Refrigeración Y Aire Acondicionado: Semana 6
Refrigeración Y Aire Acondicionado: Semana 6
ACONDICIONADO
UNIDAD : COMPONENTES DEL
SISTEMA DE REFRIGERACIÓN
SEMANA 6
PROF. CARLOS A. CHAMA CÁRDENAS
REFRIGERACIÓN
2
Refrigeración
3
Refrigeración
4
Refrigeración
5
Refrigeración
El calor se transfiere a un
serpentín con refrigerante frio
y se bombea con el compresor
del sistema hacia el
condensador, desde el cual se
libera a la habitación. Todo este
proceso es muy similar a
cuando utilizamos una esponja
para trasladar agua de un lugar
a otro.
6
Refrigeración
7
Rangos de temperaturas de la
refrigeración
8
Rangos de temperaturas de la
refrigeración
9
Rangos de temperaturas de la
refrigeración
10
Rangos de temperaturas de la
refrigeración
11
Evaporadores
12
El evaporador
13
El evaporador
Cuando el evaporador
opera a estas
temperaturas tan bajas,
elimina calor latente y
sensible del frigorífico, es
decir extraerá humedad
del aire del refrigerador y
reduce la temperatura de
la camara
14
El evaporador
Ebullición y condensación
Hay 2 factores importantes para comprender la refrigeración, la
temperatura de ebullición y la temperatura de condensación. La
temperatura de ebullición y su relación con el sistema tiene lugar
en el evaporador, mientras que la temperatura de condensación
se lleva a cabo en el condensador
15
El evaporador y la temperatura
de ebullición
La ebullición se suele asociar con las temperaturas altas y el agua.
Normalmente el agua hierve a 100°C a presión atmosférica, sin
embargo el agua también puede hervir a otras temperaturas
dependiendo de la presión en la que se tenga. Por ejemplo el
agua hervirá a 28.96°C si se encontrara a una presión de 4 Kpa.
La temperatura de ebullición de un liquido refrigerante es la que
determina la temperatura de funcionamiento del serpentín. En
un sistema de aire acondicionado, un serpentín de un evaporador
que estuviera a 4°C, por el que pasara aire a 24 °C, produciría las
condiciones adecuadas para el acondicionamiento del aire.
16
Eliminación de la humedad
17
Eliminación de la humedad
18
Eliminación de la humedad
19
Eliminación de la humedad
20
Características de intercambio de
calor del evaporador
21
Características de intercambio de
calor del evaporador
2. El medio con el cual se intercambia calor. Un ejemplo seria
cuando se pasa calor del aire al refrigerante. Los mejores
intercambios de calor son los que tienen lugar entre dos líquidos
como del agua a un refrigerante líquido.
22
Características de intercambio de
calor del evaporador
3. El coeficiente de película, que es la relación entre el medio que
proporciona el calor y la superficie de intercambio de calor. El
coeficiente de película esta relacionado con la velocidad del
medio que pasa por la superficie de intercambio. Cuando la
velocidad es demasiado lenta, la película que se encuentre entre
el medio y la superficie se convierte en un aislante.
23
Características de intercambio de
calor del evaporador
24
Condensadores
25
El condensador
26
El condensador
27
El condensador
28
Condensadores enfriados por
agua
29
Condensadores de tubo
concéntrico
Hay dos tipos de condensadores de tubo concéntrico; el de
serpentín y el de extremos embridados, que se puede limpiar.
Los condensadores de tubo y coraza son mucho mas costosos que los
condensadores de coraza y serpentín, pero se pueden limpiar
mecánicamente con cepillos. Se construyen asegurando los tubos a una
lamina terminal de la coraza. El refrigerante se descarga a la coraza y el
agua circula por los tubos. Los extremos de la coraza son como tapas
terminales denominadas cajas para agua y el agua circula por ellos.
33
Condensadores de tubo y coraza
34
Condensadores enfriados por
agua
35
Trabajo grupal
• Tipos de evaporadores
• Sistemas de agua desechable
• Sistemas de agua recirculada
• Torres de enfriamiento
• Condensadores enfriados por aire.
36
EVALUACIÓN
37
38
REFRIGERACIÓN Y AIRE
ACONDICIONADO
UNIDAD : COMPONENTES DEL
SISTEMA DE REFRIGERACIÓN
SEMANA 6
PROF. CARLOS A. CHAMA CÁRDENAS
Compresores
2
Función del compresor
Al compresor se le considera el corazón del sistema de refrigeración.
Otro termino que le describe es el de bomba de vapor. Lo que en
realidad hace el compresor es aumentar la presión desde el nivel de la
presión de aspiración hasta el nivel de la presión de la descarga
3
Función del compresor
4
Relación del compresión
5
Relación del compresión
Por ejemplo cuando un compresor esta trabajando con refrigerante R-
12, con una presión de descarga de 169 psig (125 °F) y una presión de
aspiración de 2 psig (-16°F), la relación de compresión sería:
6
Relación del compresión
Ahora supóngamos que este mismo sistema de refrigeración funciona
con refrigerante R-134a, con la misma temperatura de condensación de
125°F (184.6 psig) y una temperatura de evaporación de -16°F (vacío
de 0.7 in Hg), la relación de compresión sería:
8
Relación del compresión
Las relaciones de compresión se pueden reducir mediante una
compresión de 2 etapas, es decir utilizando 2 compresores, en la que
un compresor se descargaría en el lado de aspiración del otro
compresor.
El compresor de la 1ra
etapa tiene una CR de
3.2:1 y el compresor de la
2da etapa tiene una CR de
1.6:1. Estas dos relaciones
de compresión son
aceptables y resultaran en
buenas eficiencias del
compresor y bajas
temperaturas de descarga
del compresor. 9
Relación del compresión
La compresión de dos etapas o compuesta no es usual que se utilice
sino hasta que la relación de compresión haya sobrepasado 10:1. A
menudo esto se tiene en aplicaciones de congelamiento de baja
temperatura en instalaciones de almacenamiento comerciales e
industriales.
10
Relación del compresión
El vapor que sale del compresor puede estar muy caliente. Con una
presión de descarga de 169 psig, el conducto de descarga en el
compresor fácilmente podría estar a 200 °F o incluso a una
temperatura mayor. El vapor se comprime y con esto aumenta el calor
del vapor desde la aspiración hasta que sale del compresor.
11
Tipos de compresores
En la industria del acondicionamiento de aire y la refrigeración se
utilizan cinco tipos principales de compresores:
1.- Compresores alternativos
12
Tipos de compresores
2.- Compresores de tornillo
Se utiliza en los
sistemas industriales
y comerciales
grandes
13
Tipos de compresores
3.- Compresores de rotatorios
Se utilizan en los
sistemas de
acondicionamiento
de aire residenciales
y comerciales ligeros.
14
Tipos de compresores
4.- Compresores en espiral
Se utilizan en los
sistemas de
acondicionamiento
de aire residenciales
y comerciales ligeros.
15
Tipos de compresores
5.- Compresores centrífugos
Se utilizan con
frecuencia en los
sistemas de
acondicionamiento
de aire de grandes
edificios.
16
Líquido en el cilindro del
compresor
El compresor alternativo de pistón se conoce como un dispositivo de
desplazamiento positivo, lo que significa que cuando el cilindro
comienza la carrera ascendente se vacía o se atasca.
17
Líquido en el cilindro del
compresor
18
Líquido en el cilindro del
compresor
Las siguientes son algunas causas que pueden
conducir a un escurrimiento en un compresor con
refrigerante liquido:
• Dosificador sobrealimentado.
• Baja circulación de aire sobre el evaporador.
• Baja carga de calor.
• Motor de ventilador del evaporador sin
funcionar.
• Serpentin del evaporador sucio o congelado
• Calentadores de descongelación o el
temporizador de descongelación sin funcionar.
• Filtros del evaporador sucios o bloqueados.
19
Dispositivos de expansión
20
Dispositivos de expansión
21
Dispositivos de expansión
22
Dispositivos de expansión
23
Dispositivos de expansión
El dispositivo de expansión suele estar
instalado en el conducto de liquido entre el
condensador y el evaporador.
Por ejemplo durante un día caluroso, el
conducto de liquido que llega hasta el
dispositivo de expansión podría estar a 110
°F. Si este conducto pertenece a un
frigorífico de baja temperatura que utiliza
refrigerante R-134a, la presión del lado de
baja presión del evaporador podría
encontrarse a 3psig a una temperatura de -
8°F . Esta es una caída de temperatura
bastante grande y se puede detectar
fácilmente cuando tiene lugar. Este
dispositivo puede estar caliente por un lado
y congelado por el otro. 24
Dispositivos de expansión
Los siguientes son los tipos de dispositivos de expansión:
1.- Válvula de expansión termostática
25
Dispositivos de expansión
2.- Válvula de expansión automática
26
Dispositivos de expansión
3.- De diámetro fijo, como el tubo capilar
27
Válvula de expansión
termostática
La válvula de expansión termostática dosifica el refrigerante que va
hacia el evaporador empleando un elemento de detección térmica
para monitorear el sobrecalentamiento. Esta válvula se abre o se
cierra gradualmente en respuesta a este elemento térmico.
28
Válvula de expansion
termostática
La válvula de expansión termostática mantiene un
sobrecalentamiento constante en el evaporador. Recuerde que
cuando hay sobrecalentamiento no hay refrigerante liquido. El
sobrecalentamiento en exceso no es deseable, pero se necesita una
cantidad pequeña con esta válvula para asegurar que no salga
refrigerante liquido del evaporador.
29
Válvula de expansion
termostática
La válvula de expansión termostática se puede ajustar para mantener
un sobrecalentamiento bajo para asegurar que la mayoría de la
superficie del evaporador se utilice. Esto le dará al sistema de
refrigeración un efecto neto de refrigeración mayor y mayores
capacidades y eficiencias.
30
Válvula de expansion
termostática
Las mediciones de sobrecalentamiento del evaporador se deben de
hacer después de cada ajuste para ayudar a asegurar que el
refrigerante liquido no se salga del evaporador. Las calibraciones
recomendadas del sobrecalentamiento del evaporador son las
siguientes:
• Evaporadores de temperatura alta (30°F): 10-12 grados
• Evaporadores de temp. Media (0°-30°F): 5-10 grados
• Evaporadores de temp. Baja (por debajo de 0°F): 2-5 grados
31
Componentes de la Válvula de
expansion termostática
32
El bulbo de detección y el tubo
de transmisión
33
EVALUACIÓN
34
35
REFRIGERACIÓN Y AIRE
ACONDICIONADO
UNIDAD : CALCULO DE LA CARGA DE
ENFRIAMIENTO
SEMANA 10
PROF. CARLOS A. CHAMA CÁRDENAS
La carga de enfriamiento
La carga de enfriamiento en un
equipo de refrigeración es la
suma de las cargas térmicas en
la que están involucradas
diferentes fuentes. Entre las
fuentes de calor mas comunes
tenemos:
2
La carga de enfriamiento
• Calor que pasa del exterior al espacio refrigerado por
conducción a través de paredes no aisladas.
• Calor que llega al espacio por radiación a través de vidrios
o de otros materiales transparentes.
• Calor debido al aire exterior caliente a través de las puertas
que se abren y a través de rendijas.
• Calor cedido por el producto.
• Calor cedido por las personas dentro del espacio
refrigerado.
• Calor cedido por cualquier equipo productor de calor
localizado dentro del espacio refrigerado, tales como
motores eléctricos, alumbrado, equipó electrónico, etc
3
La carga de enfriamiento
4
Tiempo de funcionamiento del
equipo
5
Tiempo de funcionamiento del
equipo
6
Cálculo de la carga de
enfriamiento
7
Cálculo de la carga de
enfriamiento
8
Ganancia de carga por
paredes
9
Ganancia de carga por
paredes
10
La carga por cambio de aire
11
La carga del producto
13
La carga del producto
14
Cargas varias
15
Factores que determinan la
ganancia de carga en paredes
𝑸= 𝑨 𝑼 𝑫
Donde:
𝑄 = Cantidad de calor transferido en Btu por hora,
𝐴 = área de la superficie de la pared externa (pies cuadrados),
𝑈 = coeficiente total de transmisión de calor en Btu por hora por pie
cuadrado por grado Fahrenheit.
𝐷 = diferencial de temperatura a través de la pared en grados Fahrenheit.
16
Factores que determinan la
ganancia de carga en paredes
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑈 𝐷 = 200𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 2 0.16 55°𝐹
ℎ𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑒 2 °𝐹
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 1760
ℎ𝑟
18
Ejercicio
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 1760
ℎ𝑟
𝑸 = 𝑨 ∗ 𝑼 ∗ 𝑫 ∗ 𝟐𝟒
19
Determinación del factor U
20
Determinación del factor U
Ejercicio
De la tabla 10-1
obténgase el factor U
para una pared
construida de barro
bloque de 6 pulg con
aislamiento de placa de
corcho de 4 pulg.
21
Determinación del factor U
𝐵𝑡𝑢 ∗ 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑔
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑑 𝑘 =
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑝𝑖𝑒 2 ∗ °𝐹
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑎 𝐶 =
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑝𝑖𝑒 2 ∗ °𝐹
22
Determinación del factor U
𝑘
𝐶=
𝑥
23
Determinación del factor U
Ejercicio
Calcular la conductancia térmica para placa de corcho de 5 pulg. de
espesor
Solución:
De la tabla 10-4:
𝐵𝑡𝑢. 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑔
𝑘 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑎 𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑜 = 0.30
ℎ𝑟. 𝑝𝑖𝑒 2 . °𝐹
26
Determinación del factor U
Cuando una pared esta construida de varias capas de diferentes
materiales, la resistencia térmica total de la pared es la suma de las
resistencias de los diferentes materiales de que esta construida la pared,
incluyéndose las películas de aire, esto es,
1 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1
= + + + +
𝑈 𝑓𝑖 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛 𝑓𝑜
Por lo tanto
1
𝑈=
1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1
+ 𝐾 + 𝐾 + ⋯𝐾 +
𝑓𝑖 1 2 𝑛 𝑓𝑜
Donde:
1
= coeficiente de convección (conducción de superficie) de pared
𝑓𝑖
interior, piso o cielo.
1
= coeficiente de convección (conducción de superficie) de pared
𝑓𝑜
exterior, piso o cielo.
27
Determinación del factor U
Ejercicio
Suponiendo que la velocidad del viento sea de 7.5 mph, calcular el
valor U para una pared construida con bloques de concreto de 8
pulg. con agregado de escoria, placa de corcho de 4 pulg. y con
acabado de concreto mortero de 0.5 pulg.
Solución:
Bloque concreto de 8pulg con agregado de escoria: C = 0.58
Placa de corcho: k = 0.30
Concreto mortero: k=5
Coeficiente de convección interior: fi = 1.65
Coeficiente de convección exterior: fo = 4.00
28
Determinación del factor U
Solución (continuación):
1 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1
= + + + +
𝑈 𝑓𝑖 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛 𝑓𝑜
1 1 1 4 0.5 1
= + + + +
𝑈 1.65 0.58 0.3 5 4
1
= 16.01
𝑈
30
Diferencial de temperatura a
través de paredes de almacén frío
31
Efecto de la radiación solar
32
Efecto de la radiación solar
33
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Ejemplo
Un enfriador con pasillo en su interior, de 16
pies x 20 pies x 10 pies de alto, esta localizado
en la esquina sureste del edificio de una tienda
en Dallas, Texas. Las paredes sur y este del
enfriador están juntas a una parte de las
paredes sur y este del edificio de la tienda. El
cielo de la tienda esta a 14 pies del piso, de
manera que se tiene un espacio de 4 pies entre
la parte superior del enfriador y el cielo de la
tienda. La tienda tiene aire acondicionado y la
temperatura interior de la misma se mantiene
aproximadamente en 80 °F. La temperatura de
diseño en el interior del enfriador es 35 °F.
