Ductilidad

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Esquema de la respuesta de una barra cilndrica de metal a una fuerza de traccin de sentido opuesto a sus extremos. (a) Fractura frgil. (b) Fractura dctil. (c) Fractura totalmente dctil. La ductilidad es una propiedad que presentan algunos materiales, como las aleaciones metlicas o materiales asflticos, los cuales bajo la accin de una fuerza, pueden deformarse sosteniblemente sin romperse,1 permitiendo obtener alambres o hilos de dicho material. A los materiales que presentan esta propiedad se les denomina dctiles. Los materiales no dctiles se clasifican de frgiles. Aunque los materiales dctiles tambin pueden llegar a romperse bajo el esfuerzo adecuado, esta rotura slo se produce tras producirse grandes deformaciones. En otros trminos, un material es dctil cuando la relacin entre el alargamiento longitudinal producido por una traccin y la disminucin de la seccin transversal es muy elevada. En el mbito de la metalurgia se entiende por metal dctil aquel que sufre grandes deformaciones antes de romperse, siendo el opuesto al metal frgil, que se rompe sin apenas deformacin. No debe confundirse dctil con blando, ya que la ductilidad es una propiedad que como tal se manifiesta una vez que el material est soportando una fuerza considerable; esto es, mientras la carga sea pequea, la deformacin tambin lo ser, pero alcanzado cierto punto el material cede, deformndose en mucha mayor medida de lo que lo haba hecho hasta entonces pero sin llegar a romperse. En un ensayo de traccin, los materiales dctiles presentan una fase de fluencia caracterizada por una gran deformacin sin apenas incremento de la carga. Desde un punto de vista tecnolgico, al margen de consideraciones econmicas, el empleo de materiales dctiles presenta ventajas:

En la fabricacin: ya que son aptos para los mtodos de fabricacin por deformacin plstica.

En el uso: presentan deformaciones notorias antes de romperse. Por el contrario, el mayor problema que presentan los materiales frgiles es que se rompen sin previo aviso, mientras que los materiales dctiles sufren primero una acusada deformacin, conservando an una cierta reserva de resistencia, por lo que despus ser necesario que la fuerza aplicada siga aumentando para que se provoque la rotura.

La ductilidad de un metal se valora de forma indirecta a travs de la resiliencia. La ductibilidad es la propiedad de los metales para formar alambres o hilos de diferentes grosores. Los metales se caracterizan por su elevada ductibilidad, la que se explica porque los tomos de los metales se disponen de manera tal que es posible que se deslicen unos sobre otros y por eso se pueden estirar sin romperse. La ductibilidad es algo muy til en cobre, hierro, aluminio.

Ductility
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Malleability" redirects here. For the property in cryptography, see Malleability (cryptography).

Tensile test of an AlMgSi alloy. The local necking and the cup and cone fracture surfaces are typical for ductile metals.

This tensile test of a nodular cast iron demonstrates low ductility.

In materials science, ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these material properties are dependent on temperature.

A material's ductility and malleability are not always coextensive. For instance, while gold is both ductile and malleable, lead is only malleable.[1] The word ductility is sometimes used to embrace both types of plasticity.[2]

Contents
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1 Scientific fields o 1.1 Geology o 1.2 Materials science 1.2.1 Ductile-brittle transition temperature 2 See also 3 References 4 External links

[edit] Scientific fields

[edit] Geology

In Earth science the brittle-ductile transition zone is a zone, at an approximate depth of 15 km (9 mi) in continental crust, at which rock becomes less likely to fracture and more likely to deform ductilely. In glacial ice this zone is at approximately 30 m (100 ft) depth. It is still possible for material above a brittle-ductile transition zone to deform ductilely, and possible for material below to deform brittly. The zone exists because as depth increases confining pressure increases, and brittle strength increases with confining pressure whilst ductile strength decreases with increasing temperature. The transition zone occurs at the point where brittle strength exceeds ductile strength.
[edit] Materials science

Gold leaf is possible due to gold's malleability

Ductility is especially important in metalworking, as materials that crack or break under stress cannot be manipulated using metal forming processes, such as hammering, rolling, and drawing. Malleable materials can be formed using stamping or pressing, whereas brittle metals and plastics must be molded.

High degrees of ductility occur due to metallic bonds, which are found predominantly in metals and leads to the common perception that metals are ductile in general. In metallic bonds valence shell electrons are delocalized and shared between many atoms. The delocalized electrons allow metal atoms to slide past one another without being subjected to strong repulsive forces that would cause other materials to shatter. Ductility can be quantified by the fracture strain , which is the engineering strain at which a test specimen fractures during a uniaxial tensile test. Another commonly used measure is the reduction of area at fracture q.[3] The following list ranks metals from the greatest ductility to least: gold, silver, platinum, iron, nickel, copper, aluminium, zinc, tin, and lead.[1] The malleability of the same metals are then ranked from greatest to least: gold, silver, lead, copper, aluminium, tin, platinum, zinc, iron, and nickel.[1] The ductility of steel varies depending on the alloying constituents. Increasing levels of carbon decreases ductility. Many plastics and amorphous solids, such as Play-Doh, are also malleable.
[edit] Ductile-brittle transition temperature

Schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing. (a) Brittle fracture (b) Ductile fracture (c) Completely ductile fracture

The ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT), nil ductility temperature (NDT), or nil ductility transition temperature of a metal represents the point at which the fracture energy passes below a pre-determined point (for steels typically 40 J[4] for a standard Charpy impact test). DBTT is important since, once a material is cooled below the DBTT, it has a much greater tendency to shatter on impact instead of bending or deforming. For example, zamak 3 exhibits good ductility at room temperature but shatters at sub-zero temperatures when impacted. DBTT is a very important consideration in materials selection when the material in question is subject to mechanical stresses. A similar phenomenon, the glass transition temperature, occurs with glasses and polymers, although the mechanism is different in these amorphous materials. In some materials this transition is sharper than others. For example, the transition is generally sharper in materials with a body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice than those with a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice. DBTT can also be influenced by external factors

such as neutron radiation, which leads to an increase in internal lattice defects and a corresponding decrease in ductility and increase in DBTT. The most accurate method of measuring the BDT or DBT temperature of a material is by fracture testing. Typically, four point bend testing at a range of temperatures is performed on pre-cracked bars of polished material. For experiments conducted at higher temperatures, dislocation activity increases. At a certain temperature, dislocations shield the crack tip to such an extent the applied deformation rate is not sufficient for the stress intensity at the crack-tip to reach the critical value for fracture (KiC). The temperature at which this occurs is the ductile-brittle transition temperature. If experiments are performed at a higher strain rate, more dislocation shielding is required to prevent brittle fracture and the transition temperature is raised.

Fragilidad
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La fragilidad intuitivamente se relaciona con la cualidad de los objetos y materiales de romperse con facilidad. Aunque tcnicamente la fragilidad se define ms propiamente como la capacidad de un material de fracturarse con escasa deformacin, a diferencia de los materiales dctiles que se rompen tras sufrir acusadas deformaciones plsticas. La rotura frgil tiene la peculiaridad de absorber relativamente poca energa, a diferencia de la rotura dctil, ya que la energa absorbida por unidad de volumen viene dada por:

Si un material se rompe prcticamente sin deformacin las componentes del tensor deformacin resultan pequeas y la suma anterior resulta en una cantidad relativamente pequea.

[editar] Fragilidad, ductilidad, dureza y tenacidad

Existen otros trminos frecuentemente confundidos con la fragilidad que deben ser aclarados:

Lo opuesto a un material muy frgil es un material dctil. Por otra parte la dureza no es opuesto a la fragilidad, ya que la dureza es la propiedad de alterar solo la superficie de un material, que es algo totalmente independiente de si ese material cuando se fractura tiene o no deformaciones grandes o pequeas. Como ejemplo podemos citar el diamante que es el material ms duro que existe, pero es extremadamente frgil. La tenacidad puede estar relacionada con la fragilidad segn el mdulo de elasticidad, pero en principio un material puede ser tenaz y poco frgil (como ciertos aceros) y puede ser frgil y nada tenaz (como el barro cocido).

Brittleness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Brittle" redirects here. For other uses, see Brittle (disambiguation).

Brittle fracture in glass

Brittle fracture in cast iron tensile testpieces

Graph comparing stress-strain curves for brittle and ductile materials

A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant deformation (strain). Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses (which do not deform plastically) and some polymers, such as PMMA and polystyrene. Many steels become brittle at low temperatures (see ductile-brittle transition temperature), depending on their composition and processing. When used in materials science, it is generally applied to materials that fail in tension rather than shear, or when there is little or no evidence of plastic deformation before failure. When a material has reached the limit of its strength, it usually has the option of either deformation or fracture. A naturally malleable metal can be made stronger by impeding the mechanisms of plastic deformation (reducing grain size, dispersion strengthening, work hardening, etc.), but if this is taken to an extreme, fracture becomes the more likely outcome, and the material can become brittle. Improving material toughness is therefore a balancing act.

Contents
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1 Toughening 2 Effect of pressure 3 Crack growth 4 See also 5 References

[edit] Toughening
This principle generalizes to other classes of material. Naturally brittle materials, such as glass, are not difficult to toughen effectively. Most such techniques involve one of two mechanisms: to deflect or absorb the tip of a propagating crack, or to create carefully controlled residual stresses so that cracks from certain predictable sources will be forced closed. The first principle is used in laminated glass where two sheets of glass are separated by an interlayer of polyvinyl butyral, which as a viscoelastic polymer absorbs the growing crack. The second method is used in toughened glass and prestressed concrete. A demonstration of glass toughening is provided by Prince Rupert's Drop. Brittle polymers can be toughened by using rubber particles to initiate crazes when a sample is stressed, a good example being high impact polystyrene or HIPS. The least brittle structural ceramics are silicon carbide (mainly by virtue of its high strength) and transformation-toughened zirconia.

[edit] Effect of pressure

Generally, the brittle strength of a material can be increased by pressure. This happens as an example in the brittle-ductile transition zone at an approximate depth of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in the Earth's crust, at which rock becomes less likely to fracture, and more likely to deform ductilely.

[edit] Crack growth

Supersonic fracture is crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a brittle material. This phenomenon was first discovered[citation needed] by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart (Markus J. Buehler and Huajian Gao) and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California (Farid F. Abraham).