Tire Pressure Sensors * Tire pressure sensors are mounted to the inside of the rim * Monitoring the tire pressure during the course of a run can be important to understanding the performance of the car over a long run compared with over a short run * As can be seen in the following example, it can take several laps until the desired “hot” temperature is reached OptimumG— Vehicle Dynamics 101/594Tire Pressure — Le Mans Example ‘Out Lap lap 1 4:39.265 * lop2 435876 | Lap Time lae3 433.177 | Decreasing Lap4 4:32.754 : lap5 4:28.845 Lap6 4:30.162 Lap7 4:27,315 lap 8 GREETS) i Can you really test a new setup in just 4 laps? o_o ees ep eee 2Rst€OS 12047515 ‘Time 0.00000 6] Distance OFT] larTire Pressure Management * Tire pressure changes should be evaluated at tests, not at a race! Test should be done systematically ensuring measurements are taken for all of the parameters involved, including track and ambient temperatures! Testing should be done to emulate a particular situation i.e. race runs or qualifying etc. A relationship can be developed to relate the pressure and the temperature in the tire using the Ideal Gas Equa * PV=nRT P = Pressure (absolute) V = Volume n= Number of moles in the Gas * R= Universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol*K) * T= Temperature (absolute — Kelvin) OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 103/594Tire Pressure Management * This equation can be mod d into numerous forms. ¢ As the number of moles do not change i.e. amount of gas. a a Ae T, T, * We can assume that the volume change is reasonably small and thus exclude it from the equation Pi_ Pr ie ¢ Important to modify the equation to have the pressure in gauge form and the temperature in Celsius/Fahrenheit Optimum ~ Vehicle Dynamics 104/594Tire Pressure Management Prom + Pain Poot +P, nom anaes Tr. atm. Tron + Tp Test + Tip Solving for/Page +, . oe eee =( nom atm ). ro a qh atm Poet = Tire pressure set point (gauge) [bar ,psi] = “cold pressure” om = Nominal tire pressure (gauge) [bar ,psi] = “hot pressure” m = Atmospheric pressure [bar ,psi] P Pp Teer = Tire N, temperature when pressure set [°C, °F] = “cold tire N, temperature” Trom = Nominal N, temperature of the tire [°C, °F] = = “hot tire N, temperature” = Triple point temperature [273.15 K and 459.7 R] OptimumG— Vehicle Dynamics 105/594Tire Pressure Management [Variables Pam 101 kPa 86.0 87.7 89.4 91.1 928 94.4 961 97.8 99.5 101.2 102.9 104.5 106.2 107.9 109.6 111.3] | 200 [123.3 125.3 127.3 129.3 131.4 133.4 135.4 137.4 139.4 141.5 143.5 145.5 147.5 149.5 151.5 153.6| | 250 160.6 162.9 165.3 167.6 170.0 172.3 174.7 177.0 179.4 181.7 184.1 186.4 188.8 191.2 193.5 195.9| | 300 |197.8 200.5 203.2 205.9 208.6 211.3 214.0 216.6 219.3 222.0 224.7 227.4 230.1 232.8 235.5 238.2| | 350 [235.1 238.1 241.1 244.2 247.2 250.2 253.2 256.3 259.3 262.3 265.3 268.4 271.4 274.4 277.4 280.5 275.7 279.1 282.4 285.8 289.2 292.5 295.9 299.2 302.6 306.0 309.3 312.7 316.0 319.4 322.7 309.6 313.3 317.0 320.7 324.4 328.1 331.8 335.5 339.2 342.9 346.6 350.3 354.0 357.7 361.4 365.0] How to calculate the starting “cold” tire pressure (P,,,) knowing: * The targeted “hot” temperature > T,, * The ambient temperature > T,.. * The atmospheric pressure > Pain s * The targeted “hot” pressure > Prom This calculation is only valid for “perfect gas”. ( Optimum - Vehicle Dynamics 106/594 _ Ait, especially humi far away from the “perfect gas” definitionTire Pressure Management * This formula can be used in a number of ways to generate tables so that it does not need to be calculated every time * The most useful table can be generated if you know the atmospheric pressure and the nominal working pressure, by varying the set temperature and the nominal pressure over the useful range * The formulas can be used to investigate