Calcular la ganancia de calor en las paredes del
enfriador si la construcción de las mismas es
como sigue: 34
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Ejemplo (continuación)
35
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
𝑸= 𝑨 𝑼 𝑫
Debemos hallar cada uno de los factores por cada pared
36
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Solución (continuación):
Área de la superficie de pared
37
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Solución (continuación):
Factores U para paredes (Tablas 10-1, 10-2, 10-3
38
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Solución:
Diferencial de temperatura por pared
Temp. Temp. DT Factor de DT
Diseño Diseño Pared corrección Pared
exterior Interior normal Tabla 10-6 Diseño
Pared 80 °F 35 °F 45 °F 0 45 °F
norte
Pared 92 °F 35 °F 57 °F 4 °F 61 °F
sur
Pared 92 °F 35 °F 57 °F 6 °F 63 °F
este
Pared 80 °F 35 °F 45 °F 0 45 °F
oeste
Cielo 80 °F 35 °F 45 °F 0 45 °F
Piso 70 °F 35 °F 35 °F 0 35 °F
39
Cálculo de la ganancia de carga en
paredes
Solución (continuación):
Aplicando la ecuación: 𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑼 𝑫
Carga de
ganancia total en = 4162.8 Btu/hr x 24hr = 99907.2 Btu
paredes
41
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
42
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
43
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
Ejemplo
Para efectos de ventilación se introduce a un espacio refrigerado
300 pies3/min de aire. Si el interior del enfriador esta a 35 °F y la
temperatura exterior de bulbo seco y humedad relativa son 85
°F y 50% respectivamente, calcular la carga por cambio de aire
en Btu/24 hr
44
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
45
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
46
Cálculo de la carga por cambios de
aire
Ejemplo
Un enfriador con pasillo interior de 8 pies x 15 pies x 10 pies de
alto esta construido con placa de corcho de 4 pulg con tablones
de madera de 1 pulg en cada lado. La temperatura exterior es 95
°F y la humedad 50%. La temperatura interior en el enfriador es
35 °F y el uso es promedio. Calcular la carga por cambio de aire
en Btu por 24 hr.
47
Cálculo de la carga del producto
48
Cálculo de la carga del producto
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇
Donde:
Q = Cantidad de calor en Btu
m = masa del producto (libras)
c = calor especifico arriba de congelación Btu/(lb)(°F)
ΔT = cambio en la temperatura del producto
49
Cálculo de la carga del producto
Ejemplo:
7500 libras de carne de res fresca entran diariamente a un
cuarto de enfriamiento a 102 °F y son enfriados hasta 45 °F.
Calcular la carga del producto en Btu/24 hr.
Solución:
De la tabla 10-11, el calor especifico de la carne de res, antes del
congelamiento, es de 0.75 Btu/lb.°F
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇
0.75𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 7500𝑙𝑏 102 − 45 °𝐹
𝑙𝑏°𝐹
𝑄 = 320625 𝐵𝑡𝑢
50
Cálculo de la carga del producto
Cuando el tiempo de enfriamiento deseado es menor de 24 hr, la
carga equivalente del producto para un periodo de 24 hr, se
calcula dividiendo la cantidad de calor por el tiempo de
enfriamiento deseado y después multiplicar el resultado por 24
hr para obtener la carga del producto para un periodo de 24 hr,
entonces la ecuación queda así:
𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇 (24 ℎ𝑟)
𝑄=
𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜 (ℎ𝑟)
51
Cálculo de la carga del producto
Ejemplo:
Calcular la carga del producto en Btu por 24 hr suponiendo que
la carne de res descrita en el ejemplo anterior es enfriada en 20
hr en lugar del periodo de 24 hr.
Solución:
𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇 (24 ℎ𝑟)
𝑄=
𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜 (ℎ𝑟)
7500 0.75 102 − 45 (24 ℎ𝑟)
𝑄=
20 ℎ𝑟
𝑄 = 384750 𝐵𝑡𝑢
52
Factor de rapidez de enfriamiento
53
Factor de rapidez de enfriamiento
𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇 (24 ℎ𝑟)
𝑄=
(𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜)(𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑧 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜)
55
Factor de rapidez de enfriamiento
Ejemplo:
Recalcular la carga del producto descrito en el ejemplo anterior
empleando el factor de rapidez de enfriamiento adecuado.
Solución: De la tabla 10-12, el factor de rapidez de enfriamiento para la
carne de res es 0.67.
𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇 (24 ℎ𝑟)
𝑄=
(𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜)(𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑧 𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜)
𝑄 = 574253.7 𝐵𝑡𝑢
Nota: los factores de rapidez de enfriamiento se aplican por lo general solo a
cuartos de enfriamiento y no en cálculos para cuartos de almacenaje.
56
Congelamiento y almacenaje del
producto
57
Congelamiento y almacenaje del
producto
58
Congelamiento y almacenaje del
producto
Ejemplo:
500 libras de pollo entran a un enfriador a 40 °F y son congelados y enfriados hasta
una temperatura final de -5°F. Calcular la carga del producto en Btu por 24 hr
suponiendo que todo el proceso de realiza en 12 hr.
59
Calor de respiración
60
Calor de respiración
61
Recipientes y materiales de
empaque
62
Calculo de cargas varias
63
Calculo de cargas varias
64
Uso del factor de seguridad
65
EVALUACIÓN
66
67
REFRIGERACIÓN Y AIRE ACONDICIONADO
PROFESOR
ALUMNO
AREQUIPA - PERU´
2021
ÍNDICE
INTRODUCCIÓN__________________________________________________________________________________________3
1. HISTORIA DE LOS REFRIGERANTES ___________________________________________________________4
2. CLASIFICACIÓN DE LOS REFRIGERANTES _________________________________________________ 11
Productos refrigerantes naturales _______________________________________________________________ 12
Refrigerantes fluorados o sintéticos. ____________________________________________________________ 12
¿Cuales son los gases refrigerantes HFO?_____________________________________________________________14
¿Cuáles son los gases refrigerantes HFC? _____________________________________________________________16
algunos libros dice que la refrigeración nace de tiempos nómadas donde los hombres
del paleolítico y Hera de hielo guardaban carné en agujeros en la nieve para evitar
su descomposición pero... ¿En realidad nace ahí? Si nos ponemos a pensar un poco
la refrigeración nace desde que un ser vivo toma agua para calmar su sed desde que
busca algún lugar con sombra para ocultarse de la radiación del sol. En la industria la
refrigeración es muy usada por diversos medios desde aceites que evitan que la
En 1750 Franklin experimentó por primera vez con el uso de refrigerantes. Usó un
vacío para evaporar éter líquido y terminó con resultados significativos. Unos 100
años más tarde, James Harrison inventó una máquina que podía comprimir cualquier
evaporación.
Antes de 1895, el ciclo continuo fue ampliamente utilizado en la mayor parte del
mundo industrializado. En los primeros días, cualquier gas podía usarse como
pero la masa fue uno de los más importantes. El refrigerante más adecuado depende
diseños.
que provocó que las principales empresas pusieran en común sus recursos para
encontrar mejores opciones. Esto se debe a que los refrigerantes usados más
Fue solo en la década de 1970 que los científicos se dieron cuenta de que el CFC no
es inofensivo en absoluto. Se dieron cuenta de que una vez que se rompieron los
porque destruye lentamente la capa de ozono años más tarde. En 1995, la compañía
similares a las de los CFC, pero no dañan el escudo de ozono. Una de las principales
HFC es hydrofluoroolefin (HFO). Tiene un GWP bajo y se puede usar con los sistemas
de diseño de refrigeración existentes. La idea es eliminar los HCFC y los HFC para el
año 2030
disponían de hielo o nieve en ninguna época del año, como en Egipto, se utilizaba la
El agua fue el primer refrigerante, con una larga historia de uso, continuando hasta
nuestra época. Con el paso del tiempo, se han hecho mejoras en cuanto a su manejo
y almacenamiento, pero aún se utiliza el hielo natural por todo el mundo. El uso
En refrigeración se dio un gran paso adelante, allá por el año 1600, cuando se
descubrió que una mezcla de hielo con sal, producía temperaturas más bajas que el
hielo solo. En cierta manera, ésta fue la primera mejora sobre la naturaleza en el
campo de la refrigeración.
Hacia finales del siglo XVIII, la inventiva del hombre se había dirigido hacia la
máquinas para disminuir la presión del vapor del agua y acelerar su evaporación.
También recibió considerable atención el arte de producir frío por la liberación de aire
comprimido. Durante la primera parte del siglo XIX, se desarrollaron máquinas para
En las décadas siguientes, la atención fue orientada hacia el mejoramiento del diseño
mecánico y la operación de los equipos. A principios del siglo XX, se desarrollaron las
más propiedades riesgosas. Algunos eran tóxicos, otros inflamables, y otros más
operaban a muy altas presiones; por lo que para estos equipos más pequeños, los
de azufre. Este refrigerante tiene algunas fallas serias, como la formación de ácido
sulfuroso cuando se combina con el agua; es muy corrosivo y ataca las partes del
logrando reducir los requerimientos de servicio hasta un punto, donde las desventajas
inflamable, y que tuviera las características necesarias para poder usarse en equipos
compactos. Kettering solicitó a Thomas Midgely que explorara la posibilidad de
iniciaron la búsqueda de tal refrigerante. Sabían que las combinaciones de flúor eran
muy estables, así que, experimentaron con algunos de los compuestos químicos
Demostraron que no era inflamable y que tenía una toxicidad inusualmente baja.
Comparándola con la molécula de metano en la figura 12.1-B, se ve que las dos son
muestra en la figura 12.1-C. Si se reemplazan dos átomos de cloro por dos de flúor,
comercial práctico para la fabricación del nuevo refrigerante. Con este desarrollo
antes. El primero de ellos fue el Freón 12, que durante muchos años, fue el más
popular (ver figura 12.2). De allí siguieron el Freón 11, el Freón 21, el Freón 114, y el
detectar con el olfato; los contratistas los rechazaban porque costaban más que el
refrigerantes.
utilizaron nuevos materiales que no podían ser utilizados con seguridad c on los
el Freón arribó como un refrigerante aceptado. El resultado fue que los freones eran
virtualmente la base de todas las unidades pequeñas, y era usado también en trabajos
otros. Algunos años más tarde, otras compañías comenzaron a fabricar los
Para la década de los setenta, ya había sospechas de que estos compuestos afectan
era aceptada por los fabricantes. Al principio de los ochenta, estudios hechos por
año 2000, partiendo de la base de los niveles de producción mundial que había en
1986.
sus unidades. Dichos productos pueden utilizarse también en equipos usados que
compresor, tales como utilizar aceite sintético en lugar de aceite mineral y cambiar
defasamiento total, son las mezclas ternarias. Las mezclas ternarias, son mezclas
azeotrópicas de tres diferentes refrigerantes de entre los siguientes: 22, 124, 125,
134a, 152a y propano. Estas mezclas tienen características muy similares a los
alternos.
veces más, pero a diferencia de la primera vez, en esta ocasión son la única
alternativa, y además, existe la conciencia ecológica, lo que hace que tengan que
Los tipos de gases que se usan de forma habitual en los sistemas de refrigeración
Este procedimiento tiene como objetivo reducir en un 70% el uso de gases de efecto
invernadero en 2030, por lo que muchos de los gases refrigerantes que se han venido
utilizando hasta ahora, se están reemplazando por otro tipo de alternativas más
La variedad de tipos y un escenario tan cambiante son dos factores que han generado
totalmente permitido.
Por ello, es importante saber con exactitud cuál es la clasificación de los gases
Sin embargo, en algunos casos su aplicación es más limitada en comparación con los
amoniaco.
productos del futuro para muchas aplicaciones, y por ello su uso ha comenzado a
· R-600A (isobutano)
· R-290 (propano)
· R-170 (etano)
· R-1270 (propileno)
· R-717 (amoniaco)
Al contrario que los anteriores, este tipo de gas está creado de un modo artificial,
calentamiento global medio alto, por lo que actualmente se encuentran en una etapa
de eliminación.
En los países desarrollados, su uso está permitido hasta el año 2040, pero a día de
Sin embargo, continúan siendo gases de efecto invernadero, y si bien es cierto que
ozono igual a cero, pero además son unas alternativas mucho menos impactantes
De hecho, dentro de los gases fluorados, son los productos menos dañinos con el
Medio Ambiente.
¿Cuales son los gases refrigerantes HFO?
que como hemos comentado, son los refrigerantes sintéticos que menor efecto
1234YF: muy estable en condiciones extremas, este gas se ha desarrollado para dar
inflamabilidad leve. Si bien, su instalación requiere una serie de cambios para ser
R449A: al igual que el anterior, es una mezcla de HFC y HFO, y tampoco es inflamable
equipos nuevos.
En comparación con sus antecesores, esta nueva alternativa permite una reducción
muy sencillo y se perfila como una solución muy eficiente a largo plazo.
comercial/industrial.
inflamable y de baja baja toxicidad, sus emisiones directas e indirectas de CO2 son
sino que pude ser utilizado para una gama de aplicaciones más amplia, como
el gas R-134A. Este avance se traduce además en una importante reducción del
consumo energético.
como una alternativa más ecológica y adecuada al no contener cloro, siguen siendo
a finales de siglo.
Por este motivo, la Agencia de Protección Ambiental (EPA) ha anunciado una serie
Pero hasta entonces, estos son los refrigerantes HFC disponibles en la actualidad:
Las aplicaciones que permite son numerosas, ya que está especialmente diseñado
pistas de hielo.
R434A: con la misma capacidad frigorífica e idéntica eficiencia energética que el R-
22, este refrigerante presenta una ventaja añadida, y es que permite descargas
inferiores que su antecesor, por lo que prolonga en gran medida la vida del compresor.
equipos.
o máquinas de hielo.
R417A: válido para equipos que dispongan de sistema de expansión fijo (capilar) o
doméstico, así como para bombas de calor, splits, unidades rooftop, almacenamiento
R422D: permite una sustitución rápida, sencilla y económica del R-22 en equipos que
refrigeradores y congeladores.
R32: se trata de gas HFC puro, utilizado en pequeños equipos nuevos de aire
No solo es una buena alternativa para el R-22, sino que sustituye además al R-410A
y al R-502.
positivas y medias, ya que posibilita trabajar a presiones más bajas que otros gases
HFC.
R407C: mezcla de gases refrigerantes HFC, esta alternativa se utiliza de forma muy
cámaras y trasportes frigorífico, así como otros sistemas para almacenar y conservar
alimentos en supermercados.
baja y media temperatura. Como el resto de los refrigerantes HFC, presenta una baja
R404A: refrigerante compuesto por una mezcla de R-125, R-143A y R-134A. Incluye
temperatura baja/media.
media/baja refrigeración basadas en los refrigerantes R-22 o R-502, pero con una
tóxicos, como R-12, R-409A, R-406A y DI-36. Permite una eficiencia energética y una
R428A: sustituto de los refrigerantes R-22, R-502, R-408A, DI-44 y HP80, es una
alternativa a largo plazo, menos tóxica e idónea para utilizar en una gran variedad de
que requieren ser controladas de manera conjunta. Desarrollar una metodología que
muestran que los refrigerantes naturales constituyen una alternativa importante como
Esto puede ser complicado sino se comprende la importancia de cada una de estas
sustancias.
