17: The teacher gave us the opportunity to choose whether to write an
essay of two present an exam in order to be evaluated in each unit. Sometimes I
wrote the essay and sometimes I presented the exam. When I did write essays I put
all my effort into it. I researched and edited my paper knowing that I was doing it
because I wanted to.
Informant 17 was behaviorally engaged when she acted in accordance to class
norms, turning in essays and exams on time, and when she expressed that she “put
all her effort” into the task.
Emotional engagement:
Informant 1: At the beginning I felt happy when the teacher occasionally forgot to
take the role in our class. I said to myself that it was going to be one of those classes…
but then I became irritated that some of my classmates did not come to class and
they did not receive any punishment. I believe that the teachers should call the role.
Informant 3:I liked this literature class, it is the first time that I am asked what I
prefer to do, instead of doing what the teacher wants me to do.
Informant 20: it is the first time that I enjoy a literature class.
Informants were emotionally engaged when they expressed that they “ felt
happy” and they “enjoyed” their class.
Cognitive engagement:
Informant 15: I want to learn as much as possible in school, and want to do all I can
to become a successful professional.
Informant 15 was cognitively engaged when she expressed that she had learning
goals, rather than performance goals, when she expressed that she wanted to “be-
come a successful professional”
We also observed that seven of the informants who participated in this study
went beyond the requirements of the course, that is, they presented both the essay
and the exam. Even though they obtained good grades in some units they presented
the extra-credit assignment, showing their engagement to the class.
221
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
We believe that learners engaged to the L2 literature course for the following
reasons: A) teachers were clear in their expectations about what the students need-
ed to do b) teachers provided consistent support and feedback, c) students could
choose between two clear options who to be evaluated, d) students could become
members of a learning community by posting photographs on internet, e) students
could complete the assignments as they were not too difficult nor too easy to com-
plete. These findings are consistent with Kraus and Coates (2008), who consider
that: “Developing knowledge in collaboration with peers plays an important role
in individual knowledge construction”. And with Fredrick’s, Blumenfeld, Friedel,
and Paris (2002) who found that students’ perceptions of work norms were posi-
tively correlated with behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. And with
Jankowska and Atlay (2008) who advise teachers to design spaces where students
can be creative to promote their engagement with the learning process.
Limitations
There are a number of limitations to the current study. The first and most important
limitation is that the study was conducted with informants at an institution that is not
necessarily representative of all institutions in Mexico. Furthermore, students who
choose to be Lengua Inglesa majors are a specific bilingual population unto them-
selves, with characteristics that may not match the characteristics of other students
in higher education. The study needs to be replicated with informants from more
other academic majors. Another limitation is the engagement interview. We did not
follow a script and many of our observations come from our deep knowledge of the
students gained after being their teachers for several years, in other courses.
Conclusions
Learners believe that a classroom environment which enhances learning is one that
provides them with choices, accepts different ideas, boosts self-confidence, and fo-
cuses on their strengths and interests. On the other hand, learners believe that they
are less engaged in an environment which inhibits their creativity, one where their
ideas are ignored, and the teachers are always controlling what happens in the class-
room. However it is not the responsibility of the teacher or of the student alone to
become engaged, we believe that engagement relies on the contributions and efforts
222
Choice and agency for student engagement
“... students should not be chiefly responsible for engaging themselves ... but instead
administrators and educators must foster the conditions that enable diverse popula-
tions of students to be engaged”.
References
Brozo, W.G., Shiel, G., & Topping, K. (2008). Engagement in reading: Lessons
learned from three PISA countries. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
51 (4), pp. 304-315.
Claxton, G. (2007). Expanding young people’s capacity to learn. British Journal
of Educational Studies. 55(2), pp. 1-20.
Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulation empowerment pro-
gram: A school based program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated
cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), pp. 537-550
Frederick’s, J., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. (2004). School engage-
ment: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational
Research, 74(1), pp. 59-109.
Gilbert, J. (2007). Catching the Knowledge Wave: Redefining knowledge for the
post-industrial age. Education Canada, 47(3), pp. 4-8. Canadian Education
Association. [Link]
Hernández, R; Fernández, C y Baptista, P. (2006). Metodología de la Investiga-
ción. México, D.F., Mc Graw Hill.
223
Irlanda Olave, Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros
224
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos
abiertos para la enseñanza del español
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
Universidad Veracruzana, México
Introducción
225
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
226
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
para la enseñanza del español? Y las preguntas subordinadas son: ¿Qué factores
deben considerar los profesores al utilizar recursos educativos abiertos para la en-
señanza del español? y ¿Cuáles son las dificultades que presentan los profesores al
incorporar recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español?
El objetivo general de la investigación fue analizar el proceso de apropiación
tecnológica de cuatro profesoras extranjeras al incorporar recursos educativos abier-
tos para la enseñanza del español. Y los objetivos específicos fueron: identificar
las fases de apropiación tecnológica en los profesores extranjeros; describir cómo
ocurre el proceso de apropiación tecnológica en los profesores que incorporan REA
en ambientes virtuales de aprendizaje en educación superior; identificar barreras y
beneficios en la incorporación de los REAS; identificar estrategias de diseño ins-
truccional que faciliten el proceso de apropiación de los REA.
Revisión bibliográfica:
Apropiación tecnológica
227
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
• Familiarización
• Utilización • Persuasión
• Integración • Decisión
• Reorientación • Implementación
Shea, • Confirmación
• Evolución Hooper y
McCall &
Rieber
Ozdogru
(1995)
(2006)
Tejedor y Colás
García- Rodríguez
• Básico Valcárcel y Jiménez • Dominio
• Intermendio (2006) (2005) • Privilegización
• Avanzado • Reintegración
• Apropiación
• Internalización
Hooper y Rieber (1995) dividen las etapas en cinco (y esta clasificación fue la base
para el estudio que aquí se presenta):
• Primera fase: Es el acercamiento del profesor con una nueva aplicación tec-
nológica por primera vez, esto es considerada como familiarización.
• Segunda etapa: Es llamada utilización, ya que es la incorporación de la inno-
vación en los ambientes educativos, sin suficiente experiencia.
• Tercera etapa: Conocida como integración, la cual es la adopción del nuevo
recurso dentro de la planeación de clases.
• Cuarta etapa: En la reorientación es cuando se muestra la participación activa
del estudiante en su aprendizaje al aplicar una nueva tecnología.
• Quinta etapa: La evolución es la explotación de los recursos nuevos en todos
sus ámbitos que han servido para el desarrollo del aprendizaje y enseñanza.
Ambientes de aprendizaje
228
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
Los REA son materiales de información digital con libre acceso en el contex-
to educativo y su función principal es facilitar el aprendizaje de los alumnos (At-
kins, Brown y Hammond, 2007; Celaya et al., 2010; Morales y Ortiz, 2010). Burgos
(2010:3) explica que “un REA puede ser estudiado como un objeto digital que provee
información y/o conocimiento, así como también puede ser visto como un objeto de
aprendizaje digital”.
Las características de los REA son: la subjetividad, realidad, historicidad, com-
plejidad, comunicabilidad, reusables, etc. (Ramírez, 2007, pp. 7-10). Al diseñar los
REA es necesario establecerlos dentro de un marco teórico, el cual es apoyado por
las taxonomías de aprendizaje de Bloom, taxonomías de Gagne, taxonomía de obje-
tos de aprendizaje (Koohang y Harman, 2007). Por otro lado, Burgos (2011) diseñó
una rúbrica de evaluación de los REA para conocer su calidad, los cuales contem-
plan los siguientes puntos: a) calidad del contenido; b) motivación; c) diseño y pre-
sentación; d) usabilidad; e) accesibilidad, f) valor educativo, g) valoración global.
Investigaciones relacionadas
229
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
Metodología
230
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
La revisión literaria fue fundamental para identificar las categorías. No obstante que
en la investigación cualitativa lo típico es obtener las categorías de los datos reco-
lectados, existen posturas que avalan el trabajar con categorías preestablecidas de la
teoría de Creswell (1994). Las categorías que fueron también consideradas para el
diseño de los instrumentos fueron: 1) situación educativa, 2) apropiación de apren-
dizaje, 3) ambientes de aprendizaje y 4) recursos educativos abiertos.
En la primera categoría se describe los datos personales, objetivo de la materia,
descripción del REA aplicado en clase y diseño del REA. En la segunda categoría,
se obtuvo información acerca de cada uno de los pasos que un docente debe de
afrontar para apropiarse de los REA. En esa categoría se tomó en cuenta el proceso
de apropiación tecnológica, según Hooper et al., (1995) identificados como la fami-
liarización, utilización, integración, reorientación y evolución. En la tercera catego-
ría se analizó la interacción entre los alumnos y maestros con la aplicación del REA
en el salón de clase. Ramírez y Burgos (2011) consideran que la interacción comu-
nicativa, objetivos educativos, contenidos informativos, estrategias de enseñanza y
aprendizaje y evaluación son fundamentales en los REA.
Se diseñaron y aplicaron los instrumentos: una guía de entrevista en español
para los docentes, una guía de entrevista para los alumnos en inglés (y a su vez esta
misma fue traducida en chino para los alumnos que no comprendieran los términos)
y una bitácora para la recolección de datos. Estas aplicaciones son necesarias para
lograr información sustancial empleando un sistema de recolección originada al mo-
mento de las observaciones (Yin, 2006).
Se realizó una prueba piloto con los instrumentos en un grupo pequeño a pro-
fesores que aprenden español. Después, fue conveniente reestructurar y traducir las
entrevistas dirigidas a los alumnos en chino. Posteriormente, el investigador sugirió
una lista de links con REA para integrarlas en las clases observadas. Los contenidos
de los temas de los REA fueron Países y Nacionalidades, La familia, Profesiones y
El Clima.
La captura y análisis de datos se iban enlazados entre sí, esto significa que al irse
recopilando los datos, de forma inmediata se analizaban y se hacían las descripcio-
nes. No existe una fecha u hora exacta para realizar los análisis de los instrumentos,
todo surge al momento para interpretar los sucesos (Merriam, 2009; Stake, 2007).
Otro paso a seguir fueron las observaciones llevadas a cabo con cada una de las
maestras. Se reportaron ideas generales que ayudaron a enfocar la atención en cier-
tos sucesos a la hora de observar. Al término de cada clase se aplicaban las entrevis-
231
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
tas a los alumnos y docentes con la ayuda de una aplicación de grabación integrada
en el ipad. El llenado de bitácora y análisis de documentos se plasmaron después
de aplicar todos los instrumentos. La aplicación de los instrumentos ayudó para la
triangulación de la información, obteniendo juicios y percepciones, el cual da una
validez y confiabilidad del contenido de esta investigación (Gay, Mills y Airasian,
2006, p. 405).
Se analizó que en los REA hay una interacción comunicativa, es decir, la interac-
ción de los estudiantes con los REA puede apoyarlos para la apropiación de su con-
232
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
tenido. De esta forma se puede apreciar que el REA cumple su propósito, el alumno
interactúa y aprende conocimiento nuevo. Otro hallazgo importante fue el rol del
REA, el cual apoya al cumplimiento de los objetivos, no solamente de la clase, sino
del programa educativo. En cuanto a los Contenidos informativos, se debe cuidar las
indicaciones de los REA ya que es sustancial para apoyar los programas formativos.
Los temas de los REA deben ser presentados en diferentes formas para lograr que el
alumno se enfrente a diferentes situaciones.
Por otro lado, es relevante acompañar de aspectos pedagógicos cuando se usen
los REA, incluir técnicas y estrategias. Los REA ofrecen una serie de oportunidades
para que el alumno mejore sus habilidades de comprensión, siempre y cuando el
profesor implemente distintas estrategias. En la evaluación, los estudiantes buscan
variedad de estímulos en los REA. Esto, permite al docente evaluar al alumno de
forma cualitativa.
Ambientes educativos
233
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
234
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
235
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
Referencias
236
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
237
Joselyn Yépez Enríquez
238
Apropiación tecnológica de recursos educativos abiertos para la enseñanza del español
239
El componente ideológico en
el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
Universidad Veracruzana, México
Introducción
241
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
Experiencias previas
El idioma inglés ha sido por muchos años una materia requerida para secundarias
públicas y privadas (Hess, 1978). En México, como en muchos países, continúan
encontrándose con que sus alumnos de recién ingreso a instituciones de educación
superior no son lo suficientemente competentes en el uso del idioma inglés (Har-
mer, 2012). Y es así, en mayor o menor grado, en Perú, Brasil, Chile, Corea, China,
Indonesia, Tailandia, Irán, Egipto, etc. (Davies, 2007). Rogers (citado por Johnson,
2008) ejemplifica esta situación con el caso de Etiopía, país en el cual el nivel de
inglés de los estudiantes universitarios de primer año era muy bajo, no obstante
llevar 10 años aprendiendo el idioma. De igual manera, en México, los resultados
de esta instrucción no han sido satisfactorios; al llegar a la universidad, la mayo-
ría de los estudiantes ingresan con un nivel de inglés equivalente a principiantes
o básico, después de 6 años de clases de inglés (Davies, 2008). Es evidente que
los estudiantes, conforme fueron progresando de un año a otro en la secundaria y
preparatoria, solo experimentaron una serie de repeticiones que no generaron una
cantidad mínima de inglés y que provocaron resistencia a una posterior instrucción
en el idioma (Hess, 1978).