the effect of elevation/ atmospheric pressure change ° This calculation is only valid for “perfect gas”. Air, especially humid air, is far away from the “perfect gas” definition OptimumG Vehicle Dynamics 107/594Pressure Management * Cold pressures should be set first thing in the morning, when ambient temperatures are low * Once the pressures are set, make the vertical mark corresponding to the valve as a reminder * Set pressures to the required value, wait a few seconds, then re-check and re-set — Why? Sudden release of pressure causes the are in the tire to cool rapidly. With time, the air will warm up and the pressure OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 108/584V Fine grain all across Heavy grain all across the Heavy grain on one the width of the rubber: tire beginning to be side of the tread: tread: tire working at overworked. Potentially too much (or not its optimum range caused by excessive damping enough) toe or or poor balance (if camber understeer front will look like this, if oversteer rear will) OptimurmG — Vehicle Dynamics 109/594Tire Marking * Once the tires have been fitted they should be marked as follows with a white paint pen: Position Set number - . | Line corresponding to valve. FL = front left T ‘ates the tire has been set to FR = front right the correct pressure and also shows RL = rear left the amount of turning of the tire on RR = rear right the rim in use Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 110/594Measurement of the Tire Temperature in the Pits Hot temperatures should be taken using a needle probe and digital pyrometer. The needle should be inserted at an approximate angle of 45° eceeemeee The length of the needle should be between 5 & 7 eo mm. The diameter should be approximately 1 mmTire Contact Patch Measurement * Tires contact patch pressure distribution profile can be viewed using Pressure Sensitive Paper or Paint (PSP) Agim presore po * This provides qualitative observations of the pressure distribution pn throughout the tire contact patch * The pressure paper measurement can be colorized and extended into 3- dimensions in order to aid in visualization OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 112/584Tire Contact Patch Measurement Example 1: Tire with Significant CamberTire Contact Patch Measurement Example 2: Tire with Low Pressure 114/594AND Tech — Force Matrix Sensor Currently AND Tech is developing the Force Matrix Sensor, a system that allows real-time quantitative analysis of the forces in the tire contact patch * The Force Matrix Sensor measures the distribution of forces (along the X, Y, andZ axes) on road surfaces using contact lines or areas made up of a combination of small sensors * It is possible to measure the forces that running tires apply to the road at high speed OptimumG— Vehicle Dynamies 115/594AND Tech — Force Matrix Sensor * Asingle basic sensor unit consists of a single line of ten 7.5mm? sensors * Up to 96 basic units can be combined vertically or horizontally, to enable a wide range of measurement poss OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 116/584AND Tech — Force Matrix Sensor Sample Data — Vertical Load (F,) Normal Force Front of Tire “4 Inside of Tire This axis shows the distance 7 across the contact patch distance (mm) This axis shows the longitudinal distribution of vertical force. It is time based as only a single row of sensors was used in this test. However, it can Optimumé-Vehike oynames 117/soa BE Converted to a distance scale — see next slide.AND Tech — Force Matrix Sensor Sample Data — Vertical Load (F,) Normat Force (distance instead of time) Front of Tire “ Inside of Tire € = é It is possible Can notice that = to see the the vertical load is tread pattern higher on this side of the tire of the contact