R-134a debido a que el consumo de energía eléctrica es más bajo porque las
presiones de trabajo son presiones medias. Existen otros refrigerantes que trabajan
en este rango de temperaturas, pero sus presiones de trabajo son más altas.
automotor
del PCG
simplemente son dispositivos que extraen el calor de un sitio utilizando como medio
evaporación también alto para que la masa necesaria sea menor y así el compresor
que cumpla con todos los requisitos. Existen otros criterios como los culturales y de
con quienes purgan los sistemas de este modo, ya que aunque los nuevos gases
afectan menos a la capa de ozono y tienen menos efecto invernadero, aún son
dañinos.
considerar como una etapa intermedia entre el frío natural y el frío artificial, ya se
su temperatura.
una mezcla de nieve y nitrato amónico, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit estableció el cero
numerosos científicos estudiaron las leyes que rigen las mezclas frigoríficas, y las
mezclas de hielo y sal común, que permiten disminuir la temperatura hasta -20ºC. Sin
La mayoría de los refrigerantes han sido conocidos por ser nocivos para el medio
a partir del año 2010. Gracias a esto los refrigerantes actuales apenas afectan a la
capa de ozono coma pero sigue siendo muy nocivos para el calentamiento global
representó el primer paso mundial para la protección de la capa de ozono puesto que
la investigación.
financiación.
legislación para reducir las emisiones de efecto invernadero y también apunta hacia
Hasta ahora no hay ninguno que reúna todas las propiedades deseables. Aunque
existen en el mercado gran variedad, sin embargo, muchos de ellos son causantes
del efecto invernadero, mientras que hay otros que no tienen ese efecto, pero son
inflamables o tóxicos.
y ninguno está fuera de consideración, desde el bien conocido Freón, hasta el retorno
ventajas ante los refrigerantes HFCs. Pero también presenta algunas desventajas.
selección de un refrigerante.
El refrigerante que se usa para temperaturas menores de –40°C. Deberá tener las
siguientes características:
• La conductividad térmica debe ser lo más alta posible para que pueda
transferir calor más rápidamente, ahorrando espacio y material en las áreas del
• El calor latente de evaporación debe ser lo más alto posible para reducir el
trabajo.
• En este último punto se puede apreciar mejor la figura 1, en donde se
molesta de las vías respiratorias que no lo hace apropiado para instalaciones de tipo
refrigerantes sintéticos entre los que la selección es, con frecuencia, más compleja
azeotrópicas o no) y, por supuesto, el precio son parte importante de los criterios a
tener en cuenta.
pueden utilizar compresores más pequeños que ofrecen una mayor eficiencia
Aumento de la eficiencia
Los ultra congeladores VIP ECO tienen un COP extremadamente alto. La eficiencia
cantidad de calor que se necesita para convertir el líquido en gas, que es básicamente
la energía necesaria para resistir las fuerzas que unen las moléculas del refrigerante
y lo mantienen en un estado líquido. Dado que se necesita una mayor energía térmica
para romper las fuerzas de unión entre las moléculas de hidrocarburos, estos
PHCbi ofrece una solución a todos los laboratorios que buscan reducir su impacto
ambiental. Además de no reducir la capa de ozono, los hidrocarburos tienen una corta
duración en la atmósfera y potenciales de calentamiento global muy bajos. La
calentamiento global.
7. CONCLUSIÓN
moderna fue inventada por Willis Carrier en 1902. en Buffalo (New York)), no
solo en áreas del planeta con altas temperaturas sino también en otras zonas
imprescindible el uso de estos aparatos bien sea para mejorar su propia calidad
bacterias debe ser minucioso, por ende la utilización de filtros tienen un factor
[Link]
azas_Monroy_Juan_Pablo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[Link]
[Link]#:~:text=Refrigerantes%20y%20medio%20ambiente,de%20la%
20capa%20de%20ozono.
[Link]
Course A
REFRIGERANTS LITERACY
Basic Understanding for Policy Makers, Facility Managers and Non-Specialists
Course length: 4 to 5 hours
Table of Contents:
History of Refrigerants
In the 1920s, the refrigerants used in domestic and small commercial systems included sulfur dioxide,
ethyl chloride and methyl chloride, among others. However, even low concentrations of these
refrigerants are toxic, so inevitably, several of these systems developed leaks that caused serious
injuries and death. These incidents drove the HVAC&R industry to develop different refrigerants for
domestic use.
The result was several new refrigerants; all were halocarbons, which are compounds consisting of
carbon and one or more halogen atoms: chlorine, fluorine and bromine. Specifically, these compounds
are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The name originally given to this group of refrigerants was “Freon.”
The first members of this group included R-11 and R-12, which became available in 1931. Domestic
refrigeration systems relied on R-12, while R-11 was used in the water chillers providing air-
conditioning for large buildings. These refrigerants are nontoxic and nonflammable and enjoyed
widespread application for over 50 years. In the ensuing years, the application of CFCs expanded to
include use as aerosol propellants, cleaning agents for the microelectronics industry, and blowing
agents for foam insulation. As a result, the quantities of CFCs produced increased rapidly during the
1950s and 1960s. During this time, the presence of R-11 was detected in the earth’s atmosphere by
very careful measurements. The concentration measured was 50 parts per trillion by volume.
Investigations begun in the 1970s were directed at determining if there was an effect on the earth’s
atmosphere due to the presence of the CFCs. From the results of these investigations, answers evolved
over the following years.
The first step to curtail the release of CFCs into the atmosphere was taken in the late 1970s when CFCs
were banned as aerosol propellants and blowing agents for foam insulation by several countries
including Canada, Norway, Sweden and the United States. In 1985, measurements were reported
showing that a large depletion of ozone was occurring above Antarctica during the spring seasons.
Further scientific investigations confirmed the ozone depletion and determined that it was caused by
the presence of chlorine in the atmosphere. With the added evidence of significant ozone depletion
over North America, Europe and Japan reported at about the same time, a number of countries made an
agreement in Montreal, Canada, through the United Nations. This agreement, The Montreal Protocol
on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, was created in 1987 and limited CFC production to one-
Lesson 1 - 1
half the amount produced in 1986 by the year 2000. The United States, the European Community, and
24 other countries supported this agreement. A 1990 meeting of the Montreal Protocol completely
eliminated production of CFCs by 2000. This new schedule complied with the US Clean Air Act of
1990. Subsequent meetings of the Montreal Protocol have been held, resulting in CFC production
stopping in 1996 and with attention placed on other chemicals, including another group of refrigerants,
the HCFCs.
The HCFCs are hydrogenated halocarbons, meaning that each carbon containing molecule has one
hydrogen atom. The presence of the hydrogen atom causes the molecule to be less chemically stable
than the CFCs. Therefore, the HCFCs have a lower tendency to deplete the ozone layer. R-22 is a
member of the HCFC family whose world-wide scheduled curtailment date is 2030 as established by
the Montreal Protocol. Various countries have adopted accelerated schedules for the phase-out of R-
22.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are another class of halocarbons that contain no chlorine and so are not
ozone depleting. Thus HFCs are not regulated by the Montreal Protocol.
The elimination of the CFCs (particularly R-11 and R-12) is significant because they can no longer be
used in new refrigeration systems. As a result, the HVAC&R industry has developed alternative
refrigerants and is currently conducting research that will lead to additional alternative refrigerants.
Some new refrigerants as well as several older refrigerants are discussed in this lesson. This allows
comparisons to be made among a variety of refrigerants.
Types of Refrigerants
Several types of refrigerants are currently in use in different parts of the world including halocarbons
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFC) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC),
as well as hydrocarbons (HC), and natural refrigerants. In addition, a new class of refrigerant
molecules called hydrofluoroolefins (HFO) have been developed. Furthermore, blends or mixtures of
these various refrigerants have been developed to create refrigerants with desired characteristics.
• Halocarbons: Compounds consisting of carbon and one or more halogen atoms: chlorine,
fluorine and bromine. These are summarized below:
o CFC – Chlorofluorocarbon, a nonhydrogenated halocarbon; contains no hydrogen atoms;
harmful to the earth’s ozone layer
o HCFC – Hydrochlorofluorocarbon, a hydrogenated halocarbon; contains at least one
hydrogen atom; slightly harmful to the earth’s ozone layer
o HFC – Hydrofluorocarbon, a halocarbon not containing chlorine; not harmful to the earth’s
ozone layer
o HFO – Hydrofluoroolefin, a halocarbon not containing chlorine, with one or more double
bonds between carbon atoms; lower global warming potential than HFCs
• Inorganic Compounds. These refrigerants include ammonia (R-717) and carbon dioxide (R-
744).
• Hydrocarbons. Several hydrocarbons are used as refrigerants including ethane (R-170),
propane (R-290), and isobutane (R-600a).
Lesson 1 - 2
• Refrigerant Blends. A refrigerant blend is a mixture of two or more refrigerants. In an effort to
develop alternative refrigerants, refrigerant blends have received considerable interest in recent
years. Blends offer the ability to obtain desired characteristics through the selection of their
refrigerant constituents and their relative composition. For example, by adjusting the relative
amount of a high-pressure and a low-pressure refrigerant, the vapor pressure of the blend can
be made to correspond to that of a particular CFC or HCFC that has been curtailed. In other
situations, blends are developed to improve refrigeration system operating characteristics such
as compressor discharge temperature or to improve lubricant circulation by including a more
miscible refrigerant into the blend.
Two types of blends occur: zeotropes and azeotropes:
o Zeotrope – A zeotrope is a homogeneous mixture of at least two chemicals where the
chemical compositions of the liquid and vapor phases are different when the vapor and
liquid are in equilibrium, or in contact with each other. The properties of the zeotrope are
different from those of its constituents. The zeotropic refrigerant mixtures in use today
generally consist of two or more halocarbons. For example, R-410A is a zeotropic blend
consisting of 50% R-32 and 50% R-125. An ideal zeotrope blend is shown in Figure 1
where the two constituents are labeled as i and j.
Observe that the concentrations of the two constituents are different for the vapor and liquid
phases at a given temperature and pressure, as shown by the points a and b on the
horizontal line. Consequently, if a leak occurred from a system, whether it be liquid or
vapor, the composition of the blend remaining in the system will change accordingly. This
Lesson 1 - 3
will in turn change the properties of the resulting refrigerant mixture remaining in the
system.
Also observe from Figure 1 that a liquid-vapor phase change at constant pressure, of a
zeotropic blend with a given composition, does not occur at a constant temperature, but
rather over a range of temperatures, as shown by the points c and d on the vertical line.
This temperature change that occurs during a phase change is called “temperature glide”
and depends on the composition of the blend. Refrigerant blends with relatively large
temperature glides sometimes offer the potential for higher system operating efficiency. As
an illustration, by matching the temperature profiles of the refrigerant blend and the fluid
being cooled, it is possible to decrease the thermodynamic irreversibilities associated with
heat transfer (i.e. reducing the finite temperature difference) in the evaporator.
Furthermore, temperature glide results in fractionation which is due to the separation of the
components according to their boiling points. As the refrigerant blend changes phase from
liquid to vapor, the refrigerant with the lower boiling point will vaporize first. Thus,
during phase change, the vapor will contain an excess of the refrigerant with the lower
boiling point, and the liquid an excess of the refrigerant with the higher boiling point.
o Azeotropes – An azeotrope is a homogeneous mixture of at least two chemicals that has the
peculiar property that the chemical compositions of the liquid and vapor phases are the
same when the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium, or in contact with each other. Figure 2
is an illustration of a typical azeotrope, where this special behavior is observed to occur
where the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines precisely coincide. Over this
concentration range, the azeotrope behaves as if it is a single-component fluid and does not
exhibit a temperature glide.
Many of the alternative halocarbon blends that have appeared in recent years are zeotropes. For
example, R-404A (44% / 52% / 4%; R-125/143a/134a) is a zeotrope with a temperature glide of about
5°C at a pressure of about 1 MPa. In contrast, some refrigerant blends are near-azeotropic mixtures in
that the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines for these mixtures do not coincide, but are very near
to each other. For example, R-410A (50% / 50%; R-32/125) is a zeotrope with a relatively small
temperature glide of only 0.1°C at the same pressure. An example of an azeotrope is R-507A (50% /
50%; R-143a/125) where the azeotropic zone occurs over a relatively wide range of pressure.
Lesson 1 - 4
Figure 2. An Azeotrope Consisting of Components i and j at a Given Pressure
Environmental Considerations
The Ozone Layer
As the sun’s radiation approaches the planet’s surface it can be scattered, reflected, transmitted, or
absorbed and re-emitted. This is where the ozone layer comes into its own by scattering and reflecting
harmful high energy ultraviolet radiation. Variations in temperature and pressure divide the Earth’s
atmosphere into layers and the mixing of gases between the layers happens very slowly. That is why
most of the Earth’s ozone stays in the upper atmosphere. This stratospheric ozone layer contains 90%
of all the ozone gas on the Earth but it is spread thinly and unevenly.
Life on earth has been safeguarded because of a protective layer in the atmosphere. This layer,
composed of ozone, acts as a shield to protect the earth against the harmful ultraviolet radiation from
the sun. Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms (O3) instead of two (O2). Through natural
atmospheric processes, ozone molecules are created and destroyed continuously. Ultraviolet radiation
from the sun breaks up oxygen molecules (O2) into atoms (O) which then combine with other oxygen
molecules to form ozone (O3). Ozone is not a stable gas and is particularly vulnerable to destruction by
natural compounds containing hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine.
In the troposphere, near the earth’s surface, ozone is an increasingly troublesome pollutant, a
constituent of photochemical smog and acid rain. But safely up in the stratosphere, 11 to 48 km above
the earth’s surface, the blue, pungent-smelling gas is as important to life as oxygen itself. Ozone forms
a fragile shield, curiously insubstantial but remarkably effective. The distribution of ozone in the
atmosphere is illustrated in Figure 3.
Lesson 1 - 5
Figure 3. Distribution of Ozone in the Atmosphere (UNEP 2010)
This ozone filter efficiently screens out almost all the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun; the ozone
layer absorbs most of the dangerous UV-B radiation (radiation between UV-A which is allowed
through and UV-C which is mainly captured by oxygen, as indicated in Figure 4). Any damage that is
done to the ozone layer will lead to increased UV-B radiation. Increases of UV-B radiation have been
clearly observed in areas experiencing periods of intense ozone depletion.
Lesson 1 - 6
Any increased UV-B that reaches the earth’s surface has a potential to cause considerable harm to the
environment and to life on earth. A small decrease in the ozone layer could significantly increase the
incidence of skin cancer, and could lead to an acceleration of the rarer but more virulent form of cancer
known as cutaneous malignant melanoma. Increased UV-B could lead to increased incidents of eye
damage, including cataracts, deformation of the eye lenses, and presbyopia. Eye cataracts, the leading
cause of blindness in the world, are expected to increase considerably.
The ozone depletion potential (ODP) of a chemical compound is the relative amount of degradation to
the ozone layer it can cause, as compared with trichlorofluoromethane (R-11) being fixed at an ODP of
1.0 (Pyle et al. 1991). That is, the ODP of a given substance is defined as the ratio of the global loss of
ozone due to a given mass of the substance over the global loss of ozone due to the same mass of R-11.
Of the halocarbons, R-11 has the maximum ODP because of the presence of three chlorine atoms in
the molecule.
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The
latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric
phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most
important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by halogens. The main source of these
halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants. These
compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone
depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased. CFCs and other
contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV
light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have
generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of
CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It
is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,
damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the
increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion (Dobson 2005).
Lesson 1 - 7
With the loss of the shield from ultraviolet radiation, serious damage can result on all living organisms.
The severity of the situation is augmented by the fact that each one percent depletion of ozone results
in up to two percent increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Plant and marine life could be
adversely affected by increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation caused by depletion of the ozone
layer. The sensitive ecosystem of the oceans may be adversely affected. The phytoplankton and larvae
of many species that live from the surface of the ocean down to several meters below the surface could
well be sensitive to increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Increased exposure results in reduced
productivity, which means less plant life and fewer fish harvested from the seas.