Así, tenemos que la expresión “no tengo facilidad para los idiomas”, una las
más citadas, comúnmente proviene de una experiencia de aprendizaje escolar poco
satisfactoria. Tal vez lo que la persona recuerda son los malos resultados en sus exá-
menes. Esto quizás no refleje más que la típica ruptura generacional en la relación
maestro-adolescente (Crystal, 1997), pues debemos considerar que, para muchos de
nuestros estudiantes dentro del sistema educativo público mexicano, el primer con-
tacto de aprendizaje del idioma inglés se da en la secundaria (Sosa, 2014). Por lo tan-
to, la experiencia que el estudiante tenga en este nivel determina su actitud hacia el
idioma en los siguientes años de su vida (Gómez, 1978). Aunado al hecho de que las
242
El componente ideológico en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
Obligatoriedad
La mayoría de estudiantes del mundo que estudian una lengua lo hacen porque
forma parte de su currículo escolar, les guste o no (Harmer, 1998). El idioma no
es necesariamente bienvenido para quienes han sido obligados a estudiarlo y para
algunos que ven ese aprendizaje como una actividad no placentera, pero triste-
mente necesaria (Pennycook, 1998 citado por Harmer, 2012). Este carácter de
obligatoriedad de la LE ejerce un efecto importante entre los estudiantes dada su
imposición en los currículos universitarios. La elección de aprender una segunda
lengua no es una decisión voluntaria pues rara vez los estudiantes deciden apren-
der un idioma, más bien lo hacen porque el contexto, de alguna manera, ve el
aprendizaje de ese idioma como algo práctico (Bourdieu citado por Cortez, 2006).
El hecho de que el alumno no elija una lengua por gusto muestra las presiones aso-
ciadas con una lengua, las cuales con el tiempo producen barreras que impiden u
obstaculizan la adquisición de ésta (Ryan, 1998, p. 102). Dado que el aprendizaje
de una LE no se logra fácilmente, mucho menos como consecuencia de programas
obligatorios, el estudio operativo del idioma suele ser más productivo que el estu-
dio obligatorio (Davies, 2007, p. 20).
243
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
Lectoescritura
Davies (2008) señala que los cursos de inglés general no han sido exitosos, pues no
han cubierto las necesidades ni de los estudiantes, ni de los graduados del nivel su-
perior. Vera añade que, aunque los cursos de compresión lectora requieren de menos
tiempo que los de lengua general, hay claros ejemplos de que es posible aprobarlos
sin que por ello el estudiante pueda leer por su propia iniciativa y aproveche sus
lecturas (Vera, 2010). Aunque, por otro lado, Vera (2010) también señala como pro-
blemática de estudio de lenguas a nivel superior el déficit de las habilidades de lec-
toescritura de los estudiantes en su lengua materna, lo cual no apoya la adquisición
de sus equivalentes en la LE.
Carencia de presencia de la LE
Como resultado de las pocas posibilidades que tienen los estudiantes de relacio-
nar lo aprendido con su contexto sociocultural y con sus necesidades lingüísticas,
los estudiantes le ven muy poco sentido a los cursos, más allá del ritual académico
de aprobar los exámenes y satisfacer los requisitos de la institución (Canagarajah,
2000; Davies, 2008). Por esta razón se pueden considerar los cuestionamientos que
Freedman (1987, pp. 95-96) señala respecto del idioma: ¿Qué tan necesario es en
verdad? ¿Con qué frecuencia hablarán con gente en inglés? ¿Cuántos leerán en in-
glés en sus trabajos o estudios? Estas necesidades de aprender inglés pueden resul-
tar, de acuerdo con Freedman, en un mito de la necesidad del inglés (aunque los
alumnos realmente no estén necesitados del idioma); en el caso mexicano, este mito
surge de la dependencia que existe entre México y Estados Unidos.
Motivación
Si bien existe un sinnúmero de factores que influyen en el éxito o fracaso de los estu-
diantes, la motivación es, según Harmer (1998), uno de los que más influyen en el éxito
del aprendizaje. Aunque la recompensa económica es un incentivo importante para
motivar a un individuo a aprender un idioma (Cooper & Seckbach, citado por Mc-
Kay, 1992); quienes aprenden una lengua con una motivación integrativa, por ejem-
plo, con la finalidad de convertirse en miembro de la comunidad de la lengua extran-
jera, aprenden ésta mejor que aquellos con una motivación funcional (instrumental)
solo por razones prácticas de tipo comercial y educativo (Appel & Muysken, 1996).
En este marco se encuentra la creencia generalizada de que el inglés proporciona
una ganancia social y material, como la lámpara de Aladino, abre las puertas a los
negocios internacionales, ciencia y viajes, es decir proporciona poder lingüístico
(Kachru, 1986, citado por McKay, 1992), independientemente de si el manejo del
idioma resulta en una ganancia social y económica mayor, la sola creencia constitu-
ye un incentivo importante para aprenderlo (McKay, 1992).
David McClelland, John Atkinson, Clark y Lowell (1953, citado por Woolfolk,
1990) fueron los primeros en centrarse en los estudios de la motivación de logro,
la cual hace referencia a los individuos que buscan alcanzar sus metas por la sola
satisfacción que produce el mismo hecho de conseguirlas. Posteriormente, Atkinson
(1964) agregó a esta teoría la variante de necesidad de logro por evitar el fracaso.
Dicha variante señala algo que es muy común: si un estudiante está motivado por el
logro, obtendrá mejores resultados que un estudiante motivado por evitar reprobar
un curso.
245
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
Componente ideológico
Siguiendo a Van Dijk (2003) las ideologías tienen con frecuencia una dimensión
evaluadora, hacen referencia a temas relevantes para un grupo y no tienen que ver
con aspectos triviales de la vida cotidiana. Sobre todo, se asocian a nociones de
identidad y posición en la sociedad.
Otro rasgo importante de la aplicación del término ideológico es que no todo
es ideológico, ni todo es político (Eagleton, 1997). En este punto también coinci-
de Van Dijk (2003) al señalar que no todo el conocimiento o todas las creencias
son de índole ideológica; según este autor, las creencias del “fundamento co-
mún”, en otras palabras, las creencias que generalmente no se cuestionan dentro
de una cultura, no son creencias ideológicas, ya que no son conflictivas y no
generan oposición o resistencia. Sin embargo, el caso del aprendizaje del inglés
como lengua extranjera es uno de los aspectos que tradicionalmente ha generado
resistencia y diferencias de opinión dentro del sistema educativo mexicano, por
lo que no se puede considerar como una creencia del fundamento común, sino
como ideología.
Van Dijk (1999) menciona que cuando ciertos actores sociales mantienen cier-
tas creencias piensan que éstas son verdaderas. Asimismo, nadie afirmaría que su
pensamiento es ideológico, pues la naturaleza de una ideología es la de disimular
su naturaleza de ideología (Reboul, 1986).
De igual manera, Eagleton (1997) y Gramsci señalan que las ideologías no son
homogéneas, pues suelen ser formaciones internamente complejas y diferenciadas.
Así, un estudiante puede admirar y gustar de los productos culturales de un país de
246
El componente ideológico en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
habla inglesa y, al mismo tiempo, revelar un desprecio hacia él, con lo que podría-
mos decir que tiene ideas mutuamente contradictorias.
Eagleton (1997) menciona que la ideología no sólo es cuestión de lo que yo pien-
se sobre una situación sino que está inscrita de algún modo en esa misma situación.
Así, por ejemplo, podemos tener a un estudiante que, por un lado, abiertamente
expresa la importancia que tiene el idioma inglés en su vida profesional pero que,
por otro, pospone el mayor lapso administrativamente posible el cursar el idioma.
Ideologías lingüísticas
En términos concretos sobre ideologías del lenguaje, éstas se conciben como “un
conjunto de creencias acerca de la lengua, las cuales son articuladas por los usua-
rios, como un medio de racionalización o justificación del uso mismo de la lengua.”
(Silverstein, citado por Woolard, 1994, p. 57).1
Las ideologías lingüísticas no representan solamente el lenguaje sino que ex-
hiben los lazos íntimos que lo unen a nociones tales como identidad y comunidad,
nación y estado (Woolard, 1998 citado por Del Valle, 2007).
Nacionalismo
1 La traducción es mía.
247
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
María: “…yo amo México y no pienso… no cambiaría mi nación por otra, menos por
una extranjera, con otras costumbres, con otro lenguaje…” [M. 19.10.12. 344-347].2
Pepe: “...hay que fomentar la cultura nacional antes que la extranjera, por desgracia
se están perdiendo las tradiciones de nuestro país… y lo mismo pasa con el idioma…
se está perdiendo” [P. 21.11.12. 211-214].
Identidad
2 Los extractos de entrevistas se identifican de la siguiente manera. La “M” por ejemplo, representa la letra inicial
del seudónimo del participante. 19.10.12 es el día, mes y año en que se llevó a cabo la entrevista y 344-347 son
las líneas correspondientes a la transcripción donde se encuentra la cita.
248
El componente ideológico en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
…Por la lengua, las costumbres… por la categoría que nos dio España… Deber nues-
tro es… lo auténticamente nuestro a los absurdos de importación que nos vuelven infe-
riores y que nos prostituyen… pues la hispanidad , cuya parte viva somos, es el Bien en
acción contra las fuerzas del Mal (citado por Buenfil, 2004, p. 184. El énfasis es mío).
Prejuicios lingüísticos
249
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
ante las diferencias que existen entre lengua y lengua, algunos se preguntan cuál de
ellas es la mejor y, por lo general, concluyen que es la suya… Otros tratan de definir
campos de supremacía y dicen, por ejemplo, que para la filosofía es superior el fran-
cés; el alemán para la ciencia; el inglés para el comercio, y el español para el amor
(Swadesh, 1966, citado por Ávila, 1993, p. 89).
Así, podemos ver que es imposible que estos campos se desarrollen solamente en un
idioma y que, al no existir un conocimiento fiable que sostenga estas aseveraciones,
se convierten en ejemplos de prejuicios lingüísticos muy arraigados y difundidos,
incluso en la actualidad.
De acuerdo con Lastra, “La gente tiene ideas categóricas sobre algunas pautas
lingüísticas y éstas afectan sus juicios sobre los individuos y las oportunidades que
les brindan” (1997, p. 391). En el caso de México y los EU, la situación intercultural
está marcada por relaciones disimétricas y de dominación, razón por la cual, para
el grupo mexicano, es mayor la tendencia a la protección de la identidad. Los estu-
diantes mexicanos de inglés muestran en sus discursos una tensión que se manifiesta
mediante juicios estereotipados negativos sobre los hablantes de esa lengua, en par-
ticular sobre los norteamericanos y esta tensión comprende sentimientos ambivalen-
tes (Gómez de Mas & Ryan, 2000, pp. 358-361). En sus testimonios, Yadira e Isaías
dan muestra de esta tensión:
Isaías: “…no cierro mi criterio, pero simplemente no me agrada tomar una cultura
que no es mía.” [I. 21.11.12:299-301].
Yadira: “…creo que tenemos más cultura nosotros que los norteamericanos…”
[Y.13.01.12:154-155].
250
El componente ideológico en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
Conclusión
Cualquier pedagogía diseñada para los estudiantes deberá tomar en cuenta el deseo
de dominar el idioma, pero también los temores hacia la hegemonía ideológica/lin-
guística (Canagarajah, 2000, p. 174). La enseñanza de idiomas tiene un aspecto social
e incluso uno político (Johnson, 2008); por lo tanto, si los maestros se vuelven sen-
sibles a las percepciones de los estudiantes hacia la cultura de los angloparlantes, el
proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje puede verse enriquecido (Chasan & Ryan, 1995).
Hay pocos profesores de idiomas que estén conscientes del impacto que tiene
su labor sobre toda la sociedad; de acuerdo con Terborg, en su mayoría tratan de
resolver los problemas en el micronivel (2000, p. 281). Todas las áreas relacionadas
con la lingüística y también algunas disciplinas que no son consideradas afines a ella
tienen que ver con la enseñanza de los idiomas, por lo que hay que evitar, de acuerdo
con este mismo autor, la reducción del campo a cuestiones didácticas o gramaticales,
aun cuando la relevancia para el aula no sea tan obvia (2000, p. 281). La enseñan-
za-aprendizaje del idioma inglés es un fenómeno complejo donde los componentes
ideológicos también ejercen su influencia.
Referencias
251
Liliana Sosa Dorantes
252
El componente ideológico en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
253
La competencia cultural:
Implicaciones didácticas en el
aprendizaje de lenguas-culturas
El enfoque por competencias en nuestros días es una respuesta a las necesidades que
plantea la nueva sociedad del conocimiento y la comunicación humana es eminen-
temente cultural, por lo que resulta indispensable preguntarse ¿Qué es la cultura?
¿Qué importancia reviste en la enseñanza de lenguas? El término cultura no siempre
resulta fácil de definir y puede asumir diversas acepciones, Sapir, (1966, p. 247)
señala que “cultura es aquello que una sociedad hace y piensa” Tylor, explica que
la cultura es: “...aquel todo complejo que incluye el conocimiento, las creencias, el
arte, la moral, el derecho, las costumbres, y cualesquiera otros hábitos y capacidades
adquiridos por el hombre.” Coseriu (1991) dice que “Cultura es el hombre mismo”.
Por su parte Claxton, (2001, p. 205) comenta que “es el hombre quien a través del
lenguaje, describe al mundo tal como lo experimenta y que a esto contribuye el len-
guaje que ha aprendido a hablar”. El autor añade que la forma en la que el lenguaje
se estructura gramaticalmente y las cosas que se pueden decir con esas estructuras,
incluyendo las emociones dependerán de la cultura en que crece.
255
Celia Cristina Contreras Asturias
“(…) Un conjunto de aptitudes que permiten explicitar las redes de significación im-
plícitas, a partir de las cuales se mide la pertenencia a un comunidad cultural dada.
La competencia cultural no es entonces la capacidad para producir conocimientos,
sino saber distanciarse de los discursos dominantes producidos sobre una cultura. En
ese sentido la competencia cultural no tiene que ver con la cultura extranjera o ma-
terna, sino con aptitudes por interpretar, que no están estrictamente correlacionadas
con un conjunto cultural preciso.
1 Byram, M. (1995), “Acquiring Intercultural Competence. A Review of Learning Theories”, en L. Sercu (ed.)
Intercultural Competence Vol. I. Hall, E. T. (1987): La dimensión oculta, México, Siglo Veintiuno Editores.