patch due to camber of the tire 20 22000 200 8 0D 80 distance (mm) I Now the longitudinal orientation is plotted against distance Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 118/594Tire Wear * When rubber is stressed past its yield strength, plastic (permanent) deformation occurs * This stress may be large enough that some of the rubber molecules become detached from the rest of the structure * Such a mechanism requires energy in order to break the molecular bonds, which helps to increase the grip of the tire This is where the rubber “marbles” come from that we see at race tracks, as well as the “grains” of rubber on the surface of a used tire OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 119/594Graining Graining is caused by excessive heat at the surface of the tire Graining causes a reduction in grip because the actual tire contact patch is not in contact with the surface of the race track, but rather the tire is rolling on the grains of rubber which are stuck to the tire surface but are no longer part of the tire construction Excessive surface temperature causes the rubber on the surface of the tire to become more elastic (recall T,), reducing grip and can continue the vulcanization process, resulting in a tire that is “over-vulcanized” OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 120/584Blistering * Blistering is also caused by excessive tire temperature ° Unlike graining, it is not surface temperature that causes blistering, but rather tire core temperature ° The result of excessive core temperature is the break down of the structural integrity of the e core — tire tread interface, meaning that the compound peels off the tire construction OptimumG Vehicle Dynamics 121/594Understanding Lateral Slip Lateral Tire Deformation Increasing Slip Angle and Deformation | a-Slip angle i Tire La, Wheel Speed aad 7 I q ™ ' Fixed inclination angle, 0°; fixed vertical load OptimurnG — Vehicle DynaUnderstanding Lateral Slip Distribution of Lateral Force Increasing Slip Angle and Deformation | a-Slip angle Wheel Speed speed Lateral Force fs eee a eee OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 123/594Contact Patch Area Deformations \~ a Once the peak of the tire self alignment torque has been reached , anymore ad driver steering input (and therefore any additional slip angle) will decrease the driver steering wheel torque. ‘al The slip angle at which the maximum self alignment Agi Tova Nn which the maximum lateral grip is reached. Practically that means that the driver fell a decreasing of the steering wheel torque before he reach the maximum amount of the tire lateral force. sap Anges) - ‘OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 124/594Pneumatic Trail for different tire vertical loads Mz vs. SA Fy vs. SA Trail vs. SA | | In this case the longitudinal pneumatic trail is calculated from measured Mz and Fy pure lateral test (no combined lateral and braking or acceleration forces) (EN: i i i deans hye Tire data curves generated using OptimumT On Steesthng Wheel OptimnumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 125/594Pneumatic Trail vs. Fy for different vertical loads Pneumatic Trail - mm “10 Pneumatic Trail 1000 2500 m 4000 ~ 1A (deg) oO & 435 Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 126/594 3 25 2 45 1:05 0 05 1°15 2 25 3 35 4 45 Lateral Force (Fy) - KNUnderstanding Lateral Slip Pneumatic Trail Increasing blip Angle and Deformatidn _! Longitudinal Tire Trail OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 127/594Toe Definition Create artificial slip angle and lateral grip !Measurement of Toe and % Track If (A-B) > 0, then Toe-in If (A-B) < 0, then Toe-out Verification about half track value : C= (A+B) / 2, verify (L—(C) right = (L—C) left Camber angle o and rim width Wr