Montreal Protocol
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a multilateral environmental
agreement that was written at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered into force in 1988. It has
been ratified by 197 states (all United Nations members as well as the Holy See, Niue and the Cook
Islands) as well as the European Union (United Nations 1985). It acts as a framework for the
international efforts to protect the ozone layer. However, it does not include legally binding reduction
goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion. These are laid out in the
accompanying Montreal Protocol.
In 1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-operation in research into
the ozone layer and the effects of ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs). 1985 also marked the first
discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole. On the basis of the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by 24 countries and by the
European Economic Community in September 1987. The Protocol called for the Parties to phase down
the use of CFCs, halons and other man-made ODCs. Kofi Annan, Former Secretary General of the
United Nations is quoted as saying: “Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date
has been the Montreal Protocol.” These two ozone treaties, the Vienna Convention and the Montreal
Protocol, have been ratified by 197 states (all United Nations members as well as the Holy See, Niue
and the Cook Islands) as well as the European Union, making them the most widely ratified treaties in
United Nations history (UNEP 2012).
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed
to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be
responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and
entered into force on January 1, 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London),
1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999
(Beijing). It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to
recover by 2050 (Speth 2004).
The Montreal Protocol is widely considered as the most successful environment protection agreement.
The Protocol sets out a mandatory timetable for the phase out of ozone depleting substances. This
timetable has been reviewed regularly, with phase out dates accelerated in accordance with scientific
understanding and technological advances.
As shown in Table 1, the Montreal Protocol sets binding progressive phase out obligations for
developed and developing countries for all the major ozone depleting substances, including CFCs,
halons and less damaging transitional chemicals such as HCFCs. The Montreal Protocol targets 96
chemicals in thousands of applications across more than 240 industrial sectors.
Lesson 1 - 8
Table 1. Summary of Montreal Protocol Control Measures
Source: (Commonwealth of Australia 2012)
The Multilateral Fund, the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty, was
created under the Protocol in 1990 to provide financial assistance to developing countries to help them
achieve their phase out obligations. The Multilateral Fund has provided more than US $2.5 billion in
financial assistance to developing countries to phase out production and consumption of ozone
depleting substances since the Protocol’s inception in 1987.
The Protocol has been further strengthened through five Amendments - London 1990, Copenhagen
1992, Vienna 1995, Montreal 1997 and Beijing 1999 - which have brought forward phase out
schedules and added new ozone depleting substances to the list of substances controlled under the
Montreal Protocol.
The Montreal Protocol has also produced other significant environmental benefits. Most notably, the
phase out of ozone depleting substances is responsible for delaying climate forcing by up to 12 years.
Lesson 1 - 9
Damage to the Earth’s protective ozone layer has sparked unprecedented worldwide concern and
action. Since it was agreed internationally in 1987 to phase out ozone depleting substances, 197
countries have ratified the Montreal Protocol. In September 2009, East Timor ratified the Montreal
Protocol, making it the first international environmental treaty to achieve complete ratification - a truly
remarkable effort that reflects the universal acceptance and success of the agreement (Commonwealth
of Australia 2012).
Climate Change
When energy from the sun reaches the Earth, the planet absorbs some of this energy and radiates the
rest back to space as heat (US EPA 2010). The Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance
between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, the Earth's surface could
become noticeably warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.
Greenhouse Gases
A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force
changes in the Earth's climate. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are one such mechanism. Greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from the Earth's surface,
causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere as shown in Figure 5. Some greenhouse gases
remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect the Earth's energy
balance over a long time period. Factors that influence Earth's energy balance can be quantified in
terms of "radiative climate forcing." Positive radiative forcing indicates warming (for example, by
increasing incoming energy or decreasing the amount of energy that escapes to space), while negative
forcing is associated with cooling.
Greenhouse gases are those that can absorb and emit infrared radiation within the thermal infrared
range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. In order, the most abundant
greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:
Lesson 1 - 10
• Water vapor (H2O)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Ozone (O3)
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources
(emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas
from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound). The proportion of an emission
remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "Airborne fraction" (AF). More precisely, the
annual AF is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year’s total emissions. For
CO2 the AF over the last 50 years (1956–2006) has been increasing at 0.25 ± 0.21 percent/year
(Canadell et al. 2007).
For example, methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years and a GWP of 72 over 20 years, 25
over 100 years and 7.6 over 500 years. The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is
degraded to water and CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Scientific measurements have shown that in the last century, the Earth’s average near-surface
atmospheric temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 °C, mostly attributable to human activities increasing the
concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Moreover, a global temperature
increase of between 1.4 and 5.8 °C between 1990 and 2100 has been predicted by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
The greenhouse warming effect causes an increase in global temperatures and consequently potentially
catastrophic effects, such as rising sea level, changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation,
increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, higher or lower agricultural yields,
glacier retreat, and so on. These are the reasons why the international community has decided to
control the emissions of GHGs through the Kyoto Protocol signed in 1997 and entered into force in
2005.
Carbon Footprint
The Carbon Trust (2012) defines carbon footprint as the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly
and indirectly by a person, organization, event or product.
Lesson 1 - 11
A carbon footprint is measured in tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). The carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e) allows the different greenhouse gases to be compared on a like-for-like basis relative
to one unit of CO2. CO2e is calculated by multiplying the emissions of each of the six greenhouse gases
by its 100 year global warming potential (GWP).
A carbon footprint considers all six of the Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases:
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11
December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The Kyoto Protocol has 190 parties (all
UN members, except Afghanistan, Andorra, Canada, South Sudan and the United States).
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of
greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity,
the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but
differentiated responsibilities."
The Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. It established legally
binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their emissions of the following greenhouse
gases (United Nations 1998):
Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed
under the treaty to reduce their emissions.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community
committed to reduce GHG emissions by an average of five percent against 1990 levels (United Nations
2013).
On 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted in Doha, Qatar. The
amendment establishes a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020 with
new commitments for the industrialized Parties. During this second commitment period, the
Lesson 1 - 12
industrialized Parties committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990
levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second
commitment period is different from the first (United Nations 2013).
The "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol” also established a revised list of greenhouse gases
(GHG) to be reported on by Parties during the second commitment period (United Nations 2012):
The Kyoto Protocol is projected to deliver at least a 5.0 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
relative to the baseline by 2010, and a 10.0 percent reduction relative to the baseline by 2020 (United
Nations 2011).
Direct Impact
The halocarbon refrigerants are strong greenhouse gases since their molecules can be thousands of
times more efficient at absorbing infrared radiation than a molecule of CO2. Direct emissions of
greenhouse gases may occur during their manufacture, during their use in products and processes and
at the end of their life. Direct emissions of the refrigerant occur when the refrigerant leaks out of the
equipment, or when it is released during servicing or disposal. Thus, the evaluation of a refrigerant’s
emissions over its entire life cycle is necessary.
It is noteworthy that at present there is a large amount of halogenated refrigerants (CFCs, HCFCs and
HFCs) that have already been manufactured but have not yet been released into the atmosphere. This
stored quantity of halogenated refrigerants is contained in existing equipment, products and stockpiles.
It is estimated that in 2002, the total amount of halogenated refrigerants banked in domestic
refrigeration, that is, the sum of the refrigerant charge contained in all domestic refrigerators,
amounted to 160,000 tonnes. Despite the fall in the production of CFCs, the existing bank of CFCs
contained in refrigeration equipment and foams is over 1.1 million tonnes and is therefore a significant
source of potential emissions. Stores of HCFCs and HFCs are being established as use increases. The
management of CFC and HCFC stores is not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. The emission of
these stores could result in a significant contribution to global warming in the future.
The environmental impact of those refrigerants commonly used today is summarized in Table 2 with
two parameters: Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP):
Lesson 1 - 13
• ODP is an index that describes a refrigerant’s ability to destroy ozone in the Earth’s atmosphere
relative to that of R-11. The ODP for R-11 is defined as 1.00.
• GWP is an index describing a refrigerant’s ability to warm the earth’s atmosphere relative to
that of carbon dioxide over a period of 100 years. All chemicals have an average time of
duration in the atmosphere. For example, the atmospheric life of R-12 is 100 years while that of
R-134a is 13.4 years.
Regarding ODP, Table 2 indicates that CFCs are high, HCFCs are a small fraction of the CFC value,
and HFCs have no ODP.
Values of GWP for the halocarbons are considerably higher than that of carbon dioxide. A refrigerant’s
contribution to global warming may be significant if its GWP index is high. For example, Table 2
shows that the GWP for R-134a is 1370, indicating that its environmental impact is 1370 times greater
than that of CO2. R-134a also has a long atmospheric life, thus a direct release of R-134a can make a
significant contribution to global warming.
Lesson 1 - 14
Atmos.
ASHRAE Chemical
Name or Composition ODP GWP Life
Designation Formula
(years)
R-1234yf 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-propene CF3CF=CH2 0 <4.4 0.029
Trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-
R-1234ze(E) CF3CH=CHF 0 6 0.045
propene
Cis-1,1,1,4,4,4-hexafluoro-2-
R-1336mzz(Z)
butene
Inorganic Compounds
R-717 Ammonia NH3 0 <1 <0.02
R-744 Carbon dioxide CO2 0 1 >50
Hydrocarbons (HC)
R-170 Ethane C2H6 0 3 ---
R-290 Propane C3H8 0 ~20 0.041
R-600a Isobutane CH(CH3)2CH3 0 ~20 0.016
R-1270 Propene CH3CH=CH2 0 ~20 0.001
Refrigerant Blends: Zeotropes
R-125/143a/134a
R-404A ---- 0 3700
(44%/52%/4%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407A ---- 0 2100
(20%/40%/40%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407C ---- 0 1700
(23%/25%/52%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407F ---- 0 1800
(30%/30%/40%)
R-125/143a/22
R-408A ---- 0.019 3000
(7%/46%/47%)
R-22/124/142b
R-409A ---- 0.038 1600
(60%/25%/15%)
R-32/125
R-410A ---- 0 2100
(50%/50%)
R-125/134a/600a
R-422D ---- 0 2700
(65.1%/31.5%/3.4%)
R-32/125/143a/134a
R-427A ---- 0 2100
(15%/25%/10%/50)
R-32/125/1234yf/134a/1234ze(E)
R-448A ----
(26%/26%/20%/21%/7%)
R-32/125/1234yf/134a
R-449A ----
(24.3%/24.7%/25.3%/25.7%)
R-134a/1234ze(E)
R-450A ----
(42%/58%)
Lesson 1 - 15
Atmos.
ASHRAE Chemical
Name or Composition ODP GWP Life
Designation Formula
(years)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452A ----
(11%/59%/30%)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452B ----
(67%/7%/26%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454A ----
(35%/65%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454B ----
(68.9%/31.1%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454C ----
(21.5%/78.5%)
Refrigerant Blends: Azeotropes
R-125/143a
R-507A ---- 0 3800
(50%/50%)
R-23/116
R-508A ---- 0 13000
(39%/61%)
R-1234yf/134a
R-513A ----
(56%/44%)
R-1336mzz(Z)/1130(E)
R-514A ----
(74.7%/25.3%)
Indirect Impact
Over the entire life cycle of refrigeration equipment, considerable amounts of electricity will be
consumed, and in many countries, this electricity is mainly generated through the burning of high-
carbon content fuels, such as coal, oil and gas. The indirect environmental impact is represented by the
emissions of greenhouse gases (mainly CO2) that arise from the production of this electricity.
In countries that utilize a large proportion of hydro-electricity or other renewable energy resources
(such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass), or nuclear power, there are minimal emissions of CO2
per kWh of electricity consumed. In countries that use carbon-intensive electricity production,
however, emissions can be around 1 kg of CO2 per kWh. In these countries, the energy used is often
the dominant contribution to the indirect greenhouse gas emissions of the refrigeration equipment.
Therefore, it is important to also improve and maintain the efficiency of refrigeration equipment over
its entire lifetime.
Lesson 1 - 16
production resulting from the generation of electrical energy to operate the refrigeration system plus
the influence of the refrigerant itself if released into the atmosphere. Consequently, they include the
energy efficiency of the refrigeration system.
As an example, consider a domestic refrigerator where refrigerants R-134a and isobutane are being
considered. The GWP of these refrigerants are 1370 and ~20, respectively. Observe that the GWP
index suggests that isobutane has the far lesser impact on global warming. However, applying the
TEWI concept, less than 1 percent of the R-134a TEWI value originates from the direct emission of R-
134a into the atmosphere; the remainder is electrical power consumption to operate the compressor. It
turns out that the total TEWI values for R-134a and isobutane applied to a domestic refrigerator are
only about 1% different from each other. Consequently, for a domestic refrigerator, it is the energy
efficiency of the refrigeration system that is important in reducing the TEWI. This may not necessarily
be the case for other refrigeration applications.
Lesson 1 - 17
References
ASHRAE. 2013. Chapter 29, Refrigerants. ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Canadell, J.G., C. Le Quere, M.R. Raupach, C.B. Field, E.T. Buitenhuis, P. Ciais, T.J. Conway, N.P.
Gillett, R.A. Houghton, and G. Marland. 2007. Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth
from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
104 (47):18866-18870.
The Carbon Trust. 2012. Carbon Footprinting. CTV043 v2. London. The Carbon Trust.
Commonwealth of Australia. 2013. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2012 [cited March 2 2013]. Available from
[Link]
Dobson, R. 2005. Ozone depletion will bring big rise in number of cataracts. British Medical Journal
331 (7528):1292–1295.
Fenton, D.L. 2010. Fundamentals of Refrigeration, 2nd Edition. Atlanta, GA: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Pyle, J. A., S. Solomon, D. Wuebbles, and S. Zvenigorodsky. 1991. Ozone depletion and chlorine
loading potentials, Chapter 6. 25. Geneva. World Meteorological Organization.
Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment New
Haven: Yale University Press.
UNEP. 2010. Manual for Refrigeration Servicing Technicians. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations
Environment Programme.
UNEP. 2013. South Sudan Joins Montreal Protocol and Commits to Phasing Out Ozone-Damaging
Substances, 2012 [cited March 2 2013]. Available from
[Link]
D=9010&l=en.
United Nations. 1998. Kyoto Protocol to The United Nations Framework Convention On Climate
Change. Kyoto, Japan: United Nations.
United Nations. 2011. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Compilation and
synthesis of fifth national communications. Geneva, Switzerland. United Nations Office at Geneva.
United Nations. 2012. Doha amendment to the Kyoto Protocol. Doha, Qatar: United Nations.
United Nations. 2013. United Nations Treaty Collection: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer. United Nations, 1985 [cited March 2 2013]. Available from
[Link]
2&chapter=27&lang=en#1.
Lesson 1 - 18
United Nations. 2013. Kyoto Protocol. United Nations, 2013 [cited March 3 2013]. Available from
[Link]
US EPA. 2010. Climate Change Indicators in the United States. US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
Lesson 1 - 19
Course A
REFRIGERANTS LITERACY
Basic Understanding for Policy Makers, Facility Managers and Non-Specialists
Course length: 4 to 5 hours
Table of Contents:
• Identify two standards that are important in the safety classification of refrigerants.
• Describe the logic of the number designation of refrigerants according to ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 34 and ISO 817.
• Describe the characteristics of a refrigerant that are important to its safety classification
according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34 and ISO 817.
• Describe the various types of lubricants used in refrigeration systems.
Refrigerant Designation
The number designation of the refrigerants originates with ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation
and Safety Classification of Refrigerants and ISO 817, Refrigerants – Designation and Safety
Classification. These standards establish a simple means of referring to common refrigerants rather
than by their chemical name, formula, or trade name. For pure compounds, the numbers are based on
their chemical formula. For blends, the numbers are assigned sequentially based on the completion of a
satisfactory review of data provided by the refrigerant’s producer. Safety classifications are assigned to
the refrigerants based on toxicity and flammability data also submitted by the refrigerant’s producer.