256
La competencia cultural: Implicaciones didácticas en el aprendizaje de lenguas-culturas
“Así la percepción del otro se construye a través de un prisma que deforma la com-
petencia cultural de origen. El otro no está nunca disponible a través de su realidad
objetiva. Es una imagen, es decir, una representación” (Le Berre, 1992, p. 55.
257
Celia Cristina Contreras Asturias
258
La competencia cultural: Implicaciones didácticas en el aprendizaje de lenguas-culturas
Relacionada con una visión del mundo den- No necesariamente relacionada con la visión
tro de un todo coherente para el individuo del mundo del individuo
(sistema de valores)
El individuo juega un rol activo: actor social El individuo juega un rol de observador
Implicaciones didácticas
259
Celia Cristina Contreras Asturias
Aprender a relativizar
260
La competencia cultural: Implicaciones didácticas en el aprendizaje de lenguas-culturas
261
Celia Cristina Contreras Asturias
Conclusión
Referencias
263
V
Asuntos curriculares en
lenguas extranjeras
Introducción
1 El programa de estudios referido se desarrolló en el marco del proyecto de renovación de programas de estudios,
el cual inició en 2008 y concluyó en 2014.
267
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
de estudios tiene en torno a la enseñanza del PLE, además de las áreas de oportu-
nidad que aún es necesario fortalecer para promover una implementación integral,
así como una vigencia capaz de incorporar las necesidades de comunicación que
presentan los aprendientes.
Finalmente, como cuarta parte, este trabajo intentará hacer, a manera de conclu-
sión, un balance sobre la pertinencia del plan y su impacto a corto, mediano y largo
plazo en el centro universitario donde se implementa.
268
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
dades institucionales de enseñanza, las necesidades de los docentes y/o los objetivos
de aprendizaje de los alumnos desarrollando un programa que satisfaga la progre-
sión en una o varias asignaturas.
En las propuestas metodológicas desarrolladas durante el siglo XX en el campo
de las lenguas extranjeras, como es el caso del enfoque audiolingual, no se habían
considerado ni la realidad de aprendizaje de la lengua meta ni las necesidades de
aprendizaje del público que se acerca a la misma. También se desconocen las cir-
cunstancias particulares que implica aprender una lengua, pues muchas veces los
modelos curriculares adoptados han sido producto de la “tropicalización”2 de mo-
delos externos, basados en un material hecho desde la descontextualización a la
realidad mexicana. Tales situaciones reducen la enseñanza de la lengua extranjera al
estudio de una serie de formas gramaticales y formas situacionales limitadas, más
orientadas a observar la regla (la gramática) y no a la norma (el uso)33, dejando fuera
el actuar del docente como un agente de innovación en la elaboración de materiales
e instrumentos de evaluación, así como investigador de los problemas derivados de
su quehacer cotidiano.
Ante tales circunstancias, llama la atención el trabajo desarrollado en el Depar-
tamento de Portugués del CELE, cuyo programa de estudios de la asignatura expone
un enlace pedagógico particular y alternativo al quehacer de enseñar una lengua
extranjera. Primero porque el programa reconoce a la lengua como un instrumento
de carácter interactivo, con una carga social, y que está vinculada con los usos reales
de la comunicación (Herrera [Link], 2015, p. 17), sea del cotidiano, sea de contextos
formales y profesionales.
Segundo, porque dicho programa posee una visión incluyente, donde se permite
que el foco de la enseñanza sean los procesos comunicativos en los cuales el alumno
podrá enfrentarse a la realidad lingüística del portugués, promoviendo un apren-
dizaje real y significativo, aplicable a su contexto personal y profesional, siendo
consciente del curso y discurso de los actos de habla, además de las competencias,
habilidades y herramientas que necesita para llevarlos a cabo (ibídem, p. 16-17),
confiriéndole así un importante grado de autonomía y reflexión sobre sus aciertos y
áreas de oportunidad, situaciones que muchas veces el trabajo centrado en el uso de
un manual no es capaz de promover.
2 Entendemos por tropicalización al hecho de adecuar variables sociales, políticas, psicológicas y de aprendizaje,
entre otras, con respecto a una cultura, generalizando las características de ambas culturas, sin atender a las
diferencias o particularidades de aplicación.
3 Definimos a la regla como la convención lingüística que todos los usuarios deben atender, la cual está alejada
de su realidad de realización; mientras que la norma es todo aquello fijado social y tradicionalmente en el habla.
269
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
270
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
con sus respectivas tareas, además de la reflexión ante la semejanza y ante la dife-
rencia entre ambas lenguas, entre otros.
Por ello resulta necesario, a continuación, hacer un recuento de la estructura del
programa, con el fin de reconocer sus pros y contras y, del mismo modo, presentar
los aciertos que el mismo tiene en lo que atañe a la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras
tipológicamente próximas (Ferreira, 2000), haciendo hincapié en los retos a través
de observaciones y sugerencias que nos permitan fortalecer y retroalimentar el
propio plan, con el único fin de coadyuvar a la consolidación de un objeto curricular
sólido, claro, pertinente y actual que pueda ser implementado en el centro de trabajo
donde se desarrolló, así como también en otros centros donde se trabaja con portu-
gués como lengua extranjera/lengua adicional.
El programa de portugués del CELE propone una estructura que integra el aprendi-
zaje de la lengua a través de 47 tareas, divididas en seis niveles centrales. La distri-
bución por tareas corresponde a una progresión pertinente que considera un grado
de dificultad para cada nivel, quedando los niveles 1, 4 y 5 con un total de 8 tareas,
de igual modo los niveles 2 y 3 con nueve tareas, y finalmente el nivel 6 con 5 tareas,
considerando que estas últimas promueven en el alumno aprendizajes específicos de
la lengua, obedeciendo a una progresión más autónoma en el salón de clase.
Conforme a lo anterior la congruencia de los autores del plan, en lo que corres-
ponde a la progresión de los contenidos, es la de proponer acompañar al alumno
en el aprendizaje de la lengua para su uso y producción en contextos sociales que
le resultan próximos, pasando por el diseño de la lengua para la comunicación en
contextos académicos y laborales, donde el grado de formalidad es mayor, llegando
a la producción en lengua meta con propósitos comunicativos más libres, donde la
competencia cultural también acompaña a las competencias comunicativas y discur-
sivas de la lengua (Herrera, [Link]., pp. 26-27).
De acuerdo con el análisis hecho por Tyler (1998), en lo que toca a la organi-
zación de un programa de estudios, un elemento que llama la atención es la orga-
nización presentada en nuestro documento, debido a que no obedece a situaciones
cronológicas del aprendizaje ni anecdóticas, sino a la sinergia del compromiso de
aprendizaje del alumno y de la experiencia del profesor para abordar cada una de
las tareas descritas, desde lo lingüístico, lo social, lo pragmático y lo cultural, en-
tre otros componentes. Esta organización resulta ser menos arbitraria y permite al
271
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
aprendiente reconocer aquellos nexos y relaciones que la lengua guarda en los di-
ferentes contextos a los cuales el alumno se va enfrentar en situaciones reales de
comunicación (Díaz Barriga, 2005 b).
Obedeciendo a los criterios de continuidad, secuencia e integración que Tyler
comentaba, mediante los cuales proponía la constitución de la serie de orientaciones
básicas para la elaboración de cualquier plan de estudios, este programa presenta,
por cada tarea, un descriptor general (ver figura 1) “representado en un panal, cuyo
hexágono central describe grosso modo el nombre de la tarea y el número de la misma
(…) Alrededor de este primer hexágono, describen las seis competencias involucra-
das en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de dicha tarea” (Herrera, [Link]., p. 45).
Competencia
discursiva
Competencia Competencia
lingüistica metacognitiva
NIVEL
TAREA
Competencia Competencia
sociolingüistica estratégica
Competencia
metalingüistica
Como apoyo al descriptor general o panal, aparecen de manera inmediata los des-
criptores de las competencias de aprendizaje, donde, conforme a sus autores, “se
ahonda en la descripción de las competencias que un alumno debe desarrollar du-
rante el proceso de aprendizaje promovido en el aula” (Herrera, ibidem.). El conjunto
de ambos permite entender el planteamiento de las seis competencias involucradas
en el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera, facilitando la comprensión de la tarea
como un mapa general de actuaciones del alumno en la lengua, entendiéndola como
un instrumento de comunicación en el contexto de la globalización (Porras, 2015).
La ilación de estas competencias desarrolladas en el programa permite promo-
ver en el alumno una compleja producción tanto oral, como escrita; además de que le
facilitan los elementos de reflexión necesarios como son las formas y métodos para
emprender un nuevo conocimiento procedimental (competencia metacognitiva) y
272
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
273
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
noción de tarea es más compleja y mucho más general, como puede constatarse a lo
largo del texto. Debido a ello, aparecen los descriptores generales y de competen-
cias, donde se explican los actuares y las respuestas actitudinales que el alumno ten-
drá que desarrollar para declararse un usuario competente de la lengua. Asimismo,
son estos descriptores los que ayudan a planear las actividades a partir de la expe-
riencia del docente y desarrollar diferentes instrumentos de evaluación, como son:
“portafolios, diarios, rúbricas entrevistas individuales o grupales, autoevaluaciones
o heteroevaluaciones” (ibidem., p. 28), que concuerden con el espíritu del programa,
incorporando actividades e instrumentos de proceso y resultado de forma integral.
Ante este escenario, son los propios autores los primeros en estar conscientes de
la complejidad del instrumento que presentan; por tal motivo sustentan el enfoque
reconociendo que es importante comprender los procesos necesarios para adquirir
una lengua extranjera e, igualmente, la necesidad de entender los procesos de apren-
dizaje dentro de un concepto cognitivo-constructivista (ibidem., p. 22), permitiendo
en el alumno el desarrollo cognitivo en el plano intelectual a través de la incorpora-
ción de nuevos aprendizajes escolares, que le resulten significativos, poniendo aten-
ción a la diversidad de intereses, necesidades y motivaciones, y a la incorporación de
modalidades de aprendizaje diversas, alternativas y novedosas, donde haya una in-
teracción directa entre el docente y el aprendiente (Díaz Barriga y Hernández, 1999,
p. 14), considerando que la construcción del aprendizaje obedece a una participación
diferente de los actores involucrados.
Debido a esta visión, el programa busca promover en el alumno la responsabili-
dad de su propio proceso de aprendizaje, haciendo reconstrucciones del conocimien-
to preexistente tanto en la sociedad como en el propio aprendiente; echando mano de
un nuevo modelo de docente, el cual facilita el enlazar de los procesos cognitivos del
alumno con el saber colectivo (idem.), haciendo alumnos cada vez más autónomos y
profesores cada vez más comprometidos con el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje.
Sin embargo, es necesario hacer señalamientos que correspondan a una profundi-
zación de las fortalezas que el documento tiene, contrastando con las áreas de opor-
tunidad necesarias a discutir y fortalecer. Dicho análisis resulta pertinente debido
a que toda experiencia curricular puede ser perfectible, considerando que su expe-
riencia siempre tiene como punto de partida un hecho arbitrario institucional que no
siempre corresponde con el espíritu y/o preparación de toda la planta docente que
implementará dicha propuesta.
274
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
Hasta ahora hemos denotado las singularidades del programa de estudios del Depar-
tamento de Portugués del CELE, dando particular atención al espíritu del mismo, su
abordaje y programación, así como su inserción en el panorama actual de la ense-
ñanza de lenguas extranjeras en México como un agente de innovación y contextua-
lización, que rescata la experiencia docente en el salón de clases, dando cuenta que
su fórmula no tiende a dar soluciones sino a reconocer la complejidad envuelta en
el aprendizaje de una lengua. Sin embargo, todo programa de estudios atiende a un
proyecto educativo institucional en particular, a una realidad geográfica, cultural y
temporal, haciendo que su acción se restrinja, generando con ello abordajes parcia-
les y limitados de la materia de estudio objeto del programa.
En nuestro caso de análisis, llaman la atención ciertos puntos recalcados por los
mismos autores, haciendo énfasis en aquellos que fueron considerados en la elabora-
ción del documento. Primero, el programa se define como un documento transversal
donde se integran los conocimientos lingüísticos con la sociedad, haciendo énfasis
en las necesidades comunicativas de cada esfera4, atendiendo a la visión del centro
de trabajo donde se implementará el documento. Segundo, se reconoce una forma
de trabajo flexible, que permite el abordaje libre, conforme a los intereses y las ne-
cesidades de los agentes involucrados en el salón de clase, lo cual permite abordar
las tareas conforme a la experiencia del profesor de manera secuencial, dos tareas al
mismo tiempo, o dando prioridad a una conforme a las necesidades de los alumnos.
Tercero, se entiende que el programa tiene una articulación entre sus componen-
tes, creando una armonía con la acción formativa global, reconociendo a la lengua
portuguesa como una lengua de importancia mundial con presencia en todos los
continentes. Cuarto, corresponde al acercamiento de la visión de lengua con los ele-
mentos de lengua y cultura, destacando la necesidad de promover un diálogo entre
las representaciones de los docentes y aprendientes y los contextos normativos de la
lengua meta, incluyendo una visión de lusofonía más incluyente, donde el polo no es
ni Brasil ni Portugal, sino los diferentes países que han adoptado esta lengua como
medio de comunicación oficial. Quinto, se destaca la necesidad de una formación
integral y crítica que permita al alumno el poder promover diálogos interculturales y
metalingüísticos, donde el acercamiento de la lengua no corresponda al estereotipo
sino a la integración de elementos que permitan reconocer ejercicios de alteridad
4 Reconocemos que el alumno usará la lengua en las esferas académicas, laborales, científicas, familiares, etc. al
momento de comunicarse en la lengua meta.