known : Track = L—C—Wr/2 + R*tana. Conditions: Reference ride heightEffect of Toe on Tire Grip Negative effect of toe-in on inside wheels ==) Thrust due to Toe Negative effect of toe-out on outside wheels ma Resultant Grip Toe-in decreases grip on this tire Toe-out decreases grip on this tiredij8 as0W 183 0} Japio ul ajsue djs 1Y81J sad aseaidap 0} paan J99YM Jead Yea UO UI-30} WW Z 30] JujaWWAsy BuisnUsing Asymmetric Toe Change to 1mm toe-in on right rear wheel (change of -1mm) ei By decreasing toe in, you decrease slip 3.32 angle and increase grip on this wheel. Optimum — Vehicle Oynamies 132/584Effect of Toe-In During Cornering Outside Rear Wheel: At the entry and at the exit of the corner, the slip angle doesn’t exceed the optimum value. However, at mid corner, the slip angle value could be too high and the tire will loose grip. It could be necessary to decrease toe in on the outside wheel in order to get more grip at mid corner. Optimum — Vette Dyramtes-13*s1euApolay 7Aerodynamic Fundamentals Aerodynamic Force — General Equation F, is the aerodynamic Force ris the air density (Kg/m3) Ais the reference Area (m2) C, is the dimensionless Coefficient Vis the car Velocity or the free stream velocity (m/s) Subscript: i= drag (into X direction) i => * A * C, i= side (into Y direction) pee ic i = lift (into Z direction) OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 135/594Aerodynamic Fundamentals Aerodynamic Force — A and Ci i = drag, lift or side * Ais the reference surface. For external flow in an automobile the reference surface is the frontal surface. * C,is a dimensionless parameter, therefore according to the last equation, we can compare the C, on vehicles that don’t have the same: * frontal area A * Velocity V * fluid density r * Aerodynamic force F applied on the body * A*C, or simply noted AC,, is the aerodynamic characteristic i of a given vehicle. “A” refers to the frontal area. “C,” is an dimensionless coefficient to compare between vehicles. AC, is the aerodynamic characteristic “i” of a given vehicle. Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 136/594Aerodynamic Fundamentals Aerodynamic Force - Downforce Definition: Downforce is the opposite of lift and acts in the Z direction toward the ground. Note: C, can be: 1 * positive: we talk about Lift Downforce ae P . A C, i Ve * negative: we talk about Downforce 2 OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 137/594Aerodynamic Fundamentals Aerodynamic Force — Drag X axis: Drag Definition: Drag is the aerodynamic resistance to motion. i-e the aerodynamic force following x axis Drag =5* p* A*C)*V? OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 138/594Aerodynamic Fundamentals Aerodynamic Force — Side Force Side force > 0 Definition: Side force is the aerodynamic force Y component. Side =3* p*A*C, *V" Side force Varies considerably with yaw angle and has a critical effect on stability as we will see later. Optimum ~ Vehicle DynamicAutomotive Aerodynamics Downforce Example F =0.5x px AxC, xV? At 50 km/h F = [0.5 * 1.2255 *1.277 * 3.2 * ((1000/3600*50))] = 480 N At5O0km/h ---------— > 480N At100 km/h ------------ > 1930N At 141.2 km/h ------------ > 3860N At 200 km/h -----------~ > 7730N At 250 km/h ------------ > 12070N At 300 km/h = ------------~ > 17390N At350 km/h -------------> 23670 N Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 140/594 12070 I Downforce 10000 N (Weight)Automotive Aerodynamics Downforce Example F =0.5x px AxC, xV? At 50 km/h F=0.5 * 1.2255 *1.277 * 3.2 * (1000/3600*50)? At50 km/h = ------------ > 480N At 100 km/h ------------ > 1930N At 141.2 km/h ------------ > 3860N At 200 km/h ------------ > 7730N At 250 km/h ------------ > 12070N At 300 km/h ------------- > 17390 N At 350 km/h ------------- > 23670 N OptimumG - Vehicle