Refrigerants are numbered with an R-, followed by the assigned number. Isomers (molecule with the
same chemical formula as another molecule but with a different chemical structure) are identified with
a lower case letter after the number (for example, R-134a). Refrigerant blends having the same pure
components but with different percentage compositions are identified with an upper case letter after the
number (for example, R-401A and R-401B). Refrigerants having the form R-4xxx are zeotropes
(blends of two or more refrigerants whose liquid phase and vapor phase always have different
compositions when they are in equilibrium), while those with the form R-5xxx are azeotropes (blends
of refrigerants whose liquid phase and vapor phase have the same compositions when they are in
equilibrium). Letter designations are also applied to the halocarbon refrigerants. The numbers and
letters are assigned as follows:
• Halocarbons. Numbering depends on the atoms that comprise the molecule. The first digit
from the right is the number of fluorine atoms, the second digit from the right is one more than
the number of hydrogen atoms, and the third digit from the right is one less than the number of
carbon atoms. When the third digit is zero, it is not written down. These are summarized below:
o CFC – Chlorofluorocarbon, a nonhydrogenated halocarbon; contains no hydrogen atoms;
harmful to the earth’s ozone layer and contributes to global warming
o HCFC – Hydrochlorofluorocarbon, a hydrogenated halocarbon; contains one or more
hydrogen atoms; less harmful to the earth’s ozone layer but contributes to global warming
o HFC – Hydrofluorocarbon, a halocarbon not containing chlorine; safe to the earth’s ozone
layer but contributes to global warming
Lesson 2 - 1
o HFO – Hydrofluoroolefin, a halocarbon not containing chlorine, with one or more double
bonds between carbon atoms; safe to the earth’s ozone layer and no or minimal contribution
to global warming
• Inorganic Compounds. These refrigerants include ammonia and carbon dioxide. The two digits
on the right equal the molecular weight of the chemical. The third digit from the right is seven.
• Hydrocarbons. Several hydrocarbons are used as refrigerants including ethane (R-170) and
propane (R-290). The first digit from the right is the number of fluorine atoms, the second digit
from the right is one more than the number of hydrogen atoms, and the third digit from the
right is one less than the number of carbon atoms. When the third digit is zero, it is not written
down.
• Refrigerant Blends. A refrigerant blend is a mixture of two or more refrigerants. Two types of
blends occur: zeotropes and azeotropes. Refrigerant blends having the same pure components
but with different percentage compositions are identified with an upper case letter after the
number (for example, R-401A and R-401B).
o Zeotropes: A zeotrope is a homogeneous mixture of at least two chemicals where the
chemical composition of the liquid and vapor phases are different when the vapor and
liquid are in equilibrium, or in contact with each other. Zeotropes have designations of the
form R-4xxx. The digits to the right of the 4 indicate the sequence of that zeotrope’s
commercial appearance.
o Azeotropes: An azeotrope is a homogeneous mixture of at least two chemicals that has the
peculiar property that the chemical composition of the liquid and vapor phases are the same
when the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium, or in contact with each other. Azeotropes
have designations of the form R-5xxx. The digits to the right of the 5 indicate the sequence
of that azeotrope’s commercial appearance.
Lesson 2 - 2
Boiling
Freezing Critical Critical
ASHRAE Chemical Molecular Point at
Name or Composition Point Temp. Press.
Designation Formula Weight 101 kPa
(ºC) (ºC) (MPa)
(ºC)a
R-32 Difluoromethane CH2F2 52.02 -51.65 -136.81 78.11 5.7820
R-125 Pentafluoroethane CHF2CF3 120.02 -48.09 -100.63 66.02 3.6177
R-134a Tetrafluoroethane CH2FCF3 102.03 -26.07 -103.30 101.06 4.0593
R-143a 1,1,1-trifluoroethane CH3CF3 84.04 -47.24 -111.81 72.71 3.7610
R-152a 1,1-difluoroethane CH3CHF2 66.05 -24.02 -118.59 113.26 4.5168
Halocarbons: Hydrofluoroolefins (HFO)
Trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoro-1-
R-1233zd(E) CF3CH=CHCl 130.5 18.1
propene
R-1234yf 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-propene CF3CF=CH2 114.04 -29.45 -53.15 94.70 3.3822
Trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-
R-1234ze(E) CF3CH=CHF 114.04 -18.95 109.37 3.6363
propene
Cis-1,1,1,4,4,4-hexafluoro-2-
R-1336mzz(Z)
butene
Inorganic Compounds
R-717 Ammonia NH3 17.03 -33.33 -77.66 132.25 11.3330
R-744 Carbon dioxide CO2 44.01 -78.46 -56.56 30.98 7.3773
Hydrocarbons (HC)
R-170 Ethane C2H6 30.07 -88.58 -182.78 32.17 4.8722
R-290 Propane C3H8 44.10 -42.11 -187.63 96.74 4.2512
R-600a Isobutane CH(CH3)2CH3 58.12 -11.75 -159.42 134.66 3.6290
R-1270 Propene CH3CH=CH2 42.08 -47.62 -185.20 91.06 4.5550
Refrigerant Blends: Zeotropes
R-125/143a/134a
R-404A ---- 97.60 -46.22 72.04 3.7288
(44%/52%/4%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407A ---- 90.11 -45.01 82.26 4.5153
(20%/40%/40%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407C ---- 86.20 -43.63 86.03 4.6293
(23%/25%/52%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407F ---- 82.06 -46.06 82.65 4.7546
(30%/30%/40%)
R-125/143a/22
R-408A ---- 87.01 -44.58 83.14 4.2946
(7%/46%/47%)
R-22/124/142b
R-409A ---- 97.43 -34.45 109.27 4.6995
(60%/25%/15%)
R-32/125
R-410A ---- 72.59 -51.44 71.34 4.9013
(50%/50%)
R-125/134a/600a
R-422D ---- 109.94 -43.20 79.57 3.9047
(65.1%/31.5%/3.4%)
R-32/125/143a/134a
R-427A ---- 90.44 -42.96 85.32 4.3917
(15%/25%/10%/50%)
R-32/125/1234yf/134a/1234ze(E)
R-448A ---- 86.3 -45.9
(26%/26%/20%/21%/7%)
Lesson 2 - 3
Boiling
Freezing Critical Critical
ASHRAE Chemical Molecular Point at
Name or Composition Point Temp. Press.
Designation Formula Weight 101 kPa
(ºC) (ºC) (MPa)
(ºC)a
R-32/125/1234yf/134a
R-449A ---- 87.2 -46.0
(24.3%/24.7%/25.3%/25.7%)
R-134a/1234ze(E)
R-450A ---- 108.7 -23.4
(42%/58%)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452A ---- 103.5 -47.0
(11%/59%/30%)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452B ----
(67%/7%/26%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454A ----
(35%/65%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454B ----
(68.9%/31.1%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454C ----
(21.5%/78.5%)
Refrigerant Blends: Azeotropes
R-125/143a
R-507A ---- 98.86 -46.74 70.62 3.7048
(50%/50%)
R-23/116
R-508A ---- 100.10 -87.63 10.19 3.6508
(39%/61%)
R-1234yf/134a
R-513A ---- 108.4 -29.2
(56%/44%)
R-1336mzz(Z)/1130(E)
R-514A ----
(74.7%/25.3%)
a
Bubble point used for blends
The safety classification system is shown in Table 2. Two safety classifications for toxicity are
defined. Class A denotes refrigerants of lower toxicity, and class B denotes refrigerants of higher
toxicity. The B designation indicates that there is evidence of toxicity when humans are exposed to the
refrigerant at a given concentration in air.
For flammability, there are three classifications and one subclass. The three main flammability
classifications are class 1, for refrigerants that do not propagate a flame when tested as per the
standards; class 2, for refrigerants of lower flammability; and class 3, for highly flammable refrigerants
such as the hydrocarbons.
The safety classification matrix was recently updated to include flammability subclass 2L, for
flammability class 2 refrigerants that burn very slowly. Some HFOs, which have very low global
warming potential, are mildly flammable and are classified as A2L. This indicates that they are of
lower toxicity and have low burning velocity.
Lesson 2 - 4
Table 2. Safety Group Classification of Refrigerants
Toxicity of Refrigerants
Toxicity refers to the extent that a chemical adversely affects human health when one is exposed to
that chemical. Refrigerants, all being chemicals, affect human health in different ways. Additionally,
the concentration of the refrigerant vapor in air influences the severity of the human body’s response to
the exposure.
The concentration is the quantity of refrigerant vapor (m3) per unit clean air (m3) and usually reported
as parts per million (ppm, by volume). A refrigerant concentration equal to 50 ppm (v/v) means that
the volume of refrigerant present in a particular volume of air occurs at the ratio:
The Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) is one indicator of a refrigerant’s vapor toxicity. The OEL is
the time-weighted average (TWA) concentration for a normal eight-hour workday and a 40-hour
workweek to which nearly all workers can be repeatedly exposed without adverse effect.
The classification for toxicity is based on chronic exposure limits defined by the OEL values as
follows:
Class A denotes refrigerants of lower toxicity, and class B denotes refrigerants of higher toxicity.
Halocarbon refrigerants have significantly higher OEL values. It should be noted that the halocarbon
refrigerants are odorless and colorless and can only be detected with appropriate special
Lesson 2 - 5
instrumentation. Halocarbons are also heavier than air and tend to settle in low areas, where at high
concentrations, the vapors may cause asphyxiation (rather than a toxic response) due to the vapors
displacing the air.
Flammability of Refrigerants
Some refrigerants will burn when mixed with air. A refrigerant’s flammability is characterized by the
concentration of the refrigerant vapor in air. Thus, a flammable mixture is the concentration of
refrigerant vapor in air that supports the propagation or travel of a flame through the mixture.
Generally, when a refrigerant vapor (or any vapor) produces a flammable mixture, there is a
concentration below which a flame will not propagate across the mixture. This concentration is called
the lower flammability limit (LFL). Likewise, there is an upper concentration limit above which a
flame cannot propagate, called the upper flammability limit (UFL). For safety questions involving the
leak of a refrigerant into the surrounding air, the LFL is the important parameter.
The flammability limits are experimentally determined using a chamber, vapor handling equipment,
and an ignition source (such as an electrical spark). Different concentrations of the test vapor and air
are introduced into the chamber, mixed, and ignition attempted. If the mixture ignites and propagates a
flame, the mixture is flammable. If the mixture does not propagate a flame, it is nonflammable.
Variation of the vapor concentration in air determines the LFL and the UFL.
Class 3: highly flammable refrigerant, exhibits flame propagation at concentrations less than
0.10 kg/m3 (LFL < 0.10 kg/m3) with a heat of combustion greater than 19,000 kJ/kg.
The safety classification matrix was recently updated to include a new flammability subclass 2L, for
flammability class 2 refrigerants that burn very slowly. Subclass 2L refrigerants have a maximum
burning velocity of 10 cm/s when tested at 23.0°C and 101.3 kPa.
Table 3 shows the ASHRAE safety classification of several refrigerants. In this table, the OEL and the
LFL are given in terms of concentration of refrigerant vapor (m3) per unit clean air (m3) and reported
as parts per million (ppm, by volume).
As shown in Table 3, the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic and nonflammable, and thus are
classified as A1 refrigerants. Ammonia is toxic and moderately flammable, and thus is classified as a
B2L refrigerant. The hydrocarbons listed in Table 3 are classified as A3 refrigerants, nontoxic but
highly flammable.
Lesson 2 - 6
Table 3. Safety Characteristics of Several Refrigerants
Source: (ASHRAE 2013a, b)
ASHRAE Chemical Safety OEL LFL
Name or Composition
Designation Formula Group (ppm) (ppm)
Halocarbons: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
R-11 Trichlorofluoromethane CCl3F A1 1000
R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane CCl2F2 A1 1000
R-13 Chlorotrifluoromethane CClF3 A1 1000
Halocarbons: Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC)
R-22 Chlorodifluoromethane CHClF2 A1 1000
R-123 2,2-dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane CHCl2CF3 B1 50
Halocarbons: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)
R-23 Trifluoromethane CHF3 A1 1000
R-32 Difluoromethane CH2F2 A2L 1000 144,000
R-125 Pentafluoroethane CHF2CF3 A1 1000
R-134a Tetrafluoroethane CH2FCF3 A1 1000
R-143a 1,1,1-trifluoroethane CH3CF3 A2L 1000 82,000
R-152a 1,1-difluoroethane CH3CHF2 A2 1000 48,000
Halocarbons: Hydrofluoroolefins (HFO)
Trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoro-1-
R-1233zd(E) CF3CH=CHCl A1 800
propene
R-1234yf 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-propene CF3CF=CH2 A2L 500 62,000
Trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-
R-1234ze(E) CF3CH=CHF A2L 800 65,000
propene
Cis-1,1,1,4,4,4-hexafluoro-2-
R-1336mzz(Z) A1
butene
Inorganic Compounds
R-717 Ammonia NH3 B2L 25 167,000
R-744 Carbon dioxide CO2 A1 5000
Hydrocarbons (HC)
R-170 Ethane C2H6 A3 1000 31,000
R-290 Propane C3H8 A3 1000 21,000
Lesson 2 - 7
ASHRAE Chemical Safety OEL LFL
Name or Composition
Designation Formula Group (ppm) (ppm)
R-600a Isobutane CH(CH3)2CH3 A3 1000 16,000
R-1270 Propene CH3CH=CH2 A3 500 27,000
Refrigerant Blends: Zeotropes
R-125/143a/134a
R-404A ---- A1 1000
(44%/52%/4%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407A ---- A1 1000
(20%/40%/40%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407C ---- A1 1000
(23%/25%/52%)
R-32/125/134a
R-407F ---- A1 1000
(30%/30%/40%)
R-125/143a/22
R-408A ---- A1 1000
(7%/46%/47%)
R-22/124/142b
R-409A ---- A1 1000
(60%/25%/15%)
R-32/125
R-410A ---- A1 1000
(50%/50%)
R-125/134a/600a
R-422D ---- A1 1000
(65.1%/31.5%/3.4%)
R-32/125/143a/134a
R-427A ---- A1 1000
(15%/25%/10%/50%)
R-32/125/1234yf/134a/1234ze(E)
R-448A ---- A1 890
(26%/26%/20%/21%/7%)
R-32/125/1234yf/134a
R-449A ---- A1 830
(24.3%/24.7%/25.3%/25.7%)
R-134a/1234ze(E)
R-450A ---- A1 880
(42%/58%)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452A ---- A1 780
(11%/59%/30%)
R-32/125/1234yf
R-452B ---- A2L
(67%/7%/26%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454A ---- A2L
(35%/65%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454B ---- A2L
(68.9%/31.1%)
R-32/1234yf
R-454C ---- A2L
(21.5%/78.5%)
Refrigerant Blends: Azeotropes
R-125/143a
R-507A ---- A1 1000
(50%/50%)
R-23/116
R-508A ---- A1 1000
(39%/61%)
Lesson 2 - 8
ASHRAE Chemical Safety OEL LFL
Name or Composition
Designation Formula Group (ppm) (ppm)
R-1234yf/134a
R-513A ---- A1 650
(56%/44%)
R-1336mzz(Z)/1130(E)
R-514A ---- B1
(74.7%/25.3%)
Refrigeration Lubricants
Today, almost as many new lubricants are on the market as there are refrigerants. Compressor
manufacturers always specify oil type and fill each model of compressor accordingly. One of the most
common mistakes that occurs during servicing is not using the appropriate lubricant for the serviced
refrigeration system. This could cause damage to the refrigeration system due to non-compatibility of
the lubricant with the refrigerant and the system components. In hermetic systems, the lubricant is in
intimate contact with the electrical motor windings. The oil must therefore provide good material
compatibility and have high thermal stability.