275
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
276
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
Otra limitación del enfoque propuesto por los autores corresponde al material
físico que traduzca en actividades los objetivos del propio programa. Hasta ahora no
existe ningún libro de texto5 que cumpla con tales características. Primero, porque
los manuales en el mercado difícilmente entran en comunión total con el espíritu
del programa al ser elaborados para otro público meta o en otros contextos y reali-
dades, así como no abarcar todo el concepto de lusofonía; de la misma forma, éstos
desatienden a la definición de destinatarios que los autores hacen al considerar otros
contextos de aprendizaje a través del reconocimiento de los diferentes alumnos que
convergen en esa realidad. La recomendación sería poder desarrollar un nuevo ma-
croproyecto institucional que permita la edición de una serie de materiales dentro
del enfoque abordado, donde se involucre a los propios profesores del departamen-
to en la confección de tales materiales, hecho que permitirá hacer actividades con
enfoques encaminados a promover el aprendizaje por tareas, con el componente de
promoción de trabajo en autonomía por parte del alumno.
Otro acierto inherente dentro del programa es la definición teórica y metodo-
lógica de las competencias necesarias para desarrollar una lengua extranjera. En
el documento se entiende a la lengua como una construcción plástica que tiene
aspectos lingüísticos, discursivos, estratégicos y sociolingüísticos. Hasta aquí no
aparece nada nuevo fuera de lo propuesto por Canale & Swain (1981) respecto a
los componentes de la competencia comunicativa involucrados en el aprendizaje de
una lengua extranjera, salvo que los autores de la propuesta plantean que junto con
estos aspectos es necesario incorporar dos competencias más: la metacognitiva6 y la
metalingüística7, considerando que estamos frente a una proximidad lingüística que
puede ser interpretada de forma diferente por el alumno. Por tales razones, reitera-
mos la importancia de promover la formación continua de los docentes, de tal modo
que correspondan al perfil que se requiere para la ejecución de la propuesta. Por lo
que respecta al aprendizaje de lenguas, pocos docentes están formados para promo-
ver de manera efectiva la interacción entre estas seis competencias, principalmente
porque no todos tienen una formación sólida en temas de didáctica, didáctica de las
5 Definimos libro de texto al manual adoptado por la institución para desarrollar las distintas tareas por medio de
actividades significativas para la lengua.
6 La competencia metacognitiva corresponde a la capacidad del alumno para movilizar y organizar sus recursos
cognitivos y afectivos cuando está ante un problema de aprendizaje planteado por las actividades o ejercicios en
la clase.
7 La competencia metalingüística corresponde a la capacidad del alumno para hacer evaluaciones, planificacio-
nes y regulaciones en su propio aprendizaje de la lengua meta a través de la autovaloración de las propias compe-
tencias y la autodirección en la consecución de las mismas.
277
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
lenguas, lingüística aplicada, entre otros aspectos. Nuestra propuesta reconoce que
es importante promover una figura docente más completa, que no solamente tenga
las habilidades estructurales para comunicar en la lengua (código), sino que también
pueda reconocer las necesidades y desafíos implicados en el aprendizaje de PLE.
Debe apostarse por un docente que se muestre crítico y reflexivo de su quehacer dia-
rio y que sea capaz de promover soluciones, fortaleciendo su práctica en futuros con-
textos. Debemos dejar de lado las relaciones verticales en el aprendizaje, el ejercicio
del poder y el estudio de la lengua donde se privilegia el código y la permanencia del
alumno con acciones para su entretenimiento, como tradicionalmente ha ocurrido
en la enseñanza de lenguas.
La anterior propuesta corresponde a una preocupación inherente a la implemen-
tación del plan de estudios. Serán tres los actores involucrados en dicho ejercicio
y cada uno parece tener una responsabilidad específica que debe cumplir. Primero
la institución debe proporcionar las herramientas suficientes para favorecer una re-
novación en las prácticas pedagógicas en el salón de clases de PLE en las cuales se
concrete el éxito del enfoque propuesto. Segundo, las autoridades, que de acuerdo al
CELE son Directivos, Jefes de Departamento y Responsables pedagógicos, deberán
establecer un diálogo entre las necesidades docentes y las necesidades institucio-
nales, a manera de promover el cumplimiento del enfoque en el salón de clases.
Finalmente, el desafío del docente será el atender al cumplimiento del programa de
estudios en el salón de clase, promoviendo las estrategias necesarias para que cada
uno de los alumnos atiendan al paradigma de enseñanza propuesto, fortaleciendo
sus instrumentos, permitiendo una vigencia, determinada por la autocomposición y
la autoreflexión de profesores y alumnos.
El último punto necesario que nos interesa abordar está el de los procesos de
evaluación de docentes y aprendientes, que pueden aportar argumentos a favor de
nuestra hipótesis. Llama la atención que en el apartado destinado a explicar el pun-
to, los autores se detienen simplemente a explicar la evaluación como un elemento
continuo y formativo de procesos, más orientada al alumno que a evaluar también
al docente. En este sentido, su apuesta es porque “el alumno lleve un registro de
las evidencias (portafolios, diarios, rúbricas, entrevistas individuales o grupales,
autoevaluaciones o heteroevaluaciones…)” (Herrera, [Link]., p. 28) como eviden-
cia del cumplimiento de las actividades. No obstante no se presenta una propuesta
metodológica sobre el privilegio de instrumentos de evaluación por tarea, ni las
recomendaciones metodológicas que se deben seguir para desarrollarlos en caso de
ser responsabilidad del profesor, a partir de las necesidades del salón de clase. Lo
anterior puede significar un riesgo latente para deconstruir un perfil docente tan bien
278
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
marcado e idealizado, así como provocar en el alumno una falta de rumbo sobre su
propio aprendizaje y el de sus colegas. Del mismo modo es un desafío en el sentido
de la incorporación de nuevos profesores a la planta docente, ya que muchas veces el
espíritu evaluador no es el mismo que el de la institución y, si bien es cierto que se
está partiendo de un principio de libertad y autonomía, el desarrollo de los objetivos
para un fin común también debe ser analizado y colocado en la mesa de discusión.
El tener un parámetro para la evaluación ayuda al cumplimiento de las diferen-
tes tareas, asimismo ayuda al cumplimiento de objetivos personales, sociales e insti-
tucionales cuando se trata de aprendizaje. Por lo que respecta a lenguas extranjeras,
el parámetro ayuda además a determinar que se obedezca al enfoque, al espíritu
de la institución y también a la determinación de promover una profesionalización
del quehacer docente como uno de los tres ejes centrales para la construcción del
conocimiento.
279
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
280
El diseño curricular: Crítica al programa de portugués lengua extranjera del CELE
Referencias
281
Arturo Ramírez Hernández
Herrera González, L., Suárez Galicia, V. P., Briseño Ramírez, F. M., y Ramírez
Hernández, A. (2015). Programa de portugués. México: CELE-UNAM.
Moriondo Kulokowski, M. Z., y Maia González, N. T. (1996). Español para bra-
sileños. Sobre por dónde determinar la justa medida de una cercanía. Anuario
brasileño de estudios hispánicos, (IX), pp. 11-19.
Porras Pulido, J. “Comentarios al programa de portugués del CELE”, en Pre-
sentación del Programa de Portugués, México: Casa de las Humanidades-
UNAM, 19 de marzo de 2015 (Mesa redonda)
Tyler, R. W. (1998). Principios básicos del currículo. Buenos Aires, Argentina:
Ediciones Troquel.
282
El libro didáctico de español en Brasil:
Logros y dificultades en la formación
ciudadana y crítica del alumno
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
Introducción
El objetivo de este artículo es promover una reflexión sobre los logros y dificulta-
des que se han observado en la elaboración de libros didácticos para la enseñanza
de español a brasileños, en lo que se refiere a propiciar al alumno una formación
ciudadana y crítica. Para ello partiré de una breve descripción del contexto actual
de la enseñanza de este idioma en Brasil, y luego discutiré algunos presupuestos
teórico-prácticos señalados en dos documentos oficiales que orientan el trabajo con
la disciplina Lengua Española en el currículo escolar de la Enseñanza Básica: el
apartado Conocimientos de Lengua Extranjeras / Conocimientos de Español presen-
te en las Orientaciones Curriculares de la Enseñanza Media - OCEM (Brasil, 2006),
y algunas directrices dispuestas en la convocatoria del 2015 del Programa Nacional
do Livro Didático (PNLD), ambos elaborados por el Ministerio de Educación.
Tomando como base dichos documentos, presentaré una muestra de análisis de
dos libros didácticos publicados en Brasil a fin de discutir algunos desafíos que
todavía se advierten en el cumplimiento de presupuestos relacionados con la forma-
ción ciudadana y crítica del estudiante.
En el momento justo en que me dedico a redactar este artículo se celebran los diez
años de la aprobación de la ley 11.161 por el entonces Presidente de la República de
Brasil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, el 05 de agosto de 2005. La ley tornaba obligatorio
el ofrecimiento de la disciplina Lengua Española en la Enseñanza Media, y estable-
283
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
cía que su curso era facultativo para los alumnos. Asimismo, determinaba que era
facultativo la oferta de dicha asignatura en los dos últimos años de la Enseñanza
Fundamental.
A lo largo de estos 10 años, desde la aprobación de la ley, no han sido pocos los
tropiezos y dificultades encontrados por las más diversas instituciones de Enseñanza
Básica del país para la adaptación curricular necesaria a la inclusión de la discipli-
na en su malla curricular. También han sido enormes los retos enfrentados por las
Instituciones de Enseñanza Superior, que se han visto ante la necesidad de ofrecer
nuevos cursos de formación inicial y continuada de profesores que puedan atender
a la demanda emergente y urgente de preparar a docentes capacitados para enseñar
el idioma en todo el país. Si bien pasados los diez años desde la implantación de la
ley la temática de las dificultades y desafíos encontrados por estas instituciones no
se ha agotado y aún merezca atención, no me ocuparé de ello en este momento. Opto
por rescatar dos iniciativas de orden político que se han sido implementado en el
período del 2005 al 2015 y que han sido evaluadas positivamente en la implantación
del español en el currículo escolar del país. Se trata, por un lado, de la inclusión
en las Orientaciones Curriculares de la Enseñanza Media - OCEM (Brasil, 2006),
de un apartado específico que trata de los Conocimientos de Lengua Extranjeras /
Conocimientos de Español, y por otro, de la inclusión de las lenguas extranjeras y
específicamente del español en el Programa Nacional do Livro Didático (PNLD), a
partir del 2011.
El primero de los mencionados documentos presenta una serie de presupues-
tos teórico-prácticos que ofrecen directrices –más que pautas y procedimientos
didácticos específicos- para la enseñanza del idioma a alumnos de la Enseñanza
Media (entre los 15 y los 17 años, aproximadamente). El segundo se trata de una
convocatoria abierta a las editoriales para que sometan a evaluación las obras di-
dácticas de enseñanza de español a extranjeros, también de acuerdo a presupuestos
teórico-prácticos previamente definidos en función del perfil formativo que se desea
alcanzar con la enseñanza del idioma tanto en el segundo ciclo de la Enseñanza Fun-
damental (estudiantes de 11 a 14 años) como en la Enseñanza Media1.
Se observa una afinidad teórica entre los dos documentos, ya que ambos par-
ten de presupuestos coherentes con una visión socio-interaccionista del lenguaje
1 Las convocatorias del PNLD específicas para estos dos segmentos de la Educación Básica se abren alternada-
mente, en general cada dos años. Las obras evaluadas y seleccionadas por equipos de especialistas designados por
la Secretaría de Educación Básica del Ministerio de Educación son posteriormente elegidas por los profesores y
directores de las escuelas públicas del país. Luego el Ministerio de Educación las adquiere y las reparte gratuita-
mente a los estudiantes.
284
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
2 Metodologia do ensino de E/LE: Referenciais e modelos teóricos. Conferencia presentada durante la Capaci-
tación APEESP/SEE, SP, 2013. Recuperado de [Link]
285
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
3 Los textos que comprenden la obra de Barros & Costa (2010) presentan importantes reflexiones relacionadas
con los puntos aquí mencionados.
286
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
“ser cidadão” envolve a compreensão sobre que posição/lugar uma pessoa (o aluno,
o cidadão) ocupa na sociedade. Ou seja, de que lugar ele fala na sociedade? Por que
essa é a sua posição? Como veio parar ali? Ele quer estar nela? Quer mudá-la? Quer
sair dela? Essa posição o inclui ou o excluí de quê? Nessa perspectiva, no que compe-
te ao ensino de idiomas, a disciplina Línguas Estrangeiras pode incluir o desenvolvi-
mento da cidadania. (Brasil, 2006, p. 91)
287
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
288
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
4 En los últimos años estos han sido temas de discusión por parte de investigadores y profesores del área de la
enseñanza y formación de profesores de español en Brasil. Cito particularmente las reflexiones presentadas por
Elzimar G. M. Costa en su ponencia “Leitura e escrita nos livros didáticos de espanhol: PNLD 2014 e PNLD
2015”, presentada en Mesa-Redonda durante el III GEPPELE/CNPq – Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Práti-
cas de Ensino e Formação de Professores de Língua Espanhola, en Fortaleza, Ceará, junio, 2015.
5 Aunque exista una pauta común para el análisis de los libros, se han notado discrepancias en el resultado final
de diferentes procesos evaluativos (hay casos en que una determinada obra aprobó una convocatoria cuyo análisis
estaba a cargo de un equipo de especialistas y la reprobó en otra con un equipo distinto).
289
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
290
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
Por lo que se advierte en el trabajo propuesto para el alumno, hay una mayor con-
centración de actividades dirigidas a la comprensión del texto en su nivel más su-
perficial: la identificación de informaciones explícitas (actividades 1 y 3). El texto de
audio, transcrito en la actividad 2, no es auténtico, y se nota que ha sido elaborado
con vistas al trabajo de las expresiones de gustos y preferencias, conforme el objeti-
vo lingüístico establecido para la unidad. Aunque se lo pueda considerar verosímil,
el diálogo en cuestión no constituye una muestra real de una práctica discursiva, lo
que limita las posibilidades para un trabajo en la perspectiva del letramento.