Dynamies 141/584 480 N 12070 | Downforce 10000 N (Weight)Dees CoC Ce Le Neg Short Oval Super Cit) Super ree Cine er eee Area(m?) | 1.6 ay 18 175 17 15 cu 0.28 -18 = 0.35 -0.2 -3.6 -16 50 53 +360 -74 241 719 - 282 75 118 -508 -167 -93 - 1618 - 634 100 244 - 1438 296 -164 - 2876 - 1128 125 329 = 2247 - 463, - 257 - 4494 - 1762 150 474 +3226 - 666 -370 = 6471 - 2538 175 645 ~ 4404 -907 -504 - 8808 - 3454 200 842 ~5752 - 1184 - 658 - 11505, -4512 225 1066 - 7280 +1499 +833 -14561 -5710 250 1316 - 8988 - 1850 - 1028 -17976 - 7049 275 1592 - 10876 - 2239 - 1244 - 21751 - 8530 300 1895 - 12943 ~ 2665 - 1480 - 25886 - 10151 325 2224 - 15191 -3127 -1737 - 30380 - 11914 350 2579 -17617 - 3627 = 2015 - 35233 = 13817 375 2961 ~ 20223 -4164 - 2313 - 40446 - 15861 400 3369 = 23009 -4737 - 2632 - 46019 - 18047 OptimumG— Vehicle Dynamics 142/594Automotive Aerodynamics Influence of Density on Downforce F =0.5x px AxC,xV? Speedway at 322 km/h (200 mph) F=0.5 * 1.2255 * 1.05 * 1.6 * (1000/3600*322)? = 8236N Air density = 1.2255 at 1 bar and 15 deg C = 1.2255 * (15+273) *P (t+273) 1.000 If temperature raises 5 C and pressure goes to 0.985 bar = 1.2255 * (15 +273) * 0.985 = 1.1865 (20+273) 1.000 Downforce = 7974 N 3.18 % less downforce Optimum - Vehicle Dynamics 143/594Automotive Aerodynamics Influence of Density on Drag F =0.5x px AxC, xV? Speedway at 322 kph (200 mph) F=0.5 * 1.2255 *1.05 * 0.68 * (1000/3600*322)? = 3500 N Drag is Fn Speed? Power is Fn Speed? To get 322 km/h (200 mph) with a Cd of 0.68 we need 425 Hp To get 354 km/h (220 mph) with a Cd of 0.68 we need 565 Hp To get 355 km/h (220.6 mph) with a Cd of 0.68 we need 570 Hp OptimurnG - Vehicle Dynamics 144/594Automotive Aerodynamics Some Drag Numbers Flow situation Circular plate Low drag body of revolution Low drag vehicle near the ground Generic sedan Prototype car (Le Mans) NASCAR short oval Indy Car super speedway Optimum ~ Vehicle Dynamics 145/594Praca] I eGy Ire eae mn eects Bae) BS) Tag reel TTET PT eet oy Seer) Area (m?) 16 17 18 1.75 17 15 @ 0.32 0.29 0.38 0.30 0.85 0.62 peu baacatie) 50 a al SO) Goa a 8 |e 2 a& 135 4 130 4 181 5 139 4 382 11 246 t 100 219 2329 321 12 «|247 9 679 «26 «|437—«17 125 376 18 362 17 502 24 386 19 1061 S1 683 33 150 54131 «(52130 «| 723° «42/555 32s | 4528 88 | 98357 175 737 50 710 «448 984 66 756 51 2080 140 1339 90 200 962 74 esas 1286 «99 987 76 2716 209 1748 134 225 1218 «105 1173, 101 1627. 141 1249 «108 3438 297 | 2213 191 250 1504 145 1448 139 2009 193 1542 148 4244 408 | 2732 263 275 1820 192 1752 185 2431 «9-257 1866 197 5136 543 3305 349 300 2166 250 2085 241 2893 334 2221 256 6112 705 | 3934 454 325 2542 «318 2447 306 3395 424 2606 326 7173 896 | 4617 577 350 2948 = 397 2838 382 3938 530 3022. 407 8319 1119 | 5354 720 375 3384 488 3258 470 4520 652 3470 = 500 9550 1377 | 6146 886 400 3850 592 | 3707 570 | 5143 791 | 3948 607 | 10866 1671 | 69931075 Optimum = Vehicle Dynamics 146/594Automotive Aerodynamics Aero Mapping: Single Seater Example 1 At 240 Km/h Downforce(N) Vs Front and Rear Ride Height (mm) 1 bar and 15°C Rear Ride Height (mm) Front EET 46990) aso 9040 9270 9160 8910 Height Kan J 7310 8640 9360 9620 9550 9410 (mm) [ZEHY 7740 7220 9770 10020 9980 9850 “8210 9570 1023010550 0560) 10430 3-33 Arctan ——— __=- 0.572 3000 43-3 Arctan ——— = 0,762 3000 Pitch variation = 1.332 OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 147/594Automotive Aerodynamics Aero Mapping: Single Seater Example 1 Drag (N) Vs Front and Rear Ride Height (mm) Rear Ride Hei Optimus — Vehicle Dynamics 148/594Automotive Aerodynamics Aero Mapping: Single Seater Example 1 Aerobalance ( % front downforce / total downforce) Rear Ride Height (mm) 0) 34.07 32.98 33.01 33.48 (25.14) Go54) Gres) (mm) 40.66 40.92 41.67 43.37 45.30 rade G6.05) 5.28) 35.27 36.20 (39.08 ) Height (48.80) @7.87) 3783 3833 3058 (4121 ) Rule of thumb For one step of front ride height variations we need 3 or 5 steps of rear ride height variations to keep the same aerodynamic balance. OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 149/594-Automotive Aerodynamics Aero Mapping: Single Seater Example 1 Example of front wing set g influence Perea iy mE aeedilg tg Balance angle Downforce Downforce Downforce (deg) (N) (N) 1) 29 9660 3960 5700 40.99 4690 2.06 28 9640 3810 5830 39.52 4640 2.08 27 9610 3770 5840 39.23 4620 2.08 26 9570 3740 5830 39,08 4590 2.08 24 9510 3640 5870 38.28 4530 2.10 22 9440 3560 5880 ai) 4500 2.10 20 9360 3450 5910 36.86 4490 2.08 Optimus - Vehicle Dynamics 150/594Automotive Aerodynamics Ideal Ride Heights Hsfecy of Aevodynantes Theadore Vou Karmen Straight Away High Speed Corner Medium Speed Corner Low Speed CornerAutomotive Aerodynamics Aero Mapping: Single Seater Example 2 Downforce Map Drag Map += 25500-26000 E | «7900-8000 E seal § | oe i & | crr0700 I g | $ | = 00-70 2) 8 | arson 2600 2 = | «7400-7500 Maal z & & noe © me ReoriRide Helght[orn) Rear Ride Height (mm) | Balance (% Front) Map Efficiency (-L/D) Map | | as = = : xe E = wos = | = uae = 3 2 2 @ = vor § | = 76 re ee er ee ey 10 2030405 67D” | Rear Ride Height (mm) Rear Ride Height (mm) An aero map may also be presented as a 2D plot. (note ex two is a different car) OptimumG— Vehicle Dynamics 152/594Aerodynamic Measurements Road Testing - Downforce Measurement Strain gauge is calibrated Vs wheel vertical load 2000 N () i} 2000 N 2500 N OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 153/594Aerodynamic Measurements Road Testing - Downforce Measurement A strain gauge on a pushrod will only measure forces acting on the suspended mass and subsequently do not measure the Aerodynamic lift from the wheels. Optimum ~ Vehicle Bynamics 154/5943. KinematicsA Winning Team Opinion McLaren boss denies Bridgestone favoritism With the San Marino Grand Prix set to turn into a tire-and-tactics battle, McLaren boss Ron Dennis has been quick to dismiss speculation that his team is being favored by Bridgestone. Rumors have suggested that McLaren are the Japanese tire manufacturers contracted number one team - but Dennis has denied the tires are being ‘specifically tailored’ for outfit. "When you say “specifically tailored” to our car, that might be interpreted as being a development that could be prejudicial to a rival team which is being supplied by Bridgestone," explained Dennis. "in fact, the needs of all Formula 1 cars are invariably served by the same technical exercise. "| believe that our test program has benefited both Bridgestone and its other teams, including Benetton. Putting that aside, the fact is that the car - and the kinematics of its suspension - must be developed hand in hand with the tire." He added: "As | indicated earlier, optimum results can only be achieved when the two sides are prepared to share their most secret and sensitive data. The end result is optimized performance and | think David Richards will agree that this process has not damaged the progress of Benetton.” 26/04/98 Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 156/594Single-arm suspension The wheel hub is connected to the chassis by a single rigid arm. &. V8 Supercar Mac Pherson Nascar OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 157/594Multiple-Arm Suspension Two arms or more. 5 Links Double Wishbones namics 158/594Track Definition Track: distance between the left and 2 Track : the right contact patch. | ! Front and rear track are most of the time different due to different tire Track variation due to setup (camber, PRS] ride height,...), tire deformation and i = ‘ suspension movement. . FS | OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 159/594Wheelbase