Although the majority of the lubricant remains in the compressor, a small amount will be circulated
throughout the refrigeration system. The lubricant must be able to resist both the high temperatures at
the compressor discharge valves and the low temperatures at the expansion device. It must be
sufficiently soluble in the refrigerant to ensure that the lubricant will return to the compressor and not
accumulate somewhere else in the system. If the lubricant does not return to the compressor, the
compressor will become starved of oil, leading to mechanical failure.
• Low wax content: Separation of wax from the refrigeration oil mixture may plug refrigerant
control orifices.
• Good thermal stability: It should not form hard carbon deposits in the compressor, such as in
the valves of the discharge port.
• Good chemical stability: There should be little or no chemical reaction with the refrigerant or
materials normally found in refrigeration systems.
• Low pour point: This is the ability of the oil to remain in a fluid state at the lowest temperature
in the refrigeration system.
• Good miscibility and solubility: Good miscibility ensures that the oil will be returned to the
compressor. However, if the lubricant’s solubility is too high, the lubricant may be washed off
the moving parts.
• Low viscosity index: This index indicates the lubricant’s ability to maintain good oiling
properties at high temperatures and good fluidity at low temperatures and to provide a good
lubricating film at all times.
Lesson 2 - 9
• Polyol ester oils (POE)
• Poly alpha olefin oils (PAO)
• Poly alkyl glycol oils (PAG)
Traditionally, CFC refrigerants have been used with mineral and alkyl benzene oils for the lubrication
of compressors. With the introduction of HFC refrigerants, which are immiscible with the traditional
mineral oils, synthetic oils must be used to ensure miscibility and oil return.
References
ASHRAE. 2013a. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2013, Number Designation and Safety Classification of
Refrigerants. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers.
Lesson 2 - 10
ASHRAE. 2013b. Chapter 29, Refrigerants. ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
ISO. 2014. ISO 817:2014, Refrigerants – Designation and Safety Classification. Geneva, Switzerland:
International Organization for Standardization.
UNEP. 2010. Manual for Refrigeration Servicing Technicians. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations
Environment Programme.
Lesson 2 - 11
Course A
REFRIGERANTS LITERACY
Basic Understanding for Policy Makers, Facility Managers and Non-Specialists
Course length: 4 to 5 hours
Table of Contents:
Domestic Refrigeration
Domestic refrigeration includes refrigeration appliances used for the storage of chilled and frozen food
and drink products. It includes refrigerators, freezers and fridge-freezers. Most domestic refrigeration
appliances are factory produced, electrically driven, hermetically sealed systems, using a vapor
compression refrigeration cycle. In a hermetically sealed system, the compressor and drive motor are
sealed inside a single container and refrigerant passes over the motor, keeping it cool. A few use a heat
driven absorption cycle. These are used for low noise (e.g., in a hotel room) or when no electricity is
available (e.g., in a boat, travel trailer, or caravan), but high cost and low efficiency make them
unsuitable for mainstream applications. A typical domestic refrigerator is shown in Figure 1.
Prior to 1990, most domestic refrigeration appliances used R-12. Since 1993, there has been a shift to
R-134a in non-Article 5 countries. Many countries have subsequently moved to systems using
hydrocarbon R-600a (isobutane). R-600a is now the predominant refrigerant for new domestic
refrigeration appliances in these countries. North America has not adopted hydrocarbons to a large
extent. Characteristics of domestic refrigeration systems are summarized in Table 1.
Lesson 3 - 1
Table 1. Domestic Refrigeration: Summary of Characteristics (UNEP 2015a)
Typical refrigerant charge 0.1 to 0.3 kg
Typical cooling duty 0.1 to 0.5 kW
Refrigerants used R-134a (GWP 1430)
Refrigeration circuit design Hermetically sealed vapor compression
Manufacture / installation Factory built
Class A (access by persons not acquainted with safety
Typical location of equipment
precautions)
Typical annual leakage rate < 0.5%
Main source of refrigerant
Losses at end-of-life
emissions
Approximate split of annual
New equipment: 95% Maintenance: 5%
refrigerant demand
Table 2. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Domestic Refrigeration (UNEP 2015a)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
R-600a is already in widespread use in
R-600a 3 3
most regions
R-1234yf 4 2L These refrigerants are not currently used,
but are being investigated for use in
countries with HC restrictions and for use
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L
in systems with refrigerant charges larger
than 0.15 kg.
Commercial Refrigeration
Commercial refrigeration includes refrigeration systems and appliances used for the storage and
display of products in food and drink retail (supermarkets, convenience stores, shops, etc.) and in food
service (restaurants, hotels, etc.). This sector uses three distinct types of equipment:
• Stand-alone factory sealed equipment consists of small systems using technology with
similarities to domestic refrigerators, as shown in Figure 2.
• Condensing units are “split systems” with a cooling evaporator in the refrigerated space (e.g.,
a retail display) connected to a remotely located compressor and condenser, as shown in Figure
3.
• Centralized systems are large distributed systems with a number of cooling evaporators
connected to a remotely located compressor rack and external condenser, as shown in Figure 4.
Lesson 3 - 2
Each sub-sector has different characteristics, especially in terms of the amount of refrigerant used and
the options for alternative refrigerants.
Figure 3. Small Condensing Unit: One Compressor and Condenser Connected to One or Two
Display Cabinets in a Retail Shop
Lesson 3 - 3
Figure 4. Centralized System: Rack of Seven Compressors Connected to Numerous Display
Cabinets in a Supermarket and Connected to an Externally Located Condenser
• Medium temperature (MT) for chilled products held between 0˚C and +8˚C
• Low temperature (LT) for frozen products held between -18˚C and -25˚C
Almost all commercial refrigeration systems use single stage, direct expansion (DX) vapor
compression refrigeration cycles. Stand-alone systems serve one cooling load (e.g., a single food
display case). Condensing units and centralized systems can serve a number of food display cases and
cold storage rooms.
An alternative to the widely used DX system for centralized systems is an “indirect system” which
uses a chiller to cool a secondary refrigerant (e.g., glycol, brine or pumped CO2) which is circulated to
the food display cases and cold storage rooms. These systems require much less primary refrigerant
than a DX system, and multi-stage compression can be used to improve efficiency.
Factory built stand-alone systems have a small refrigerant charge and low refrigerant leakage rates.
The larger condensing units and central systems require long runs of site-installed refrigerant
pipework. This leads to considerably larger refrigerant charge and the potential for much higher
leakage rates. For centralized systems, the use of refrigerant to top up leaks dominates the total
refrigerant consumption.
Prior to 1990, most MT systems used R-12 and most LT systems used R-502. In non-Article 5
countries, beginning in the late 1980s and for about 10 years thereafter, R-22 was used in new systems,
although most have now been replaced. Since 1997, R-404A has become a widely used refrigerant for
both LT and MT systems. There is also some use of R-134a in MT systems.
Lesson 3 - 4
In Article 5 countries, the use of R-22 remains dominant while the use of R-404A is becoming more
widespread in new equipment. Worldwide, R-404A is the dominant HFC refrigerant used in all three
sub-sectors of the commercial refrigeration market, for both MT and LT systems. It has a very high
GWP (3922). In many countries R-404A represents more than 90% of the GWP-weighted HFC
consumption in the commercial sector.
Table 4. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Commercial Refrigeration (UNEP 2015b)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
Alternatives for R-404A in new equipment and retrofitting existing equipment
There has been significant use of these
R-407A 2107 1
blends in Europe as R-404A alternatives
R-407F 1825 1
for both new systems and retrofits.
These are newly developed blends with
properties similar to R-407A and R-407F,
R-448A 1387 1
but with lower GWP. Currently there is
R-449A 1397 1
limited commercial experience or
availability of these blends.
Alternatives for new equipment only
R-600a 3 3 HCs are suitable for stand-alone
(isobutane) equipment, such as ice cream freezers and
Lesson 3 - 5
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
R-290 3 3 bottle coolers, and are already in
(propane) widespread use in both Article 5 and non-
R-1270 2 3 Article 5 countries.
(propene) HCs can be considered for very small
condensing units subject to safety
regulations.
HCs are used in some large supermarkets
in stand-alone units rejecting heat into a
water circuit.
HCs can be used as the primary
refrigerant for chillers in indirect systems
and in cascade R-744 systems.
R-744 is suitable in stand-alone
equipment, such as bottle coolers and
other equipment.
R-744 can be considered for condensing
R-744 (CO2) 1 1
units, but capital cost is a barrier for small
condensing units.
R-744 is widely used in centralized
systems, both transcritical and cascade.
R-717
0 2L R-717 is used in indirect systems.
(ammonia)
These refrigerants are not currently used,
R-1234yf 4 2L
but are being considered for stand-alone
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L
systems and MT condensing units.
R-450A 601 1
These are newly developed blends with
R-513A 631 1
properties similar to R-134a that are being
R-451A 140 2L
considered for MT systems.
R-451B 150 2L
Blends These are blends being developed with
awaiting properties similar to R-404A that are
150 to 300 2L
ASHRAE being considered for LT and MT
number condensing units.
These are newly developed blends with
R-446A 460 2L
properties similar to R-410A that are
R-447A 582 2L
being considered for condensing units.
R-32 is being considered for condensing
R-32 675 2L
units.
Stand-alone systems
There is wide-spread use of hydrocarbons (HCs) in this market sub-sector. Over three million ice
cream freezers using R-290 (propane) are already in use and a range of other types of stand-alone
systems are available using HCs including retail display cases, water coolers and ice making machines.
Lesson 3 - 6
R-744 (carbon dioxide) has been successfully used in bottle coolers. Some use has been made of stand-
alone HC units, cooled by a water circuit, in placed of centralized systems. R-1234yf and R-1234ze(E)
are possible alternatives when HCs are restricted by regional safety codes, as they have lower
flammability. Non-flammable HFC/HFO blends with properties similar to R-134a are available with
GWPs around 600.
Condensing units
The use of hydrocarbons in condensing units is difficult because the refrigerant charge is relatively
high and flammability is an important issue. Various other non-flammable R-404A alternatives are
available with GWPs in the range of 1400 to 2100. These can be used in new equipment and some can
be retrofitted into existing systems. Non-flammable R-134a alternatives are available with GWPs
around 600. R-744 is an option, although achieving high efficiency with low capital cost is a challenge
for condensing units. Various lower flammability (2L) refrigerants are under development and may be
safe to use in many condensing unit applications, subject to safety regulations.
Industrial Refrigeration
Industrial refrigeration includes refrigeration systems used in manufacturing and process industries.
The majority of industrial refrigeration is used in the processing and storage of food and beverages as
well as the manufacturing of petrochemicals, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. A number of other
industrial operations use refrigeration, such as the manufacture of plastic products and semi-
conductors. Industrial refrigeration equipment is also used in various other applications such as large
cold stores, ice rinks and indoor skiing facilities.
The industrial refrigeration sector is difficult to characterize because there is a wide range of cooling
requirements, including various temperature levels, cooling loads and processing techniques. Many
industrial systems are large with cooling loads of several MW and refrigerant charges of several
tonnes. However, not all industrial systems are large; many factories make use of numerous small and
medium sized refrigeration systems.
• Small and medium sized systems: These systems are usually dedicated to one particular
cooling demand, and are often located close to the cooling demand, as shown in Figure 5.
Lesson 3 - 7
• Large distributed systems: These systems are used to cool large loads in processes such as
blast freezers, process heat exchangers and cold storage facilities. A primary refrigerant is
piped from a central machinery room (containing large refrigeration compressors), shown in
Figure 6, to a number of evaporators serving one or more cooling loads. The primary
refrigerant is often circulated over significant distances of hundreds of meters.
• Large chiller systems. A primary refrigerant is used in a chiller, shown in Figure 7, to cool a
secondary heat transfer fluid which is circulated to a number of separate cooling loads.
Lesson 3 - 8
Figure 7. Industrial Glycol Chiller
Industrial refrigeration systems operate over a wide range of temperatures. A significant proportion of
industrial systems, especially those used in food and beverage processing, operate at similar
temperatures to those found in commercial refrigeration:
• Medium temperature (MT) for chilled products held between 0˚C and +8˚C
• Low temperature (LT) for frozen products held between -18˚C and -25˚C
Some industrial applications require much lower temperatures, from -25˚C to well below -150˚C.
Given the wide range of industrial applications, this sector also has the greatest variety of system
designs:
Prior to 1990, the industrial refrigeration sector was the only refrigeration sector using a significant
amount of non-fluorocarbon refrigerants. In particular, R-717 (ammonia) was in widespread use. There
Lesson 3 - 9
were also specialized applications of HCs (hydrocarbons) in the petrochemical sector and of air cycle
in cryogenic applications.
Prior to 1990, most small and medium sized systems used fluorocarbons such as R-12, R-22 and R-
502. Since 1997, various HFCs were introduced in non-Article 5 countries including R-404A and R-
134a. R-22 has now been phased out and substantially replaced in non-Article 5 countries. In Article 5
countries, the use of R-22 remains significant and there is some use of R-123 in industrial chillers.
A significant portion of new small and medium sized systems in non-Article 5 countries use HFCs.
In this size range, R-717 is often not considered cost effective. R-404A is the dominant HFC
refrigerant used in small and medium sized industrial systems. It has a GWP of 3922.
Many industrial chiller systems use HFCs, especially R-134a for large chillers and R-407C and R-
410A for small and medium sizes. A significant proportion of large industrial chillers use R-717.
Most large distributed systems use either R-717 or R-22. HFC blends are not suited to large systems
due to their temperature glide which can lead to fractionation in flooded evaporators.
Lesson 3 - 10
Table 6. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Industrial Refrigeration (UNEP 2015c)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
Alternatives for R-404A in new equipment and retrofitting existing equipment
There has been significant use of these
R-407A 2107 1
blends in Europe as R-404A alternatives
R-407F 1825 1
for both new systems and retrofits.
These are newly developed blends with
properties similar to R-407A and R-407F,
R-448A 1387 1
but with lower GWP. Currently there is
R-449A 1397 1
limited commercial experience or
availability of these blends.
Alternatives for new equipment only
R-717 is a widely used refrigerant for
large systems and chillers. It has high
R-717 toxicity and a strong pungent odor. R-717
0 2L
(ammonia) requires various safety precautions which
can make it difficult to use cost effectively
in small and medium sized systems.
R-290 and R-1270 are used in large
industrial systems, especially in
R-290 3 3
petrochemical plants that are processing
(propane)
high flammability products. Appropriate
R-1270 2 3
safety precautions are required. HCs are
(propene)
less used in small and medium industrial
systems.
R-744 has been introduced in the last 10
years for a number of large industrial
R-744
1 1 applications such as cold stores and freeze
(CO2)
dryers. R-744 is being considered for
some small and medium systems.
R-1234ze(E) is being introduced as an
alternative to R-134a for industrial
chillers. Other HFOs are also under
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L development, such as R-1233zd and R-
1336mzz, which are suitable as
alternatives to R-123 for low pressure
chillers.
R-450A 601 1 These are newly developed blends with
R-513A 631 1 properties similar to R-134a that are being
R-451A 140 2L considered for small and medium sized
R-451B 150 2L MT systems.
Blends These are blends being developed with
awaiting properties similar to R-404A that are
150 to 300 2L
ASHRAE being considered for small and medium
number sized LT systems.
Lesson 3 - 11
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
These are newly developed blends with
R-446A 460 2L properties similar to R-410A that are
R-447A 582 2L being considered for small and medium
sized systems.
R-32 is being considered for small and
R-32 675 2L
medium sized systems.
• In factories that use a large number of small and medium sized systems, it is possible to replace
several small systems with a larger central system. This can make it more cost effective to use
R-717 and/or R-744, and in many situations, higher energy efficiency can be achieved.