No obstante, se observa un esfuerzo por promover alguna reflexión del alumno
en las orientaciones dadas al profesor y en las propuestas de la actividad 4: “pre-
gúntales a tus alumnos si consideran que la literatura y la música son importantes
para su equilibrio emocional (…)”. Esta reflexión, empero, se sitúa en el nivel de la
experiencia personal del alumno y no establece un vínculo directo con el texto que
se le presenta. En el caso específico de las preguntas que figuran en el apartado
“Ahora habla de ti”, aun cuando tratan del tema de la literatura y promuevan una
reflexión sobre el valor de la literatura en la constitución del ser humano, se observa
291
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
que ninguna de ellas requiere la retomada del texto que se escuchó anteriormente
para ampliar la comprensión de este en un nivel más profundo.
Estas consideraciones nos llevan a concluir que el camino hacia el trabajo con el
texto aún necesita ser más explorado en sus entrelíneas, a fin de promover una mayor
interacción entre el estudiante y el texto y contribuir a la construcción de sentidos en
un nivel más profundo. Sin embargo, vale recordar que esto solamente se hace po-
sible si los textos seleccionados para la lectura efectivamente se abren a la reflexión
y colaboran a la ampliación de la visión de mundo del alumno, conforme lo que se
establece como propuesta educativa en las OCEM.
Otro aspecto relacionado con el abordaje del texto se refiere al trabajo con el
género. Las OCEM entienden que el individuo se apodera del lenguaje/lengua para
construir sentidos y decir algo a alguien en un contexto determinado y con un obje-
tivo específico. En esta perspectiva, el documento propone la enseñanza de la lengua
a partir de un abordaje social en el que se considera el lenguaje como un signo me-
diador que posibilita la interacción entre los interlocutores y que permite construir
textos que se materializan en géneros discursivos.
Si bien las investigaciones que sostienen la propuesta de trabajo en la perspec-
tiva del género (discursivo o textual6) han avanzado expresivamente en los últimos
años (Ramos, 2004; Marcuschi, 2003, Rojo & Barbosa, 2015, entre otros), se nota
aún cierta dificultad para colocarlas en práctica, como lo recuerdan Arruda & Petro-
ni (2009) y Corrêa & Silva (2014), y como se puede verificar en el análisis de las dos
obras tomadas aquí como referencia.
Si por un lado el libro Síntesis se preocupa de exponer al alumno a una variedad
expresiva de géneros (canciones, poemas, cuentos, cómics, ensayos y otros) que cir-
culan en las prácticas sociales en que participa, por otro se observa aún la ausencia de
un trabajo explícito que le permita reflexionar y tomar conciencia de su contexto de
producción, contenido temático, estilo y forma composicional (Bakhtin, 1999; 2003).
Por otra parte, la obra Enlaces presenta algunas evidencias de trabajo con la
estructura composicional del género, aunque se la presente al estudiante de manera
más bien informativa (ver Figura 2), sin propiciar una reflexión personal y construc-
tiva sobre los elementos que conforman el género. Desde mi punto de vista, se pierde
aquí la oportunidad de que el propio alumno saque sus conclusiones sobre el proceso
de construcción del texto y la conformación del género, lo que podría contribuir al
desarrollo de su capacidad de lectura crítica.
6 Debido a los objetivos establecidos para este texto, no abordaremos las particularidades que distinguen teórica-
mente las perspectivas de género discursivo y género textual.
292
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
El abordaje de la gramática
293
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
294
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
Como se pudo constatar, el trabajo con la gramática desde una perspectiva más
reflexiva, que establezca una estrecha relación entre uso y forma, constituye otro
importante reto a ser alcanzado por quienes se dedican a la elaboración de propues-
tas didácticas para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. En los ejemplos destacados
anteriormente es posible observar que las actividades no contribuyen a que el estu-
diante comprenda en qué medida los enunciados reflejan la forma de ser, actuar y
pensar de aquel que los produce y de las condiciones discursivas, sociales e histó-
ricas en que lo hace. Por lo tanto, considerando aún lo dispuesto en el documento
del PNLD, se hace necesario trabajar cuestiones relacionadas con la gramática para
resaltar que las opciones que se hacen en relación al uso de una determinada forma
o estructura son fundamentales para la construcción y producción de sentido y no
son simplemente el resultado de las exigencias normativas.
295
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
El último de los aspectos que me propuse abordar en este texto es el análisis del
lugar que los libros didácticos le dan al trabajo de la heterogeneidad lingüística y la
diversidad cultural.
La reflexión sobre las costumbres o maneras de ser, actuar e interactuar en di-
ferentes situaciones y culturas para promover en el estudiante una visión plural y
heterogénea del mundo es uno de los más importantes objetivos establecidos para la
enseñanza de la lengua extranjera en las OCEM y en el documento del PNLD. En
este último se destaca que el libro didáctico para la enseñanza de lengua extranjera
necesita traer, siempre de manera contextualizada y adecuada a la temática aborda-
da, insumo (oral y escrito) que represente una extensa variedad de manifestaciones
de la lengua que le permitan al alumno acceder a producciones culturales y a inte-
ractuar con hablantes de regiones, países, culturas, etnias, edades y niveles socio-
económicos diferentes. Asimismo, según el documento estas variedades no deben
ocupar un espacio marginal en la obra, sino que tienen que ser tratadas de forma
contextualizada, como elemento constitutivo de la lengua.
Del mismo modo, se espera que el libro adopte un abordaje similar al tratar de
la cultura, a fin de que el profesor y el alumno se den cuenta de la diversidad socio-
cultural que caracteriza el mundo y el propio contexto de vida del estudiante. Para
ello, se hace necesario tratar de temáticas y situaciones que representen diversos
territorios, espacios y momentos relacionados con los pueblos que hablan el idioma,
así como diferentes grupos sociales, étnico-raciales, etarios, etc.
Con respecto a este punto, es posible observar que en las obras analizadas hay
preocupación por el desarrollo de un enfoque intercultural, ya que en varios momen-
tos buscan que el alumno reflexione sobre la cultura del otro y la suya (ver Figura 5),
partiendo de temáticas que son coherentes con sus intereses y edad.
296
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
297
Mônica Ferreira Mayrink O’Kuinghttons
Consideraciones finales
A lo largo de este texto he buscado reflexionar sobre los logros y dificultades que se
han observado en la elaboración de libros didácticos para la enseñanza de español
a brasileños en lo que se refiere al abordaje de los textos, la gramática y la forma de
atender la heterogeneidad lingüística y la diversidad cultural que es propia de los
países hispanohablantes.
Las muestras seleccionadas para el desarrollo de dicha reflexión evidencian al-
gunas características de las obras que aún necesitan ser mejor trabajadas a fin de
favorecerle al alumno una formación ciudadana y crítica más plena.
Observamos que los libros didácticos aún necesitan desvincularse de modelos
y propuestas de prácticas de lenguaje/lengua tradicionales, descontextualizadas y
poco significativas para los alumnos para así evitar las incoherencias teórico-meto-
dológicas que resultan de la mantención de prácticas vetustas en un discurso nuevo.
Referencias
298
El libro didáctico de español en brasil: Logros y dificultades en la formación ciudadana y crítica del alumno
299
VI
Facetas de la profesión docente
Introduction
This study reports on how former transnationals shape their identity and decide to
become English teachers in Mexico. The participants are six students currently un-
dertaking a BA in TESOL (Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages) at
a public university in central Mexico. In order to know their present, it is necessary
to look at their previous experiences as transnationals, going back and forth between
Mexico and the United States and how these experiences have influenced their deci-
sion on becoming English teachers now that they have returned to Mexico. Findings
from autobiographies and in-depth interviews, following a narrative approach, show
how the family plays an important role when making a decision on what to study
and also how their previous experiences they have in the United States are a catalyst
for becoming English teachers in Mexico. Many themes emerged from the data;
however, for the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on how participants’ migra-
tory status, the labels they were given at different moments in their lives and the
community support they had (or not), influenced their decision on becoming English
teachers in Mexico. In the following lines we will describe the terms identity and
transnationalism.
Identity
Identity refers to how a person understands his/her relationship to the world, how
such relationship is constructed across time and space, and how the person is able
303
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
to understand possibilities for the future (Norton, 2000). Also, Skeggs (2008) de-
notes that identity may be simultaneously a category, a social position, and an effect.
Therefore, identity is not a static concept, it evolves with the human being and it is
not a term that can be defined in isolation. Park mentions that it is “an inherently
social product that is jointly created by interactants, rather than as a pre-determined,
psychological construct that is lodged within each individual’s mind” (2007, p. 341).
The location of identities is “in constant negotiation, both by ethnic group members
themselves as well as by outside observers” (Nagel, 1994, p. 153). This negotiation
is of their own socio-cultural identities, building bridges in order to connect their
past experiences and their current situations, going back and forth between their
American and Mexican identities, forming a hybrid identity that enables them to be-
come professionals. Transnationals face challenges of engaging in a hybrid identity
struggle between their American self and their rooted Mexican, often falling into a
struggle in the middle of both, constantly shifting from one to the other depending
on who they are with. According to Hamann (2001), what seems to be the key in ex-
ploring the construction of identity of transnationals is to try to understand whether
transnationals are caught between two worlds, or whether they become of the two
(emphasis in original). In this situation of growing up in two countries without legal
status in one, children can start experiencing a sense of inferiority, based on the dis-
advantageous position in relation to the American citizens. “These disadvantages,
coupled with a troubled history of relations between the U.S. and Mexico, fuel an-
tagonism toward Mexican immigration and encourage anti-Mexican stereotypes”
(Gutierrez, as cited in Williams et al. 2002). For these immigrant children, having
a sense of fragmented identity becomes the norm and this includes feeling part of
the community or feeling rejected (Mora et al., 2015). However, with the years, they
realize they have an important cultural and linguistic capital they can use to their ad-
vantage once they are back in Mexico, as it will be discussed in the following lines.
Petron (2003) describes transnationalism as “the outlook, life strategies, and pro-
cesses of identity formation among individuals, families, and communities whose
members have spent substantial periods of time in different national and/or cultural
spaces” (pp. 284, 285). In the case of the participants of this study, they keep ties
with their community of origin but they are also developing new bonds with their
new community. Petron (ibid) describes transnationals as:
304
Transnational teachers of English in Mexico: Becoming professionals
“those individuals who have considerable life experiences on both sides of the
U.S.-Mexico border. This definition includes objective factors such as years spent
on both sides of the border and subjective factors such as both sides ‘feel like
home’.” (2003; p.6).
Sanchez (2009) states that transnationals, “are afforded an entirely different host
of socio-cultural resources from which to draw, including but not limited to the
ways they speak, construct identity and develop their worldviews” (p. 279). It is
precisely these resources that place these transnationals in a different position when
they return to Mexico, as their linguistic proficiency in English give them an edge
over their counterparts. Petrón (2009) suggests, these transnationals are “immedi-
ately classified as native speakers of English because of their fluency and native or
native-like pronunciation” (p. 118). This is when they start to be questioned as not
being Mexican enough. As they have spent most of their lives in the United States,
when they return to Mexico, an accent is perceived in the Spanish fluency and this
immediately categorized them as foreigners, starting to develop again a sense of
fragmented identity as they are not recognized as members of their community. As
they face new challenges, opportunities seem to appear then they show their English
proficiency and become English teachers. Furthermore, transnational English teach-
ers most often rely on their “transnational cultural capital” which can be referred
to as the linguistic and cultural knowledge acquired as a result of transnational
experiences. These transnationals “[…] have been able to trade their transnational
cultural capital for both economic and social advancement” (Petrón, 2009, p. 118).
Transnational identities are fluid, flexible and dynamic, but also attach to specificity
and particularity of places and times. The emphasis is on interconnectedness across
borders (Yeoh et al, 2003, p. 213). This is what happens with these English teachers,
they have been embedded in more than one society. A transnational English teacher
is seen to have a high proficiency level in the English language according to other
education officials (Petron & Greybeck, 2014), and can talk about almost anything in
English, and are valued for the fluency and communicative proficiency they possess
(Petron, 2009). In the case of the participants of this project, they find themselves in
a group of BA students where “they can make more sense of who they are and their
language and cultural skills give them a plus in their process of becoming language
teachers in Mexico” (Mora Pablo et al., 2015).
305
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
Methodology
“An inquirer enters this matrix in the midst and progresses in this same spirit, con-
cluding the inquiry still in the midst of living and telling, reliving and retelling, the
stories of the experience that make up people’s lives, both individual and social.
Simply stated…narrative inquiry is stories lived and told”. (p. 20).
1) What experiences did participants have in Mexico and the United States as
transnationals?
2) What are the reasons why they want to become English teachers in Mexico?
The participants taking part in this study include six transnationals university stu-
dents, four males, and two females, between the ages of 20 and 30. They were all
born in Mexico and at a very early age they migrated to the United States with their
families. After a number of years and due to many different reasons, they returned
to Mexico. Some of the reasons were: family issues, deportation or the desire to pur-
sue university studies that they knew they could not afford in the United States. At
the moment of the research, they had been living in Mexico between three to eight
years. This research took place in a large public university in central Mexico, where
participants were studying a BA in TESOL.
306
Transnational teachers of English in Mexico: Becoming professionals
In order to collect the data, first we asked our participants to write an autobiography
where they could tell us their first experiences, when they went to the United States
for the first time, how they learned English and if they maintained Spanish, their le-
gal situation, among other aspects. Then, we analyzed their autobiographies and pre-
pared follow up questions to ask in their individual interviews. We transcribed the
interviews and in order to analyze the information, we looked for similarities in the
data and then created categories. Barkhuizen (2013) mentions that “Thematic analy-
ses follow the paradigmatic procedures of coding for themes, categorizing these and
looking for patterns of association among then” (p. 11). It is important to mention
that the data presented in this chapter is part of a larger study of return migration
and their incorporation into the Mexican educational system at the university level.
The themes we will discuss in this chapter are participants´ migratory status, name
calling or labeling, differences between USA and Mexico, and becoming an English
teacher.