Definition Wheelbase: distance between the : Wheelbase : front and the rear contact patch. Left and right track can be different in case of asymmetric suspension. Wheelbase variations due to setup (camber, ride height,...) and suspension movement. OptimurnG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 160/594Ride Heights Definition Ride Height: distance between the lowest point and the ground at the wheel axle. Make sure to always take the ride heights with the same reference. Sometimes makes it easier to measure by the top (usually monocoque at the front and gearbox at the rear). Front Ride Height = h - offset Optimum ~ vehiInstantaneous Center Definition This is a point where the body can be described as rotating about. From instant to instant, this point does not stay in one place but also moves through space. Optimumé ~ Vehicle Bynamics 162/594Front View Instantaneous Center Instantaneous center of rotation of the wheel about the ground. Instantaneous center of rotation of the wheel about the chassis. l— = Front View Virtual Swing Arm Length OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 163/594Front View Instantaneous Center '— — Front View Virtual Swing Arm Length OptimurnG — Vehicle Dynamics 164/584Front View Instantaneous Center Dynamics 165/594Side View Instantaneous Center Instantaneous center of rotation of the rear wheel about the chassis. em EP) = — Os as S|Side View Instantaneous Center AX =o |= — Side View Virtual Swing Arm LengthSide View Instantaneous Center Liss — — Side View Virtual Swing Arm Length OptimurnG — Vehicle Dynamics 168/594Front View IC Vertical location Bigger Vertical VSAL induced bigger track and camber variation Vertical Virtual Swing Arm Length OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 169/594Front View IC Lateral location Bigger Lateral VSAL induced bigger track and camber variation. Lateral Virtual Swing Arm Length Optimum - Vehicle Dynamics 170/594Camber Change in Heave ACamber Bump Camber Rebound—\ Z = a eee EEE <—$£@ —@ "es Hi Lateral Virtual Swing Arm Length i : h Camber change in bump/rebound AC,[rad] = aan Optimum = Vehicle Dynamics 171/594 Lateral VSA. | | ) yy8ua7 Wy SUIMs jenyiA jee) — |[po.]e = [po4]"ov Joy ul aBueYD saquiepCamber Change in RollCamber Change in Roll ACp[rad] = ®[rad] — ACg[rad] h ACg[rad] = (cersa) Track x ak 2 [Link] Track a (; x Lat. sai) ACp[rad] = 6 x ACg[rad] = 0 x ( x tan(6) _ Track eee2 h Assuming for a small angle: ax tan(«) ~ Atan(«) OptimumG — Vehicle Dynamics 174/584Camber Change: Comparison Heave/Roll o Camber change in bump o Camber change in roll Lat. VSAL eealiedl i A ACz[rad] = Atan (aim) ACz = 0 if [Link] = © ACR =0 if [Link] = Track ele (: = (; x Lat. VSAL Track 2 OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 175/594 )Camber Change in Roll Violent camber variation If VSAL << Track /2 [Link] [m] 15 25 No camber variation Optimus — VehicleCamber Change: Heave/Roll Find the ideal camber variations in —lateral - - Longitudinal Heave and Rol! Tire data will help you how to ~ sfHA4-"++"-}+ make a compromise between camber variation in heave and roll. Normalized Force [-] -3 -2.5-2-15-1-050 05 115 2 Camber Angle [deg] Optimum ~ Vehicle Dynamics 177/594IC Migration IC from 9 to % track to minimize camber change S 0° of Roll 0.2° of Roll RS — Ic Ic - | > ¢ 0.4° of Roll 0.6° of Roll Optimum ~ Vehicle Dynamics 178/594IC Migration Ideal law of Front View VSAL versus roll angle if the goal is to limit camber _ variation in both heave and roll eae - So Lateral Virtual Swing Arm Length Front View VSAL | eae Roll Angle Lateral Virtual Swing Arm Length OptimurnG — Vehicle Dynamics 179/554Example: Corner Imagine a right front tire temperature distribution in turn 1 and in turn 2 as follows: Turn 2: 0.8 G Tati [Sata eC Cian oltre (3 Turn 1:1.4G Turn1 {170°C | 200°C | 230°C Turn2 | 210°C | 205°C | 200°C 7) It is clearly necessary more negative camber in turn 1 which unfortunately is the opposite of what is needed in turn 2. What do you do to solve the problem? 