However, if the cooling demands are at various temperature levels, system efficiency could fall
if the central system is operating at the lowest required temperature.
• A switch from a distributed DX system to a central chiller with a secondary refrigerant reduces
the primary refrigerant charge and restricts flammability issues to a limited access machinery
room. However, some secondary systems using glycol or brine are less efficient than
distributed DX systems. Therefore, the use of R-744 as a volatile secondary refrigerant should
be considered, which can improve the efficiency of the secondary system.
Lesson 3 - 12
Transport Refrigeration
Transport refrigeration includes refrigeration systems used to transport frozen or chilled food and
beverage products, and can be split into the following three sub-sectors:
• Medium temperature (MT) for chilled products held at between 0˚C and +8˚C
• Low temperature (LT) for frozen products held at between -18˚C and -25˚C
An important feature of most transport refrigeration systems is the ability to operate at either of these
temperature levels. Stationary systems are usually dedicated to just one temperature level, whereas
transport systems regularly switch between MT and LT. It is also a common requirement for road
transport to provide simultaneous cooling at both temperature levels in separate compartments.
Transport systems encounter large variations of ambient temperature conditions. Intermodal containers
may have to operate in ambient temperatures varying from -30˚C to +50˚C.
The majority of transport refrigeration systems use direct expansion (DX) vapor compression
refrigeration cycles of various designs:
• Small road vehicles, such as delivery vans as shown in Figure 8, usually have a refrigeration
compressor located in the main engine compartment with refrigerant pipework installed by the
vehicle body builder to connect the compressor to the evaporator mounted inside the cooled
space and the condenser mounted at roof level. Since the is compressor powered by the vehicle
engine via a belt drive, cooling can only be provided when the vehicle engine is running.
• Larger road vehicles usually have a factory built pre-charged refrigeration unit mounted at the
front of a refrigerated trailer, as shown in Figure 9. These units have a dedicated diesel engine-
driven refrigeration system, allowing operation when the vehicle engine is off. Some road
vehicles use electrically driven compressors, with electricity generated either by the vehicle
engine or a dedicated diesel engine.
• Intermodal containers have dedicated refrigeration units that are factory built and pre-charged
with electrically driven compressors, as shown in Figure 10. When a container is on board a
ship, it is connected to the ship’s electricity supply. When a container is on a road trailer, it is
either connected to the vehicle engine generator or a dedicated diesel generator.
• Ship refrigeration systems are much larger than those used in road vehicles or containers.
They can be of a wide variety of designs, such as the flake ice system shown in Figure 11 for
fishing vessels, or other specialized systems for transporting bulk products such as liquefied
natural gas. Passenger liners require large cooling systems both for food preservation and air-
conditioning. Some of the discussion in the Industrial Refrigeration section is applicable to
ship-based systems.
Lesson 3 - 13
Figure 8. Small Refrigerated Delivery Van with the Compressor Located in the Vehicle Engine
Compartment
Lesson 3 - 14
Figure 10. Intermodal Container with Dedicated Cooling System
Prior to 1990, the majority of road transport systems and containers used R-502 or R-12. Since 1997,
R-404A or R-134a have been used in non-Article 5 countries and more recently in Article 5 countries.
R-22 is still widely used in ships, especially those owned by Article 5 countries.
Lesson 3 - 15
Table 7. Transport Refrigeration: Summary of Characteristics (UNEP 2015d)
Market sub-sector: Road vehicles Containers Ships
Typical refrigerant charge 1 to 8 kg 4 to 8 kg 20 to 1000 kg
Typical cooling duty 3 to 10 kW 5 to 15 kW 40 to 2000 kW
Refrigerants widely used R-404A (GWP 3922) R-134a (GWP 1430)
Diesel or electrically
Electrically driven
Refrigeration circuit design driven compressor, Various
compressor, DX
DX
Small: site installed
Manufacture / installation Factory built Site installed
Larger: factory built
Typical location of equipment Varied operation locations affect safety issues
Typical annual leakage rate 8% to 20% 3% to 12% 5% to 30%
Main source of refrigerant
Operating leakage Operating leakage Operating leakage
emissions
Approximate
New systems 40% 50% 20%
split of annual
refrigerant
Maintenance 60% 50% 80%
demand
Table 8. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Transport Refrigeration (UNEP 2015d)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
Transcritical R-744 systems are being
developed and tested for large road
vehicles and intermodal containers. Use of
R-744 requires major changes to the
R-744
1 1 design of transport refrigeration systems
(CO2)
and the development of many new
components. It can be expected that R-744
may be widely available for transport
applications by 2020.
There has been some limited use of these
blends in road vehicles as R-404A
R-407A 2107 1 alternatives. High compressor discharge
R-407F 1825 1 temperature must be addressed in high
ambient conditions by using liquid
injection.
Lesson 3 - 16
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
These are newly developed blends with
properties similar to R-407A and R-407F,
but with lower GWP. Currently there is
limited commercial experience or
R-448A 1387 1 availability of these blends, but they may
R-449A 1397 1 be suitable as R-404A alternatives in new
systems. High compressor discharge
temperature must be addressed in high
ambient conditions by using liquid
injection.
R-452A is a new blend targeted at the
transport sector as an R-404A alternative
R-452A 2141 1
with low discharge temperature at high
ambient conditions.
These are newly developed blends with
properties similar to R-134a that may be
R-450A 601 1
suitable for new road vehicles and
R-513A 631 1
containers that are currently designed to
use R-134a.
Recent experience indicates that certain
flammable refrigerants, including HCs
R-32 675 2L and R-32, have high efficiencies and
R-290 3 3 acceptable operational risks. However,
R-1270 2 3 use of flammable refrigerants requires
special safety measures, training and new
designs.
Ships can use a wider variety of alternatives, which are not shown in Table 8, and many of the options
discussed in the section on Industrial Refrigeration are applicable. For example, R-717 and R-744 are
both used in fishing vessels, while the HFOs, such as R-1234ze(E), that are suitable to large industrial
chillers, may be applicable in passenger ships.
Residential Air-Conditioning
Residential air-conditioning includes window units, Figure 12, and small split air-conditioning units
used for the cooling of single rooms in residential and commercial buildings. Small split air-
conditioning units hold a dominant and growing share of the air-conditioning market below 12 kW
cooling capacity, and have become more popular than alternative products such as window units and
through-the-wall units. They are already a large sector in terms of refrigerant consumption.
Lesson 3 - 17
Figure 12. Window Air-Conditioning Unit
All of these units use a DX (direct expansion) vapor compression cycle. Each system consists of two
factory built parts, an indoor unit and an outdoor unit. The indoor unit includes the evaporator which is
installed inside the room at either ceiling level, high on a wall, or at floor level, as shown in Figures 13,
14 and 15. The outdoor unit includes the compressor and condenser and is usually pre-charged with
refrigerant during manufacture. The indoor and outdoor units are interconnected by site assembled
refrigerant pipework. The majority of models currently being sold are “reversible” and can operate as
an air-conditioning unit in hot weather or can provide heating as an air-to-air heat pump in cold
weather. In heating mode, the indoor unit functions as condenser and the outdoor unit as evaporator.
Figure 13. Split Air-Conditioning: Wall Mounted Indoor Unit and Outdoor Unit
Lesson 3 - 18
Figure 14. Split Air-Conditioning: Outdoor Unit and Ceiling Mounted Indoor Unit
Prior to 1990, R-22 was used in residential air-conditioning. Beginning in the mid-1990s, non-Article 5
countries started using R-407C but then switched to R-410A shortly thereafter. There is still extensive
use of R-22 in Article 5 countries, although R-410A is widely available.
Lesson 3 - 19
Table 9. Residential Air-Conditioning: Summary of Characteristics (UNEP 2015e)
Typical refrigerant charge 0.5 to 3 kg
Typical cooling duty 2 to 12 kW
R-22 (GWP 1790)
R-407C (GWP 1774)
Refrigerants used
R-410A (GWP 2088)
R-32 (GWP 675)
Refrigeration circuit design DX vapor compression
Factory built units with site assembled refrigerant
Manufacture / installation
pipework
Class A (access by persons not acquainted with safety
Typical location of equipment
precautions)
Typical annual leakage rate 1% to 4%
Main source of refrigerant
Losses at end-of-life
emissions
Approximate split of annual New equipment: 80%
refrigerant demand Maintenance: 20%
Table 10. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Residential Air-Conditioning (UNEP 2015e)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
R-290 and R-1270 have been used for
small split air-conditioning in Europe for
R-290 3 3
several years and in the Far East and India
(propane)
since 2012. HCs can be considered for
R-1270 2 3
some equipment in this sector, depending
(propene)
on refrigerant charge, indoor unit location
and room size.
R-32 has been used for small split air-
conditioning in the Far East and India
since 2012 and in Europe since 2013.
R-32 675 2L
Several major air-conditioning
manufacturers now have a number of R-
32 models available.
These are newly developed blends with
R-446A 460 2L properties similar to R-410A that are
R-447A 582 2L being considered for small split air-
conditioning systems.
Lesson 3 - 20
R-410A provides good efficiency with compact compressors and is the dominant HFC refrigerant in
new split air-conditioning systems. There is currently no cost-effective, non-flammable alternative to
R-410A. To use a lower GWP alternative, it will be necessary to move to one of the flammable options
shown in Table 10. If flammable refrigerants are not acceptable due to safety requirements and
building codes, the non-flammable R-410A will still be required. The use of other non-flammable
HFCs, such as R-134a, is not considered feasible because efficiency will decrease and the pipe sizes
and heat exchanger sizes will increase, leading to larger charges that may not reduce the GWP-
weighted charge.
R-290 can provide good efficiency and may be used in some split air-conditioning systems if the
refrigerant charge can be minimized and appropriate safety measures can be integrated.
R-32 has been introduced by a number of manufacturers and is available in many regions. In Japan, R-
32 is used almost exclusively in split air-conditioning systems with cooling capacities up to 7 kW, and
several models are available above 7 kW.
Blends R-446A and R-447A are being introduced and are expected to provide further lower
flammability options in this market.
Pure HFOs such as R-1234yf would require a much larger compressor and are not being considered.
R-744 cannot match the efficiency of current units for the same cost.
Commercial Air-Conditioning
Commercial air-conditioning includes various types of building air-conditioning systems that utilize a
direct expansion (DX) evaporator to cool air supplied to a room or to a whole building, and includes
the following three system types:
• Large single split and multi-split air-conditioning systems, as shown in Figure 16.
• Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems, as shown in Figure 17.
• Ducted systems and packaged rooftop systems, as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 16. Multi-Split System with Ceiling Mounted and Wall Mounted Indoor Units Attached
to a Single Outdoor Unit
Lesson 3 - 21
Figure 17. VRF System with Simultaneous Cooling and Heating via Six Indoor Units Connected
to Three Outdoor Units
Figure 18. Packaged Roof-Top Air-Conditioning with Air Handling Unit and DX Cooling Circuit
• Large single splits consist of a single indoor unit and outdoor unit. Most recent models are
designed to be reversible, providing cooling in warm weather and heating in cold weather.
• Multi-splits consist of several indoor units connected to a single outdoor unit. Most recent
models are designed to be reversible, providing cooling in warm weather and heating in cold
weather.
• VRF systems are sophisticated multi-split systems where several outdoor units can support
many indoor units. Some of these systems provide simultaneous heating and cooling to
different parts of the same building with each indoor unit capable of providing either heating or
cooling.
• Ducted systems and packaged rooftop systems consist of a DX evaporator located in an air
handling unit that provides cool air to the building via a ductwork system.
Lesson 3 - 22
Prior to 1990, R-12 and R-22 were used in commercial air-conditioning. Beginning in the mid-1990s,
non-Article 5 countries started using R-407C but then switched to R-410A shortly thereafter. There is
still significant use of R-22 in Article 5 countries, although R-410A is widely available.
Table 12. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Commercial Air-Conditioning (UNEP 2015f)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
R-32 has been used for small split systems
in Japan since 2012 and in Europe since
2013. It is also suitable for multi-splits,
R-32 657 2L
VRF and ducted systems subject to
compliance with refrigerant charge
restrictions given in safety regulations.
These are newly developed blends with
properties similar to R-410A that are
R-446A 460 2L being considered for multi-splits, VRF
R-447A 582 2L and ducted systems subject to compliance
with refrigerant charge restrictions given
in safety regulations.
These are newly developed blends with
R-450A 601 1
properties similar to R-134a. The non-
R-513A 631 1
flammable options are possible
R-451A 140 2L
alternatives for ducted and packaged roof
R-451B 150 2L
top units. The lower flammability options
Lesson 3 - 23
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
may also be suitable for these applications
subject to compliance with refrigerant
charge restrictions given in safety
regulations. These options are not
considered suitable for multi-split and
VRF systems, due to their negative impact
on capital cost and efficiency.
These HFOs have properties similar to R-
134a and could be considered for ducted
R-1234yf 4 2L
and roof top units subject to compliance
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L
with refrigerant charge restrictions given
in safety regulations.
R-744 can be used for larger, ducted air
R-744 1 1 conditioning systems, however, efficiency
is only acceptable in cool climates.
R-410A provides good efficiency with compact compressors and is the dominant HFC refrigerant in
new split air-conditioning systems.
The required HC refrigerant charge for most large commercial air-conditioning systems exceeds the
recommended quantities given in safety standards.
R-744 is not a good option in warmer climates because efficiency is low and cost is high. It may be
applicable when air-conditioning is required in cool climates in buildings with large internal heat gains
from computers and other equipment.
For split systems and VRF systems, R-410A is currently the only non-flammable option. The use of a
non-flammable alternative to R-134a is not an option because it would lead to increased capital cost
and reduced efficiency.
For ducted and rooftop packaged units, one of the non-flammable R-134a alternatives with a GWP
around 600 may be considered. Depending on system design and safety regulations, a lower
flammability blend with a GWP around 150 or an HFO with a GWP of 1 could also be considered.
Chillers
Water chillers are used for building air-conditioning and some industrial cooling applications. Many
large buildings that require air-conditioning are cooled using pumped chilled water systems with a
central chiller installation. In some countries, relatively small buildings also use water chillers.
Most chillers systems use a vapor compression cycle. In large buildings, chillers are located in a
mechanical equipment room, and chilled water is pumped to air handling units or terminal units that
deliver conditioned air while condenser water is pumped to a cooling tower. For smaller buildings,
chillers may be located outdoors and use air cooled condensers.
Lesson 3 - 24
• Small and medium sized chillers, shown in Figure 19, often use a direct expansion (DX)
evaporator and an air cooled condenser. They usually use scroll, reciprocating or small sized
screw compressors.
• Large sized chillers, shown in Figure 20, usually use a flooded or falling film evaporator, a
water cooled condenser and a large screw or centrifugal compressor.
Figure 19. Typical Small Air Cooled Chiller for Outdoor Operation
Figure 20. Typical Medium Pressure R-134a (left) and Low Pressure R-123 (right) Centrifugal
Chillers
Prior to 1990, R-11 and R-12 were used for large centrifugal chillers and R-22 was used for small and
medium sized chillers. By 1995, R-134a replaced R-12 and R-123 replaced R-11 in large chillers. In
non-Article 5 countries, R-123 has a phase-out date of 2020, and as this date approaches, the market
for R-123 chillers is diminishing. New chillers using R-123 and R-22 are still available in Article 5
Lesson 3 - 25
countries. From around 2000, small and medium sized chillers moved from using R-22 to R-407C and
then to R-410A.
Lesson 3 - 26
Alternative Refrigerants for Chillers
Lower GWP alternative refrigerants for chillers are summarized in Table 14.
Table 14. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Chillers (UNEP 2015g)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
Chillers with centrifugal compressors
R-1234ze(E) is being introduced as an
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L alternative to R-134a for large centrifugal
chillers.