An initial issue that was faced by some participants was their migratory status.
Some participants had confusion about their legal permanency in the United States
in regards to their migration status. Myriam provides her experience regarding her
migration status.
“My migratory status was never fixed. Laws were about to change and it was said that
if you had been in the States for five years then you could start with the documents
and all that… but when we were about to have our five years in the States, then the
law changed, and it was seven years now… and so on. And when we finally were
starting with the documents and everything, my dad’s boss died and his daughter
took control of the business and we had to start all over again. Then my mother’s
mom died and my dad’s mother got sick… that’s when he decided that it was better
for us to come back to Mexico”.
Myriam seemed to be aware of her migratory status. She was informed about the
modifications made to the law in which she could have the opportunity to become
a legal U.S. resident. Once she began with the process of becoming legal, several
307
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
incidents arose, which ended up with the decision of her parents to migrate back to
Mexico.
Similar to Myriam’s case of migrating back to Mexico is Nestor’s. Unlike Myr-
iam, Nestor had a wrong idea regarding his citizenship. He provides an experience
in which he found out about his citizenship:
“It was a shock. I was about to start my university studies and I was in a fair, where
many universities had come to announce their programs. I was interested in one and
they told me “You can get a scholarship. Why don’t you give us your social security
number and we start the process”… I said “Yes, let me go to my house and get the
number and I’ll come back”… When I went to my house, I asked my parents and
then they told me. I was not an American citizen… All my life I had thought I was
American… then they sent me to Mexico to live with my grandmother. They knew
this was going to happen at some point, and they had already arranged everything”.
Being labelled
For some participants, a difficulty became present as they had to adapt to the place
they were at and were given a name or were labeled due to the way they spoke.
Myriam presents an experience of her adapting back to Mexico and being called a
“gringa”:
“It was a big change… I found it difficult to adapt because I had lived in the States for
16 years… and now, I had to learn new words in Spanish, new expressions. I thought
I knew Spanish but when I was with family or friends, they didn’t understand what I
wanted to say or they said that I spoke funny. I was called “gringa”, even when they
knew me and they knew I was born in Mexico”.
When adapting back to Mexico, she was called “gringa” due to the way she spoke.
Though being born in Mexico, she was called as such because of the use of Spanish
308
Transnational teachers of English in Mexico: Becoming professionals
she had. Similar to Myriam is Samuel who was not only labeled in Mexico, but in
the United States as well in regards to the way he spoke. He provided the following:
“In the States I was labeled as Chicano… I think because I speak both languages…
[but in Mexico], where I live at, I intend to speak Spanish but according to them, the
local people, I speak Spanish “mocho” or I speak it with an accent”.
Samuel is aware of the labels he was given in both places; being labeled a “Chicano”
in the United States for speaking both English and Spanish, and being labeled as
speaking “mocho” Spanish due to speaking it with an accent. Similar to Myriam
and Samuel is Ian, who was also signaled out due to the way he spoke. He provided
the following:
“[back in Mexico] it definitively was different than like the Spanish that was here
basically and I think the main factor was my accent they were like “Oh hablas bien
chistoso” [“Oh, you have a weird accent] and you speak different to everybody else
and they would just tell me ok just say this just to make fun o’ me. I didn’t really see
like that they were making fun of me but… they just wanted to hear me speak”.
Ian was aware of the accent he had when speaking Spanish once being back in
Mexico. He seems to have thought about it as having a weird or a funny accent, as to
which he was asked to speak or say certain words so he could be heard.
The community support is a very relevant aspect to consider, when the identity of an
individual is being formed. If the individual feels and gets the support from the com-
munity, more likely, the individual will experience a sense of belonging. Although,
when there is no support provided by the community, it seems to create a sense of
confusion on the individual about his or her own identity.
“…the first time I came here to Mexico I liked like Romita, the small little city, and
I had my cousins. They were living like right next to where we were living so we
would always get together and I started meeting friends and we would go out and
play and in the States they were always asking: “Oh, how’s Mexico?” We can move
back to the same place so I have the same friends… always surrounded by the same
people…there were always experiences to share with both, when I would go to the
309
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
States and share all the experiences about Mexico, and coming back to Mexico shar-
ing all experiences about the States”.
Fortunately for Ian, his experience was a positive one. He experienced the accep-
tance and belonging in both countries, thanks to the support of family and friends.
Although, this ideal situation it is not always the case for all returnees who some-
times experience discrimination, because of their skin color, traditions, not knowing
the language etc.
“In the States it is more, more rapid, more…everything is… you gotta be with, against
time, as opposed here in Mexico it’s more relaxed, it’s more …it takes things step by
step, as opposed to n the States it’s everything uh 1,2,3, let’s go”!
Samuel seems to compare the lifestyle of the United States as being more rapid than
the lifestyle here in Mexico. He refers to living a more calm and relaxed lifestyle
here in Mexico.
Making a decision
What these participants had in common apart from being a returnee, was that they
decided to study a BA to become an English teachers, and that the experiences that
they had as returnees and knowing the language, appear to have influenced on their
decision.
For instance, because of knowing the language, Ian used to help his classmates while
being in preparatory school, and the experience appears to make him consider be-
coming an English teacher a good option for him.
“I was like yeah I know English and since the experiences I’ve had helping my class-
mates I was like it’s maybe something I wanna do and so yeah I took the exam and I
310
Transnational teachers of English in Mexico: Becoming professionals
passed, and yeah at first I was like well, let’s give it a shot you know and see what it’s
like and throughout the course of the BA throughout the phases first, second, third
semesters I figured out that yeah it is something I really wanna do, something I feel
good with. It’s something that I can identify myself with, something I can do for a
living and yeah I think it was a good decision”.
As the semesters passed, Ian seemed to be more convinced that it was a good deci-
sion for him to study that BA in English teaching.
Samuel seems that he decided to take advantage of his knowledge of English, even
when at the beginning he appears to not having a clear idea on what to study.
“I came here [Mexico] to study at the university but I didn’t know what, but then I
took a year off. Then I started to think well, the only thing that I’m good at this in
school and I feel comfortable within the school. Then my aunt told me: -Well, why
don’t you just go to be a teacher”.
“...an advantage could be that I lived in the States twenty years, so twenty years is
good because I reached two years of university in English. So in a way I’m good in
English, but also I’ve seen throughout the years, I’ve seen that even though you were
born there, it doesn’t mean you are the greatest […] I believe that some Mexican stu-
dents that learn English have a greater advantage over me cause I learned it through
acquiring the language, so grammar was not an important factor in my learning of
English or my acquiring of English. I don’t remember in my English classes ever
talking about big grammar points. I feel like English was learning vocabulary or
chunks, or things like that [...] A disadvantage would be that maybe being more in
Chicago, I can have a greater ability to speak or vocabulary, but regarding grammar I
cannot explain most of the grammar points that some of the Mexican students can...”
311
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
By making this comparison, of the native and non-native speaker, Samuel seems to
be recognizing the room for improvement, and also acknowledging the weeks and
strengths of non-native teacher.
Becoming a teacher
Mathew experienced some trouble, while learning English, and this experience ap-
pears to had make him consider being an English teacher, so that he can help others
learn the language.
“I decided to become and English teacher because I thought that was the only thing I
was good at… and I wanted to help others so they didn’t experience the same as I did
when I was in the States, struggling with a new language”.
Mathew also appears to have taken advantage of his knowledge of the language and
his personal experience, at the moment of deciding on what to study.
In Noelia’s experience, she actually had on mind becoming a teacher of chil-
dren, although it appears that it was not to become an English teacher in specific.
Once again the decision appears to have been influenced by her knowledge of the
language.
“I feel like if I hadn’t had the experience of being returnee, I wouldn’t have the inter-
est for the language. I don’t think I would be here… I think this was the way to com-
bine the two things: the language and that I had already the idea of being an English
teacher of kids. If I hadn’t had this experience (of being a returnee), maybe I would
have been a teacher, but not an English teacher”.
The knowledge of the language and the experiences of the participants appear to
have opened the possibility for these returnees to become English teachers.
Conclusions
312
Transnational teachers of English in Mexico: Becoming professionals
References
313
Irasema Mora Pablo, Isaac Frausto Hernández, Natalie Rangel Gamiño
314
El perfil del profesor de español lengua
extranjera en el contexto colombiano
María Claudia Nieto Cruz
Ligia Cortés Cárdenas
Melba Libia Cárdenas
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá
Introducción
La enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera (en adelante ELE) en Colombia
es una actividad académica que goza en el momento de buena acogida por parte de
instituciones de educación superior y de entidades gubernamentales. Algunas de las
primeras han incluido dentro de su oferta académica estudios para formar docentes
en el área y/o cursos destinados para los extranjeros que desean aprender español en
el contexto colombiano. El gobierno adelanta estrategias a nivel nacional y local que
buscan posicionar a Colombia como un turismo idiomático importante en América
Latina. Por ejemplo, el periódico El Espectador informa que el gobierno de Bogotá
destaca el turismo idiomático de la ciudad como uno de los productos de mayor
crecimiento en los últimos años (Redacción Bogotá, 2015). Esto se debe, en buena
parte, al prestigio del que goza el español capitalino.
La Universidad Nacional de Colombia es una de las 27 instituciones educati-
vas del país que ofrece un programa de ELE desde finales de los 90, a través de
su Programa de Extensión que beneficia a una población de aproximadamente 300
estudiantes al año. Los cursos de ELE tienen una duración de 80 horas, cuentan con
6 niveles dependiendo de la demanda y se imparten en horarios de 4 a 6 de la tarde.
Con más de 20 años de trayectoria, la incomodidad reiterada entre nuestros profe-
sores viene justificada en gran parte por el uso del material pedagógico utilizado.
En efecto, los libros empleados, sobre todo al inicio del Programa, se elaboraron en
España y por lo mismo no se ajustaban a la variante colombiana ni a los contextos
situacionales ni culturales de Colombia. También se han empleado textos hechos
en España pero con la inclusión de aspectos lingüísticos y dialectales de América
315
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
316
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
Marco teórico
Para la definición del perfil del profesor de ELE se tendrá en cuenta la discusión so-
bre la enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera, el estatus de ELE en Colombia
y las competencias de un(a) profesor(a) de ELE.
La enseñanza de ELE
El titular de una importante publicación colombiana señala: “Este [el español] será
el idioma del futuro, y no es inglés ni mandarín” (“Este será el idioma del futuro”,
2015). Esta predicción se hace con base en el informe desarrollado por el Instituto
Cervantes (2015) que indica que el español es lengua oficial en 24 países, hablado
por aproximadamente 470 millones de personas, co-oficial en doce estados y es len-
gua extranjera estudiada en 30 países. El estudio plantea que existen 559 millones
de usuarios potenciales del español, quienes cuentan con diferentes niveles de des-
empeño. Es tan popular el español que, según el estudio, es la segunda lengua más
hablada del planeta. No sorprende entonces que existan más de 21 millones personas
que estudian el español como lengua extranjera.
Según el mismo estudio, los 21 millones de estudiantes de español se ubican
en orden descendiente en los Estados Unidos, Brasil, países europeos, Filipinas y
China. Los estudiantes toman la asignatura como lengua extranjera en la educación
primaria, secundaria y formación profesional mayoritariamente y en menor escala
en la educación universitaria.
Ya desde 1997 Crystal anunciaba que el español tendría muchos seguidores de-
bido a la proximidad de los Estados Unidos con países de habla hispana y a los
altos niveles de inmigración. Crystal no informa si el español será una lengua que
los niños necesiten aprender para usar en su vida adulta pero sí que es una lengua
con estatus internacional. Encontramos además en un informe del Departamento
de Estado de los Estados Unidos de 1985 en el mismo Crystal (1997) que es una de
las lenguas dentro de las 169 consideradas como “críticas” en el sentido de que su
conocimiento promoverá importante crecimiento científico o representará intereses
de seguridad de tipo nacional o económico.
317
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
ELE en Colombia
Competencia comunicativa
320
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
321
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
Marco metodológico
322
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
captar. Además consideramos que “ciertos hallazgos podrían ser generalizados me-
diante una lógica inductiva a todos los otros casos que comparten circunstancias o
situaciones similares” (Ander–Egg, 2003, p. 314).
Diseñamos una encuesta semi-estructurada con el propósito de recoger infor-
mación que permita construir el perfil del profesor de ELE (Anexo 1). La encuesta
consta de cinco partes: información personal, información académica, experiencia
laboral, materiales usados para la enseñanza de ELE y sus idearios sobre lo que sig-
nifica ser profesor de ELE y las expectativas sobre sus estudiantes.
Los participantes en nuestro estudio fueron 38 profesores. El formulario se en-
vió por correo electrónico a más de 120 individuos que sabemos se desempeñan en
el área de ELE y se remitió en más de una ocasión. Las voces de los profesores se
incluyen de la manera expresa como ellos lo informaron en el cuestionario.
323
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
to del Otro como un individuo diferente, que no forma parte de la comunidad propia
y, en consecuencia, reconocen su papel preponderante como mediadores y facili-
tadores para que sus estudiantes se acerquen no solo a la lengua española, sino a
nuestra cultura (Ver Figura 1). Asimismo, encontramos que sus imaginarios o idea-
rios respecto a lo que significa ser profesor de ELE incluyen una serie de saberes,
habilidades y actitudes, esenciales para el éxito profesional.
Habilidades
Actitudes
Los testimonios de los encuestados permiten inferir que sus trayectorias profesio-
nales han dejado improntas respecto los marcos de referencia que consideran deter-
minantes para ejercer como profesores de ELE. En tal sentido, y como se observará
en los siguientes apartados, la competencia comunicativa intercultural se presenta
como un elemento transversal que expresa la conciencia del docente de ELE por
cumplir con dicho papel. A este respecto Byram et al. (2001) subrayan que, hasta
cierto punto, enseñar la dimensión intercultural implica aprovechar las oportuni-
dades, ser sistemático en el actuar frente a ellas y evaluar los resultados a la luz de
criterios claros y explícitos. Los autores sugieren que esto puede ser posible, por
ejemplo, basándonos en teorías que guíen nuestro accionar.