1. As the lateral acceleration values are not the same for each corner, the amount of body rol also going to be different. 2. Also the speed is different. It means that downforce and ride height are different. Therefore the solution is choosing a new suspension configuration so that the camber increment in roll and ride height is adjusted to what you need. Then do the necessary static camber adjustment for getting the balance. Optimum - Vehicle Dynamics 180/594Side View IC Location [ \vertical Virtual Swing Arm Length Longitudinal Virtual Swing Arm LengthCaster change in Heave ACaster Bump ACaster Rebound —\ Vertical Virtual Swing Arm Length Longitudinal Virtual Swing Arm Length l Sara 7 ) jee tet change in bump/rebound AC;[rad] = Atan lesaaaercr} Optimum — Vehi 2/598Roll Center Definition The roll center has been subject to some criticism. The idea of a single roll center for a suspension is only an approximation. The roll center is not a single point it moves around when there is suspension bump or rol Distinct roll centers: o The kinematic roll center o The force-based roll center o Force-Motion Roll Center Optimum — Vehicle Dynamics 183/584Kinematics Roll Center A property of the suspension, a point found by specified geometrics methods.Kinematics Roll Center OptimumG ~ Vehicle Dynamics 185/594Front View Instantaneous Center namics 186/594© Roll center Roll Center Location {@ Suspended mass center of gravity =I pasRoll Center Location {@ Suspended mass center of gravity © Roll center— Roll Center Location” .."=" toll saw \® Suspended mass center of gravity @ Roll centerKinematics Roll Center Limitations Asymmetric setup. For example different spring stiffness left and right. Force balance stayed the same. Force acting on the spring remained the same but displacement are not equal anymore. The suspended mass will have combined roll and heave. The suspended mass seems to roll around a point closer to the stiffer spring. Optimum — Vehicle DynaTire are not infinitely stiff. If tires are infinitely stiff the suspended mass rolls in the suspension spring as predicted by the kinematic roll center theory. If the spring are infinitely stiff the suspended mass rolls in the tire. Optimum - Vehicle Bynamics 191/594Roll Moment Distance between the suspended mass CG and the roll center acts as a lever. Stiffer spring is require to counter act a bigger lever. Spring stiffness change dynamics behavior of the car (ride and handling).UONeIBI| Ja1UaD ||OY SOeWaUTRoll Center Location Under Rolling Right damper is in compression and left damper is in rebound. Turning leftRoll Center Location Under Rolling Right damper is in less compression and left damper is in more rebound. RC — Turning left Having the roll center closer to one corner of the car and inside the track, is like having stiffer springs in that corner. This is because the kinematics is limiting the spring movement. OptimumG~ Vehicle Dynamics 195/594ep 3y31J pue ya] yjog bull|oy sapUN UOI1EIO7 J91UDD |JOYPitch Center Definition Multiple pitch center theory as seen for the roll center. Pitch center is the center of rotation considered in a longitudinal direction. OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 197/594Pitch Center Location Under Braking Front bump compression and rear rebound extension have the same value. i Wheelbase / 2 ' 1 ee I ' Wheelbase 'Pitch Center Location Under Braking Less compression on the front and more rebound in the rear.Pitch Center Location Under Braking Both spring and damper are in rebound. OptimumG- Vehicle Dynamics 200/594