R-1233zd and R-1336mzz are being
R-1233zd 5 1
introduced as alternatives to R-123 for
R-1336mzz 9 1
low pressure centrifugal chillers.
Water can be used as a refrigerant in
R-718
0 1 chiller systems, but requires very large
(water)
compressor swept volume.
Chillers with positive displacement compressors
R-1234ze(E) is already available in a
R-1234ze(E) 7 2L
range of small and medium sized chillers.
R-32 has performance similar to R-410A
R-32 675 2L and is suitable for small and medium sized
chillers.
These are newly developed blends with
R-446A 460 2L properties similar to R-410A that are
R-447A 582 2L being considered for small and medium
sized chillers.
R-717 is suitable for medium and large
sized chillers with screw compressors. It
R-717
0 2L is more commonly used in industrial
(ammonia)
chillers but can also be used in air-
conditioning.
R-290 3 3
R-290 and R-1270 are suitable for small
(propane)
and medium sized chillers and are widely
R-1270 2 3
available in Europe.
(propene)
These are newly developed blends with
R-450A 601 1 properties similar to R-134a that are
R-513A 631 1 suitable for medium sized chillers using
screw compressors.
Most chillers are located in a machinery room or in an outdoor location, making it easier to deal with
safety issues related to both flammability and toxicity, and allowing the use of large charges of the
refrigerants listed in Table 14. Some machinery rooms are located in “difficult access” locations such
as a basement, and the use of flammable and higher toxicity refrigerants in such locations can be more
Lesson 3 - 27
problematic. Flammable refrigerants require special safety considerations and compliance with
building codes.
Mobile Air-Conditioning
Mobile air-conditioning (MAC) systems are used to cool the driver and passengers in land transport
vehicles, including cars, vans, lorries, buses, agricultural vehicles and trains. Air-conditioning is also
used on ships using technologies similar to those described in Transport Refrigeration and Chillers.
All mobile air-conditioning (MAC) systems use a direct expansion vapor compression cycle.
• MACs in cars and small vans, shown in Figure 21, usually use compressors that are belt
driven by the vehicle engine. The compressor and condenser are located in the engine
compartment of the vehicle and the evaporator is usually located in a ventilation duct between
the engine compartment and the passenger cabin. The main components are connected by
flexible hoses. The system is assembled and charged on the vehicle production line. Some
recent MAC designs use electrically driven compressors to provide air-conditioning for fully
electric vehicles or for hybrid vehicles when the engine is off.
• Larger MACs used in buses and trains are often located in a single unit containing all the
system components, as shown in Figures 21 and 22. The unit is factory built and pre-charged
with refrigerant. It is fitted by the vehicle body builder. The compressor is sometimes
electrically driven with electricity from the vehicle supply. Some units have a dedicated diesel
engine to supply electricity or to directly drive the compressor. On some bus and coach
systems, the compressor is located adjacent to the vehicle engine and is driven by a belt.
Lesson 3 - 28
Figure 22. Roof Mounted Electrically Driven Bus MAC System
Prior to 1990, all MACs for cars and small vans used R-12. In non-Article 5 countries, the majority of
new cars started to use R-134a in the early 1990s, and R-134a is now the global standard refrigerant
for small MAC systems. Larger MAC systems in non-Article 5 countries made significant use of R-22
until around 2000, but new systems use a number of refrigerants shown in Table 15. In Article 5
countries, R-22 is still being used for some new systems.
Lesson 3 - 29
Table 15. Mobile Air-Conditioning: Summary of Characteristics (UNEP 2015h)
Market sub-sector: Cars and Small Vans Larger Vehicles
Typical refrigerant charge 0.4 to 0.8 kg 2 to 20 kg
Typical cooling duty 2 to 5 kW 10 to 30 kW
R-410A (GWP 2088)
Refrigerants widely used R-134a (GWP 1430) R-407C (GWP 1774)
R-134a (GWP 1430)
DX system with compressor Electrically or engine driven
Typical refrigeration circuit design
belt driven by vehicle engine DX system
Components fitted on car Factory built unit, pre-charged
Manufacture / installation
production line with refrigerant
In engine compartment and In separate enclosure (e.g.,
Typical location of equipment
ventilation system roof mounted)
Typical annual leakage rate 2% to 10% 5% to 15%
Main source of refrigerant
Operating leakage Operating leakage
emissions
Approximate
New systems 70% 40%
split of annual
refrigerant
Maintenance 30% 60%
demand
Table 16. Lower GWP Refrigerant Alternatives for Mobile Air-Conditioning (UNEP 2015h)
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
Cars and Small Vans
R-1234yf is already in use in the EU and
R-1234yf 4 2L
in the US.
R-744 R-744 systems are under development by
1 1
(CO2) some car manufacturers.
R-444A and R-445A are newly developed
R-444A 93 2L
blends being considered by some
R-445A 120 2L
manufacturers.
Larger Vehicles including Buses and Trains
R-1234yf has performance similar to R-
134a and is suitable for systems where
R-1234yf 4 2L
safety regulations allow use of a lower
flammability refrigerant.
Lesson 3 - 30
Refrigerant GWP Flammability Comments
These three refrigerants have performance
R-32 675 2L
similar to R-410A and are suitable for
R-446A 460 2L
systems where safety regulations allow
R-447A 582 2L
use of a lower flammability refrigerant.
R-744 is being considered by bus and
R-744
1 1 train manufacturers and some R-744 bus
(CO2)
MACs are already in use.
R-450A and R-513A are new non-
R-450A 601 1
flammable blends with performance
R-513A 631 1
similar to R-134a.
For cars and small vans, the main alternatives under consideration are R-1234yf and R-744. R-1234yf
requires only minor modifications to the system components and is in commercial use today. Some car
manufacturers are considering a move to R-744.
Finding a suitable alternative for larger systems on buses and trains is more difficult because the
refrigerant charge in these systems is considerably larger. If a lower flammability refrigerant can be
safely used, there are a number of potential lower GWP alternatives to the current HFCs. If a non-
flammable refrigerant is required, R-744 is a possible option, although efficiency in hot climates is a
concern. R-450A and R-513A are non-flammable options with GWPs in the range of 600 and
characteristics similar to R-134a which may be suitable for some bus and train systems.
References
UNEP. 2015a. Fact Sheet 3: Domestic Refrigeration. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015b. Fact Sheet 4: Commercial Refrigeration. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015c. Fact Sheet 5: Industrial Refrigeration. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015d. Fact Sheet 6: Transport Refrigeration. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015e. Fact Sheet 8: Small Split Air-Conditioning. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015f. Fact Sheet 9: Large Air-Conditioning (air-to-air). Workshop on HFC Management:
Technical Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP. 2015g. Fact Sheet 10: Water Chillers for Air-Conditioning. Workshop on HFC Management:
Technical Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
Lesson 3 - 31
UNEP. 2015h. Fact Sheet 12: Mobile Air-Conditioning. Workshop on HFC Management: Technical
Issues, 20-21 April 2015, Bangkok, UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
Lesson 3 - 32
La elección de refrigerantes ha evolucionado significativamente para reducir su impacto en la capa de ozono y el calentamiento global. Inicialmente, los clorofluorocarbonos (CFC) eran muy populares debido a su estabilidad y eficiencia, pero se descubrió que contribuían al agotamiento de la capa de ozono . En respuesta, el Protocolo de Montreal de 1987 estableció la eliminación progresiva de los CFC, promoviendo el desarrollo de alternativas como los hidroclorofluorocarbonos (HCFC) y los hidrofluorocarbonos (HFC), que son menos dañinos para la capa de ozono . Sin embargo, estos compuestos todavía contribuían al calentamiento global, lo que llevó a la búsqueda de alternativas con menor potencial de calentamiento global, como los hidrofluorolefinas (HFO) y los hidrocarburos naturales como el amoníaco y el dióxido de carbono, que tienen un impacto ambiental significativamente menor . La industria continúa desarrollando refrigerantes con bajas emisiones y menor impacto ambiental, como parte de los compromisos globales para reducir los gases de efecto invernadero .
Para ser considerado adecuado en la industria moderna, un refrigerante debe cumplir varias características fundamentales: 1. Baja o nula contribución al efecto invernadero, es decir, debe tener un bajo Potencial de Calentamiento Global (GWP) y no afectar la capa de ozono (ODP = 0). 2. Alta eficiencia energética, lo cual se logra mediante un alto calor latente de evaporación para maximizar la transferencia de calor y minimizar el consumo energético, lo que también permite usar compresores más pequeños . 3. Seguridad, que incluye características como no ser inflamable ni tóxico, y operar dentro de presiones adecuadas para evitar riesgos de explosión o accidentes . 4. Compatibilidad y coste eficaces, es esencial que el refrigerante sea compatible con los componentes existentes sin necesidad de cambios costosos en equipos al tiempo que se debe considerar su durabilidad y el coste general del refrigerante . 5. Respetuoso con el medio ambiente, una tendencia es hacia el uso de refrigerantes naturales como el amoníaco y el CO2, que tienen una baja o nula capacidad de calentamiento, aunque pueden presentar desafíos como la toxicidad o la corrosión, que deben ser manejados adecuadamente .
Los profesionales en la industria de la refrigeración enfrentan varios desafíos para cumplir con las normativas ambientales actuales y futuras. El principal reto es el reemplazo de los hidroclorofluorocarbonos (HCFC) y los hidrofluorocarbonos (HFC), que contribuyen al calentamiento global, a pesar de no dañar la capa de ozono, y su eliminación está programada para antes de 2030 . El protocolo de Montreal ha establecido controles estrictos sobre los CFC y HCFC desde 1987, llevando a la búsqueda de alternativas más ecológicas . Entre las alternativas propuestas están los hidrofluoro-olefinas (HFO) y los refrigerantes naturales como el amoníaco y el dióxido de carbono, que tienen bajo potencial de agotamiento de ozono (ODP) y bajo potencial de calentamiento global (GWP). Los nuevos refrigerantes como los HFO presentan problemas en su integración y requieren de modificaciones en los sistemas existentes, y aunque son menos dañinos, su adopción implica importantes cambios en el diseño y la operación de sistemas de refrigeración . Además, la necesidad de mantener la eficiencia energética sigue siendo un reto, ya que los nuevos refrigerantes deben no solo ser seguros y cumplir con la normativa, sino también ser eficientes para su uso industrial y comercial .
Los CFC tienen un potencial de descomposición del ozono (ODP) alto debido a su contenido en cloro, lo que los convierte en sustancias especialmente dañinas para la capa de ozono . Por esta razón, han sido prohibidos y reemplazados en gran medida por otros refrigerantes como los HCFC y HFC, los cuales tienen un menor ODP pero siguen siendo problemáticos debido a su potencial de calentamiento global . Alternativas más recientes como los HFO tienen un ODP de cero y un menor impacto ambiental, gracias a su formulación que omite el cloro . Esta transición a refrigerantes con menor ODP es importante para la protección de la capa de ozono y para cumplir con acuerdos internacionales como el Protocolo de Montreal que busca eliminar sustancias que agotan la capa de ozono . Además, el uso de refrigerantes naturales como el amoníaco y el dióxido de carbono, que también tienen un ODP de cero, es cada vez más común debido a sus beneficios ambientales .
Las acciones derivadas del Protocolo de Montreal han transformado significativamente la industria de los refrigerantes al impulsar la eliminación de los clorofluorocarbonos (CFC) y acelerar el desarrollo de alternativas menos dañinas para la capa de ozono. Los fabricantes de refrigerantes tuvieron que desarrollar rápidamente nuevos productos como el R-123, R-134a, R-125 y otros para reemplazar a los antiguos compuestos halogenados como el R-11 y R-12, que contribuían al deterioro del ozono . El protocolo también condujo a la adopción de nuevos tipos de refrigerantes como los hidrocarburos naturales (R-290, R-600a), HFC (hidrofluorocarbonos), y HFO (hidrofluoroolefinas), los cuales ofrecen alternativas con menor potencial de calentamiento global y sin impacto sobre la capa de ozono . A pesar de estas innovaciones, algunos de los nuevos refrigerantes aún son nocivos para el calentamiento global . El sector tiene que seguir adaptándose a medidas regulatorias más estrictas, como las directivas de la Unión Europea que imponen la reducción de gases de efecto invernadero . Las regulaciones han impulsado así mismo avances en eficiencia energética y desarrollos tecnológicos en la industria de la refrigeración, como el uso de compresores más pequeños que ofrecen una mayor eficiencia y menor impacto ambiental .
El diseño de sistemas de refrigeración ha cambiado para mejorar la eficiencia energética y reducir el impacto ambiental mediante la adopción de refrigerantes con bajo potencial de calentamiento global (GWP), como los hidrofluoroolefinas (HFO), que son menos dañinos para la capa de ozono y contribuyen menos al calentamiento global en comparación con los CFC y HFC . La industria también ha comenzado a utilizar refrigerantes naturales como el amoníaco y el dióxido de carbono, que tienen un menor impacto ambiental . Estos cambios están impulsados por regulaciones internacionales, como el Protocolo de Montreal, que busca eliminar los compuestos que agotan la capa de ozono y reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero . Asimismo, se han desarrollado mezclas de refrigerantes, como el R-448A y el R-449A, que combinan HFC y HFO para mejorar la eficiencia energética y disminuir el impacto atmosférico .
La destrucción de la capa de ozono aumenta la exposición a radiación ultravioleta (UV) B en la superficie terrestre, lo que incrementa el riesgo de cáncer de piel y cataratas en humanos . También se sospecha que conduce a daños en las plantas, y reducción de poblaciones de plancton en los océanos, afectando ecosistemas enteros . La reducción de ozono amplifica el riesgo de que la radiación UV dañe el ADN de los organismos, lo que puede tener efectos a largo plazo sobre la biodiversidad y los agricultores .
La eficiencia energética en sistemas de refrigeración se ve significativamente influenciada tanto por el tipo de refrigerante como por las condiciones operativas. Los refrigerantes naturales, como los hidrocarburos y el dióxido de carbono, presentan un bajo impacto ambiental y un elevado calor latente de evaporación, lo que permite la utilización de compresores más pequeños y eficaces, traduciéndose en una mayor eficiencia energética . Las condiciones operativas también juegan un papel crucial; por ejemplo, se busca que la temperatura de ebullición del refrigerante sea adecuada para trabajar a presiones en las que el evaporador funcione eficientemente, optimizando así el uso de energía . Refrigerantes como el amoníaco y compuestos HFC/HFO están diseñados para diferentes aplicaciones, donde su elección adecuada se basa en sus propiedades termodinámicas y ambientales . En sistemas donde se usan refrigerantes como el R449A, se observa una reducción de hasta un 10% en el impacto atmosférico y un incremento en la eficiencia energética .
El potencial de calentamiento global (GWP) de un refrigerante está relacionado con su vida útil en la atmósfera, ya que un GWP más alto generalmente indica que el refrigerante permanecerá en la atmósfera por un período de tiempo más largo, causando un mayor efecto invernadero. Los refrigerantes con largas vidas en la atmósfera tienden a retener el calor de manera más prolongada, aumentando así su impacto sobre el calentamiento global . Asimismo, los refrigerantes como los hidrocarburos naturales que tienen una vida más corta en la atmósfera, presentan un GWP mucho más bajo y son considerados más ecológicos porque reducen su contribución a largo plazo al calentamiento global .
En la estratosfera, los átomos de cloro, liberados principalmente por la fotodisociación de halocarbonos como los CFCs, catalizan la destrucción del ozono. Un átomo de cloro puede destruir aproximadamente 100,000 moléculas de ozono durante su vida en la atmósfera . Esta reacción ocurre cuando el cloro reacciona con el ozono (O3) para formar monóxido de cloro (ClO) y oxígeno (O2). El ClO luego reacciona con otro átomo de oxígeno o molécula, liberando de nuevo el cloro para continuar el ciclo .