La competencia comunicativa intercultural en el quehacer pedagógico permite
entender reacciones de los alumnos provenientes de culturas muy diferentes a las
nuestras. Sin el entendimiento y el ejercicio de la dimensión intercultural, el ámbito
324
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
de la clase sería afectado. El discurso en clase, el actuar del docente y los alumnos
se verían perjudicados. En este sentido la profesora Isabel cuenta:
Tuvimos una familia de diplomáticos . . . empezaron en nivel. Estaban los padres con
una joven y un joven. Llegados los exámenes finales, la niña obtuvo mejores resulta-
dos que los dos varones…La chica rompió en llanto y le rogaba a su profesora para
que, por favor, le pusiera una nota inferior a la de ellos…También era normal que el
joven dejara al padre copiar su examen.
Rasgos personales
Edad
Estudios
Con respecto a los estudios de pregrado, un 87 % de los maestros cursó una licencia-
tura, que prepara a los futuros profesionales que se van a desempeñar en el campo
de la educación, bien sea esta en la básica, media o superior. Los títulos obtenidos
corresponden a la enseñanza de idiomas, mayoritariamente en la lengua inglesa, en
combinaciones de lenguas como el francés y el inglés e inclusive una en español,
francés e inglés. El 13% restante tiene estudios en otras áreas como la filosofía, el
mercadeo nacional e internacional, la lingüística, la psicología y la antropología. Es-
tos resultados concuerdan con los hallazgos de Ochoa y Cueva (2014) quienes afirman
que un profesor de ELE suele ser un egresado de un programa de idiomas o de espa-
ñol, o ser un profesional que por “azar” llegó al campo de la enseñanza del español.
Un 97 % cuenta con estudios de posgrado (6 con especialización, 30 con maes-
tría y 2 con estudios de doctorado o posdoctorado didáctica de la lengua y literatura)
y algunos tienen más de una especialización, diplomado o maestría. Las áreas de
especialidad de los participantes son: formación en ELE (46%), maestrías en español
y literatura (4%), maestrías en lenguas diferentes al español (26%) y maestrías en
áreas diferentes a los idiomas (24%).
325
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
326
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
Lenguas enseñadas
en el ejercicio profesional
Años de experiencia
Años de experiencia
327
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
328
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
ción con experiencia en las lenguas extranjeras en general supera a la población que
enseña el español como lengua extranjera. Dentro de la comparación cabe también
resaltar las similitudes encontradas: los años de experiencia de entre 6 y 10 y 11 y 15
se mantiene para los dos grupos comparados.
Contextos de enseñanza
Instituciones
No es sorprendente que sean las universidades las que tengan dentro de su oferta
académica el español como lengua extranjera. Existe un interés por desarrollar un
currículo para un mercado relativamente reciente y, por otra parte, esta formación
responde a iniciativas de gobierno como se dijo anteriormente. Los cursos que se
329
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
tampoco conviene perder de vista que a todas estas disputas por los lugares de privi-
legio en el estrado lingüístico internacional deben agregarse suculentas repercusio-
nes económicas derivadas de ese estatus preeminente, transcritas en forma de cursos
de lenguas para extranjeros, servicios de traducción, etc. Una vez más lo lingüístico
muestra la punta de un iceberg considerablemente sólido, a la vez que multiforme,
aunque aposentado en una obvia base socioeconómica y política. (p. 94)
330
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
ría tener un profesor de ELE, las expectativas sobre los estudiantes de sus cursos, su
concepción sobre lo qué es la lengua y finalmente sobre el papel del profesor en el
aula de ELE/L2. Para el análisis de los idearios de los docentes sobre la competencia
comunicativa intercultural vamos a seguir a Byram et al. (2001) quienes toman en
cuenta que dicha competencia se evidencia a través de una serie de saberes, habili-
dades y actitudes.
Saberes
Saberes
Como podemos observar, los profesores consideran que la lengua o sistema de co-
municación es el conocimiento más importante y resaltan que está compuesto tanto
por aspectos formales como culturales y sociales. En palabras de la maestra Myriam
“La lengua es mucho más que un instrumento de comunicación. No es sólo forma, ni
contenido es también palabra. Retomando un poco la definición de André Martinet
la lengua ‘articula’ toda la experiencia humana”.
331
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
La profesora Zenaida por su lado escribe que “la lengua es una visión particular del
mundo. Una manera especial de aproximarse y considerar la realidad. El más pode-
roso instrumento de construcción de sí y del mundo”.
A este respecto, Rico Martín (2005) concluye que “unimos pues formas lin-
güísticas con conocimiento de mundo —los savoirs que incluye Byram (1995) en la
competencia intercultural—” (p. 93). Por otra parte, las opiniones de los docentes
encuestados nos permiten establecer los propósitos guían sus prácticas pedagógicas.
A este tenor, al referirse a la competencia intercultural en la adquisición de una
lengua extranjera o una L2, Rico Martín apunta que los objetivos que se pretenden
alcanzar son:
332
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
Habilidades
Siguiendo nuevamente a Comellas et al. (2002) encontramos que las habilidades son
los conocimientos procedimentales que se aplican en una situación determinada. La
Figura 7 ilustra las habilidades que en opinión de los encuestados debe poseer un pro-
fesor de ELE. No sorprende que contar con una buena metodología sea la variable de
mayor significancia ya que el saber hacer tiene una gran relevancia para “el desempeño
del profesor en su campo de acción: sus clases, en su quehacer diario, en los contex-
tos donde tiene impacto su labor profesional” (Cortés, Cárdenas y Nieto, 2013, p. 66).
333
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
Habilidades
La metodología está relacionada con muchas variables que tienen que ver con la
persona del maestro. Las mencionamos aquí en el orden en que las jerarquizaron
los maestros: estar actualizado en cuestiones didácticas, adaptar materiales, tener
buen manejo de grupo, evaluar el aprendizaje, implicar a los alumnos en el propio
aprendizaje y organizar situaciones de aprendizaje.
Con respecto a la didáctica estamos de acuerdo con Ochoa y Cueva (2014) quie-
nes aconsejan tener una estrategia didáctica en la que se evidencie una buena planea-
ción, actividades contextualizadas para responder a las necesidades de los estudian-
tes, que motiven, que sean variadas y que permitan comunicar adecuadamente lo
que se espera enseñar. La capacidad de estar actualizados en cuestiones didácticas
y en desarrollo de material implica que el profesor, en palabras del maestro Óscar
“debe ser una persona en constante búsqueda y actualización”. Un conocimiento
sobre los estilos de aprendizaje es capital ya que el maestro podrá “darle a cada
estudiante lo que necesita, aportándole las herramientas necesarias para el debido
aprendizaje académico y cultural” (Rossy).
La adaptación de materiales es importante para los profesores colombianos se-
gún lo arrojaron los resultados de la encuesta: más del 50% de los materiales con los
que se trabaja en el medio son textos que manejan la variedad peninsular, mientras
que un poco menos del 25% son de variedad Colombia, porcentaje similar al de
textos que tienen en sus contenidos una variedad latinoamericana. Los profesores se
ven enfrentados a la necesidad de adaptar los materiales porque el contexto donde
334
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
335
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
Actitudes
Las actitudes están relacionadas con el aspecto afectivo del individuo; van de la
mano con los saberes y las habilidades. Podemos relacionar las actitudes con el
savoir-être acuñado por Byram et al. (1997) como una actitud intercultural en la
que se prima la curiosidad y apertura, donde se relativizan los valores, creencias y
conductas propias al no asumirlas como las únicas posibles y correctas y ser capa-
ces de analizarlas desde una perspectiva externa que involucra diferentes valores,
creencias y conductas. Esto puede constatarse en las palabras del maestro Juan,
quien aboga por “una concepción muy amplia de la vida y que se adapte fácilmente
a diferentes situaciones, con espíritu flexible”.
Actitudes
La Figura 8 ilustra el alto impacto que tienen las características personales del pro-
fesor en las percepciones que los maestros tienen sobre su savoir-être o saber hacer.
Los siguientes rasgos de personalidad fueron nombradas por los participantes: hu-
336
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
Conclusiones
337
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
Ser profesor de ELE se convierte en todo un reto ya que el profesional que decida
asumir la tarea debe conocer su lengua, estudiarla, e investigarla para poder sortear
las dificultades que se presentan en su labor y tener seguridad frente al grupo.
El profesor de ELE es un conocedor de su cultura y la de sus estudiantes y lo logra
al conocer, cuestionar, y reflexionar sobre su mundo y el de los demás. En este oficio
el profesor se acerca a los múltiples mundos presentes en el aula de ELE e interactúa
con las realidades de sus estudiantes. En palabras de la maestra Mireya “El profesor
de ELE es un mediador entre un mundo cultural que él representa y el de los estu-
diantes”.
El profesor desempeña efectivamente su oficio de maestro; es ante todo un ser
humano y como tal goza de una serie de cualidades que hacen de él lo que es. Un
buen docente de ELE “es una persona activa, dinámica, que muestra gusto por lo
que hace” (Maestra Zenaida). En palabras de la maestra Lilia el profesor es un con-
sejero, orientador y dinamizador de los procesos de enseñanza. La maestra Catalina
por su cuenta opina que el profesor “tiene la responsabilidad de acercar al estudiante
a un mundo de realidades lingüísticas y culturales a través de una didáctica apropia-
da y motivante para los alumnos”.
Las competencias mencionadas no estarán completas si no tomamos en cuenta
la dimensión intercultural, la otredad, en la enseñanza de las lenguas que involucra
el reconocimiento de otro: aceptar a las personas de otras culturas como individuos
que poseen unos valores, conductas y perspectivas distintivas, y ayudarlos a ver que
esta interacción es una experiencia enriquecedora (Byram et al., 1997). En conclu-
sión el profesor de ELE propiciará el desarrollo de las competencias intercultural
y lingüística en sus estudiantes y esto será posible, en buena medida, gracias a los
recursos didácticos a los cuales pueda estar expuesto.
Referencias
338
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
339
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course design: Developing programs and ma-
terials for language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Este será el idioma del futuro, y no es inglés ni mandarín. (2015, diciembre).
Revista Semana. Recuperado de [Link]
este-sera-el-idioma-del-futuro-no-es-ingles-ni-mandarin/432699-3
García, D. L., García, J. E. & Buitrago, Y. M. (2011). Estado del arte de ELE en
Colombia, una mirada holística: metodologías y enfoques, material didácti-
co, variedades lingüísticas y dificultades en el área ELE. Revista de Didáctica
ELE, 13, pp. 1-11.
García Marcos, F. J. (2005). La divinidad políglota: lenguaje, evolución y poder.
Barcelona, ES: Octaedro.
Goullier, F. (2013). Quelle(s) responsabilité(s) pour le professeur de langue dans
sa mise en œuvre? En Ethique et Politique en Didactique des langues. Autour
de la notion de responsabilité sous la direction de Jean Claude Beacco. Paris,
FR: Didier.
Hawes, G. & Corvalán, O. (2005). Construcción de un perfil profesional (Docu-
mento de trabajo). Talca, CH: Universidad de Talca. Recuperado de http://
[Link]/medios/iide/publicaciones/revistas/Construccion_de_un_Per-
fil_Profesional.pdf
Instituto Cervantes. (2015). El Español: una lengua viva. Informe 2015. Bogo-
tá, CO: Autor. Recuperado de [Link]
espanol_lengua-viva_20151.pdf
Instituto Distrital de Turismo, IDT. (s.f.). Learn Spanish in Colombia. Bogotá,
CO: Autor. Recuperado de [Link]
bogota
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2002). Marco Común Europeo de
Referencia para las lenguas: aprendizaje, enseñanza, evaluación. Madrid,
ES: Subdirección General de Cooperación Internacional.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. (2013). Programa ELE Colombia. Bogotá,
CO: Autor. Recuperado de [Link]
programa-ele-colombia
Ministerio de Educación Nacional, MEN. (2015). Educación para el trabajo y el
desarrollo humano. Bogotá, CO: Autor. Recuperado de [Link]
[Link]/1621/[Link]
Ochoa, L. & Cueva, L. A. (2014). Dificultades y retos de los maestros principian-
tes de español como lengua extranjera. Folios, 39, pp. 3-11.
Redacción Bogotá. (2015, Abril 23). Bogotá, destino preferido en Latinoamérica
para aprender español. El Espectador. Recuperado de [Link]
[Link]/noticias/bogota/bogota-destino-preferido-latinoamerica-aprender-
espanol-articulo-556702
Rico Martín, A. M. (2005). De la competencia intercultural en la adquisición de
una segunda lengua o lengua extranjera: conceptos, metodología y revisión
de métodos. Porta Linguarum, 3, pp. 79-94.
340
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
341
María Claudia Nieto Cruz, Ligia Cortés Cárdenas, Melba Libia Cárdenas
ANEXO 1
Estimado(a) Colega:
El grupo de investigación Lenguas Extranjeras e Investigación del Departamento
de Lenguas Extranjeras LEXI está adelantando la investigación Análisis de factores
situacionales del programa de Español Lengua Extranjera del proyecto de extensión
del Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia:
insumos para el diseño de un libro de español. Uno de los objetivos específicos de la
investigación es la construcción del perfil del/de la) docente de español como lengua
extranjera (ELE) o español L2. Su opinión es muy valiosa para nosotros. Por ello le
solicitamos contestar este cuestionario. Su participación es voluntaria y sus respues-
tas son confidenciales.
Gracias por su participación.
Cordial saludo,
A. Información Personal
1. Nombre(s): _________________________________________________
2. Apellido(s): ________________________________________________
3. Edad:
Entre 20 y 30 □
Entre 31 y 40 □
Entre 41 y 50 □
Entre 51 y 60 □
Más de 60 □
342
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
B. Información Académica
C. Experiencia laboral
4. Datos del contexto donde imparte clases de español como lengua extranjera/se-
gunda lengua
a. País: __________________________
b. Ciudad: __________________________
c. Tipo de institución
i. Universidad □
ii. Instituto/academia □
iii. Clases privadas □
iv. Otro. ______ ¿cuál? ____________________________________
D. Materiales1
E. Idearios
1 Se omite el contenido de esta sección pues no es pertinente en el texto que aquí se presenta.
344
El perfil del profesor de español lengua extranjera en el contexto colombiano
345
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción:
El profesor como traductor cultural
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas
José Miguel Barajas García
Universidad Veracruzana, México
Antecedentes y contexto
347
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
Encuadre teórico
348
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
Como docentes de traducción que trabajamos tanto con literatura como con L2,
estamos conscientes de que creamos en el aula un espacio intersticial como un
“sitio de interfección” (Bhabha, 1994, p. 228) donde confluyen diversas creencias,
culturas y modos de ser, que se caracteriza por una tercera lengua –la de traduc-
ción (Steiner, 1998: 40; Mignolo, 2000, p. 256).
Es en este espacio sui generis donde conviven más de dos culturas, donde tiene
lugar la traducción cultural: aquella que se ocupa de unidades que no son lingüísti-
cas y ni siquiera semánticas, sino culturales, en nuestro caso, provenientes de textos
literarios. Es decir, leemos desde una perspectiva cultural que, desde luego, toma
en cuenta la forma y el estilo literarios, y no sólo desde una perspectiva lingüís-
tica o en busca de la mera transmisión de un mensaje. El mensaje literario reposa
principalmente en la función poética de la lengua que “profundiza la dicotomía
fundamental de signos y objetos” (Jakobson, 1984, p. 358). Realizar una traducción
cultural es, en consecuencia, re-localizar, re-interpretar, re-inscribir y re-escribir
la función poética del texto fuente en la cultura de destino, de modo que surja el
efecto proyectado en esta segunda cultura, ya sea ajustándose a sus patrones esta-
blecidos o violentándolos, tratando de que el texto de destino se adecue al contexto
de llegada. Este tipo de traducción se preocupa por la manera en que se concretan
lingüística y textualmente los intercambios culturales que se generan al traducir, de
tal forma que pone un fuerte énfasis en los contextos de salida y llegada (Carbonell,
1999, pp. 49-98).
Si de por sí, el facilitador es siempre un mediador, la tarea del docente de un cur-
so de traducción estriba, sobre todo, en señalar las diferencias, “saltar la valla cul-
tural” (Nord, 2010, p. 10) hasta llegar a mostrar que la traducción “ilumina” al texto
fuente, no sólo en los aciertos sino, sobre todo, en los yerros e incluso en aquello que
calla (Steiner, 1975, p. 263; Cruz, 1993, p. 17). Siguiendo la metáfora de Nord, cual-
quier caballo tiene dificultades para saltar la valla cuando la tiene muy cerca. Si la
traducción permanece de este lado, sigue siendo un texto propio de la cultura base,
aunque en lengua meta. El salto a la cultura meta requiere “coraje” (2010, p. 11).
Así pues, el docente lleva a cuestas la nada fácil tarea de contribuir a incentivar
esta motivación y crear una zona de comprensión común (ZCC) (Balslev, 2010) en
la cual se apuesta por construir aprendizajes significativos de manera cooperativa
entre todo el grupo. De acuerdo con Balslev, dicha zona de comprensión común sur-
ge del encuentro entre los significados atribuidos al saber por parte del enseñante y
del aprendiente. Se distinguen los significados objetivos de los subjetivos: mientras
que los primeros son productos colectivos de prácticas anteriores y depositadas en
el mundo de los objetos obrados, los segundos se hallan principalmente ligados a
349
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
las competencias del individuo. Para nosotros, la mediación cultural por parte del
profesor universitario se sitúa en esa distancia entre significados objetivos y subje-
tivos, como resultado de las interacciones dentro del aula. En el mejor de los casos,
esta comprensión común coadyuvará a reconocer, marcar o estrechar las distancias
culturales entre texto fuente y texto meta.
Ahora bien, una de las más fuertes preocupaciones en la última década del
siglo XX radica, precisamente, en acercar –más que contraponer– los estudios
literarios y los estudios culturales, esto es, propiciar un acercamiento interdiscipli-
nario para la mejor comprensión de los textos literarios y de los procesos traducto-
rales. En este sentido, Riffaterre (1995) es uno de los más destacados exponentes.
Su propuesta en concreto para allanar problemas literarios de índole comparatista
consiste en glosar o apostillar los casos culturales encontrados en la traducción de
textos literarios, mediante breves notas casi telegráficas, al margen del cuerpo de
la traducción. Estas notas pueden tener un tremendo alcance ya que pueden llegar
a constituir, inclusive, un “índice de la diferencia cultural”. Constituyen, por lo
tanto, una valiosa “herramienta analítica” que permite tanto a traductores como
a lectores “recrear las condiciones culturales originales […] contextualizarlas”
(Riffaterre, 1995, pp. 68-69).
A diferencia del comentario a la traducción, Riffaterre se centra en breves pe-
rífrasis y paráfrasis que pongan en evidencia, sobre todo, las deficiencias en la tra-
ducción de los aspectos culturales de un texto literario (1995, p. 68). En los casos
de las dos EE que referimos seguimos de cerca la propuesta de las apostillas según
Riffaterre. Nuestros estudiantes, en consecuencia, no hicieron propiamente un co-
mentario de traductor o un comentario como texto literario sino que se concentraron
en desafíos culturales dentro de la traducción de la literatura.
Finalmente queremos señalar que para nosotros resulta prioritario entender el
aula donde se trabajan textos literarios en L2 como una fuente de riqueza para la
investigación de corte émico es decir, aquella susceptible de ser realizada desde la
lógica interna de nuestros cursos (cfr. González, 2009, p. 25). Ello obedece a que
si bien las teorías de Riffaterre (1995) y Carbonell (1999), son fuertemente pro-
positivas, debemos reconocer que han surgido en contextos “a suficiente distancia
de[l]” nuestro y que tienen una base etic (González, 2009, p. 57) concebida desde
el exterior de la experiencia. De ahí que nuestra propuesta de puesta en práctica de
apostillado constituya una que va de abajo hacia arriba: de lo practicado en el aula
hacia la teoría, en un diálogo de saberes teórico-prácticos que emparenta los estu-
dios literarios y los culturales en un cruce con la didáctica de la traducción.
350
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
Objetivos específicos:
En ambas EE se incentivó por igual el uso grupal de apostillas. Sin embargo, cada
docente seleccionó de modo cualitativo una muestra basada en el tipo de texto tradu-
cido apostillado obtenido. Cabe destacar que cada muestra va de la mano con los as-
pectos procesuales que se explicarán en breve. Procedemos a describir las muestras:
En Traducción de Textos Humanístico Literarios (impartida por Villegas), se
reporta una muestra constituida por 5 desafíos traductorales provenientes del cuento
“How Pinkie Killed a Man” (2009) del escritor nigeriano yoruba, Adewala Maja
Pearce. Cada desafío está integrado por una unidad cultural. Para el primer desafío
se presentan 2 resoluciones traductorales y 2 apostillados; para el segundo, –com-
puesto por 3 variantes– se incluyen las versiones de 2 alumnos: AG apostilló las 3
351
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
352
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
353
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
En el TO habla de
‘greens’ que bien
podrían ser verduras,
aunque se refiere a hojas
comestibles. Ya que está
pluralizado, infiero que
son más de una de esas
plantas por lo que decido
sustituirlo por ensalada,
pues ésta se prepara a
base de varias plantas
mezcladas. [DP]
354
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
355
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
Versiones Apostillado
356
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
357
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
La Trieste austriaca de Italo Svevo es, como la describe Umberto Saba, “un punto de
fusión de razas. La ciudad ha siempre sido populada por gentes diferentes: italianos
nativos de la ciudad, eslavos nativos del territorio... judíos, griegos, levantinos, tur-
cos.” En este caos cultural, la lengua cotidiana de Svevo es el dialecto triestino y su
italiano resulta así tremendamente afectado tanto por esta variante regional como por
el alemán que acompañó el escritor a lo largo de toda su formación académica. Si por
un lado su forma de escritura fue asperamente criticada (por la presencia de modismos
triestinos, germanismos, construcciones sintácticas atipicas y a menudo incorrectas),
por el otro se prestan a ser el lenguaje de la personalidad incerta y psicológicamen-
te enrevesada de Zeno Cosini, el enfermo protagonista de La conciencia de Zeno.
358
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
Versiones Apostillado
359
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
360
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
Aunque por su naturaleza distinta cada EE requirió de sus propias resoluciones para
la investigación-acción, grosso modo, sí es posible señalar aspectos metodológicos
compartidos. Sin embargo, también señalamos las diferencias notables en proce-
dimientos y el orden en el que fueron empleados porque se hace necesario por el
influjo de los mismos en los resultados obtenidos. Recuérdese que si bien desde el
principio tuvimos en mente la teoría del glosado de Riffaterre (1995), nuestro interés
fue también efectuar una reflexión inductiva de abajo para arriba a fin de comprobar-
la desde la complejidad del aula-L2. (Cfr. Cuadro 4.)
361
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
362
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
NC= no
compartido)
363
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
-No hagas que te lo vuelva a advertir -el sujeto repitió lo que provocó que de re-
pente Ronnie comenzara a reír y le dio una palmada en el hombro. –Ya, hombre,
relájate. ¿Cuál es tu pinche problema? ¿Por qué los negros no aguantan ni una
bromita? Siempre están serios. Volvió a reír y luego sin ni siquiera pedir permiso
se instaló en mi mesa y le pidió al mesero que le trajera una cerveza a la voz de ya.
364
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
365
Lilia Irlanda Villegas Salas, José Miguel Barajas García
366
Apostillas en didáctica de traducción: El profesor como traductor cultural
Referencias
367
Reseñas biográficas
The Authors
369
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Seongsook Choi
[Link]@[Link]
Korea /Scotland
370
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Isaac Frausto Hernández holds a BA in English language teaching and has presented in
international academic events. He is currently teaching English to high school students and
has participated in several research projects.
Telma Gimenez
tgimenez@[Link]
Brazil
Telma Gimenez just completed her postdoctoral studies at the Institute of Education, Lon-
don. She is Associate Professor at the Department of Foreign Languages, Universidade
Estadual de Londrina, Brazil, where she teaches in the area of Applied Linguistics. She also
supervises research on English language teacher education and English as a lingua franca.
371
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Amanda Howard
[Link]@[Link]
England
Amanda Howard has worked as an English language teacher, teacher developer and lecturer
for a number of institutions and universities both in the Middle East and the UK, She cu-
rrently focusses on postgraduate education, and her research interests include observation
and feedback in educational settings, English language teaching pedagogy, classroom inte-
raction and Young Learner education. Her most recent book is Teacher Evaluation in Second
Language Education, co-edited with Helen Donaghue.
Lorena Andrea López Cupita is a professor in the Language Department at Universidad Mi-
nuto de Dios. She received her M.A. in Applied Linguistics from the Universidad Distrital
“Francisco Jose de Caldas”
Irasema Mora Pablo is a full-time teacher at University of Guanajuato, Mexico, in the Lan-
guage Department and currently coordinates the MA in Applied Linguistics in English
Language Teaching. She holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics, University of Kent, UK. Her
areas of interest are bilingualism, latinos’ studies and identity formation.
Erwan Morel
erwanmorel@[Link]
Francia /México
Erwan Morel es francés, docente de Lengua Portuguesa y Didáctica del Francés en la Facul-
tad de Idiomas de la Universidad Veracruzana. Se ha desempeñado en diversas universida-
des con la temática de la enseñanza de idiomas y la competencia traductora en los procesos
de didáctica y adquisición de lenguas extranjeras. Trabaja con evaluación sociolingüística
de lenguas extranjeras, es docente de Desarrollo de las Competencias Lingüísticas.
372
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Natalie Rangel Gamiño holds a BA in English language teaching and has presented in inter-
national academic events. She has participated in research projects. She has taught English
for several years, mainly to young learners.
373
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Nhora Lucia Reyes Navarro is an EFL teacher at Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino tea-
ching at the undergraduate programs in Bogota- Colombia. She holds an M.A. in Applied
Linguistics to TEFL from Universidad Distrital Francisco Jose de Caldas and a BA in
English Teaching from Universidad Industrial de Santander. She has been awarded with
special certifications for her work as a teacher-researcher in the areas of Applied Linguistics,
the implementation of a bi-modal course for teachers in ESAP, and the integration of a cu-
rriculum following the Community-based approach to literacy practices in EFL at the social
work educational program at USTA.
Keith Richards
[Link]@[Link]
England
Keith Richards is an Associate Professor at the Centre for Applied Linguistics in the Uni-
versity of Warwick. His research interests lie in the areas of professional interaction and
qualitative research methods. His publications include Qualitative Inquiry in TESOL, Lan-
guage and Professional and Research Methods for Applied Language Studies (with Steven
Ross and Paul Seedhouse).
Judy Sharkey
[Link]@[Link]
Estados Unidos
Liliana Sosa Dorantes cuenta con la Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa, el Diplomado en Tra-
ducción Científico-Técnica por la Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla y con una
Especialidad en Práctica Docente Universitaria. Obtuvo su título de Maestría en Ciencias
de la Educación y actualmente es candidato a Doctor en Ciencias del Lenguaje por la Uni-
versidad Veracruzana. Ha sido ponente en diversos eventos académicos internacionales.
Actualmente es catedrática de la UV y diversas universidades privadas.
374
Reseñas biográficas / The Authors
Ana Cecilia Villarreal Ballesteros es doctora en Second Language Acqusition and Teaching
por la Universidad de Arizona, Estados Unidos. Imparte cursos en el programa de posgrado
en Educación adscrito al programa de Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa en la Facultad de
Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua desde 1995.
375