Land and water resource research process

Climate change is a global problem of this century but its impact is higher in low-income countries like Ethiopia, which has limited capacity to cope with the effects because the country's economy is based on agriculture that directly affected by the impact of climate change. Subsequently, Ethiopia has been facing severe droughts at least twice per decade and several sever flood hazards. Most of the studies confirmed that the country's annual temperature is increasing with about 0.37˚C whereas the rainfall has no clear trend and there is high variability with the rising frequency of floods and droughts. The climate changes projection indicated increasing in temperature by 2.2°C and 3.

Climate change is a global problem of this century but its impact is higher in low-income countries like Ethiopia, which has limited capacity to cope with the effects because the country's economy is based on agriculture that directly affected by the impact of climate change. Subsequently, Ethiopia has been facing severe droughts at least twice per decade and several sever flood hazards. Most of the studies confirmed that the country's annual temperature is increasing with about 0.37˚C whereas the rainfall has no clear trend and there is high variability with the rising frequency of floods and droughts. The climate changes projection indicated increasing in temperature by 2.2°C and 3.

Land degradation in the form of soil erosion is a serious problem in Ethiopia. To combat this, the government undertaken SWC measures across the country since 1970’s. This study therefore, investigated technical standard of implemented soil bund practice in CRV of Ethiopia. A mixed methods approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative data collection tools; HH survey, KI interviews, FGD, observation and desk literature review. HHs were randomly chosen from the sampling frame exist at PA level and a total of 150HHs were selected for this study. Further, soil bund structures were measured and evaluated. The data analysis was carried out by using descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA and chi-square tests. Results of the study showed that soil bund parameters implemented under the standard are bund spacing, width and height of embankment. While bund top width, bottom width, berm width and top width of embankment were better. Soil and stone bunds are mostly preferred, whe...

Climate change is a global problem of this century but its impact is higher in low-income countries like Ethiopia, which has limited capacity to cope with the effects because the country's economy is based on agriculture that directly affected by the impact of climate change. Subsequently, Ethiopia has been facing severe droughts at least twice per decade and several sever flood hazards. Most of the studies confirmed that the country's annual temperature is increasing with about 0.37˚C whereas the rainfall has no clear trend and there is high variability with the rising frequency of floods and droughts. The climate changes projection indicated increasing in temperature by 2.2°C and 3.

Land degradation in the form of soil erosion is a serious problem in Ethiopia. To combat this, the government undertaken SWC measures across the country since 1970's. This study therefore, investigated technical standard of implemented soil bund practice in CRV of Ethiopia. A mixed methods approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative data collection tools; HH survey, KI interviews, FGD, observation and desk literature review. HHs were randomly chosen from the sampling frame exist at PA level and a total of 150HHs were selected for this study. Further, soil bund structures were measured and evaluated. The data analysis was carried out by using descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA and chi-square tests. Results of the study showed that soil bund parameters implemented under the standard are bund spacing, width and height of embankment. While bund top width, bottom width, berm width and top width of embankment were better. Soil and stone bunds are mostly preferred, whereas check dam is the least preferred technology to implement in the study area. Major challenges farmers faced during SWC practices implementation, shortage of labor, lack of technical skills, fear for animal trampling, lack of awareness and lack of sufficient farm tools. Hence, the study has concluded that every year SWC practices implemented by community mobilization are not standardized and consequently it is difficult to manage the watershed in different areas. Therefore, the study suggests that well organized training should be given for experts at different levels to fill the technical gap on their skills and extension services like demonstration should be held for all stakeholders before implementing the SWC structures.

This paper examines the role of farmland trees for the improvement of soil fertilities, enhancement of crop yield, soil and water conservation and Carbon sequestration. Natural resource degradation was one of the major problems that have been affecting social, ecological and economic situation all over the world in general and the highlands of Ethiopia in particular, where there is high population pressure, land susceptible to degradation, climate change, an exploitative farming style which further aggravated land degradation. Hence, different conservation strategies such as soil and water conservation, tree planting on degraded areas and area enclosures were launched at different times. Whereas, researchers have been recommended different ecologically sound agroforestry practices for Ethiopia especially in sloppy and areas susceptible to degradation. Some tree species were identified, and farmers conserved and maintained them on their farmlands traditionally. Hence, well-designed agroforestry practices have significantly reduced soil erosion and surface runoff due to interception of rainfall by the tree canopy, soil surface cover by litter, and formation of erosion-resistant soil structure. Studies indicated that agroforestry is efficient in insuring agricultural sustainability through enhancement of soil fertility by the addition of plant nutrients (N, P, K, Mg, Ca) because most of the agroforestry trees are leguminous that can fix nutrients that are essential for plant growth and development and helped in increasing crop yield. Besides, non-leguminous trees also add organic matter (OM) though the value varies with crop type, tree species, and agro-ecology. Therefore in introducing agroforestry practices, one has to consider crop type, tree species, and agro-ecology under which the practices will be implemented. Besides, agroforestry has the potential to sequester carbon at a higher rate than annual crops because annual crops can only accumulate through their roots and retention of crop residue, whereas the tree accumulated Carbon through roots, litter, and aboveground biomass and reduce global warming. Hence, integrating niche compatible trees into agroforestry practices has a higher potential for production and protection services mainly in sloppy areas.

Knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting germination and growth of tree species is of paramount importance for enhancing the efforts towards afforestation. Hence, the prime objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of seed treatment methods, provenance and size on germination and early nursery performance of Olea europaea. The experiment was arranged in a factorial combination and laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Factor A was seed treatment methods (soaking in three levels of hot water, soaking in four levels of concentrated H 2 SO 4 , heating with fire, de-coating and control). Factor B was two seed provenances and factor C was two seed size classes. Interaction of seed size and provenance had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on all parameters. Different seed soaking method showed highly significant difference (p < 0.01) in all parameters. Seed de-coating had maximum value for all parameters but seeds treated with fire had lowest value. Hence, the germination percentages under nursery condition were 85.8 and 2.5% for decoated and fire treated seeds, respectively. It was concluded that seeds from both provenances and seed size class germinated and were established equally; de-coating improved germination and early nursery performance; whereas, fire affected germination and early nursery performance negatively. Seed de-coating has to be done widely for the improvement of germination and early establishment of Olea europaea and further research is needed on the use of fire for breaking dormancy.

This paper reviews the impact of soil and water conservation (SWC) measures on crop yield, soil properties, water resources and carbon sequestration. Land degradation due to soil erosion in Ethiopia is too severe which affects the livelihood of a community and ecosystem functions. The dry and highland part of the country was identified as seriously vulnerable to land degradation because of soil erosion. And, soil erosion can be limited with proper land management. Ethiopia started construction of SWC on cultivated land nearly 40 years ago. However, the efficiency of structures showed mixed results that are influenced by the type of measures and the agro-ecology. The physical SWC measures in Ethiopia were most widely applied throughout the country. However, the rate of adoption was considerably low due to space competition, inhibition to farming activity, water logging, weed, and rodent problems, topdown approach, and huge maintenance requirement. Majority of studies showed that crop yield on conserved dry land was increased significantly and the economic evaluation also showed positive increment with conservation. In addition, SWC resulted in positive relationship with soil quality improvement and enhancement of water resources. Moreover, SWC measures enhanced carbon sequestration of the soil due to improvement of soil fertility status.

Knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting germination and growth of tree species is of paramount importance for enhancing the efforts towards afforestation. Hence, the prime objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of seed treatment methods, provenance and size on germination and early nursery performance of Olea europaea. The experiment was arranged in a factorial combination and laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Factor A was seed treatment methods (soaking in three levels of hot water, soaking in four levels of concentrated H2SO4, heating with fire, de-coating and control). Factor B was two seed provenances and factor C was two seed size classes. Interaction of seed size and provenance had no significant effect (p &gt; 0.05) on all parameters. Different seed soaking method showed highly significant difference (p &lt; 0.01) in all parameters. Seed de-coating had maximum value for all parameters but seeds treated with fire had...

Climate change is a global problem of this century but its impact is higher in low-income countries like Ethiopia, which has limited capacity to cope with the effects because the country's economy is based on agriculture that directly affected by the impact of climate change. Subsequently, Ethiopia has been facing severe droughts at least twice per decade and several sever flood hazards. Most of the studies confirmed that the country's annual temperature is increasing with about 0.37˚C whereas the rainfall has no clear trend and there is high variability with the rising frequency of floods and droughts. The climate changes projection indicated increasing in temperature by 2.2°C and 3.

Knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting germination and growth of tree species is of paramount importance for enhancing the efforts towards afforestation. Hence, the prime objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of seed treatment methods, provenance and size on germination and early nursery performance of Olea europaea. The experiment was arranged in a factorial combination and laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Factor A was seed treatment methods (soaking in three levels of hot water, soaking in four levels of concentrated H 2 SO 4 , heating with fire, de-coating and control). Factor B was two seed provenances and factor C was two seed size classes. Interaction of seed size and provenance had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on all parameters. Different seed soaking method showed highly significant difference (p < 0.01) in all parameters. Seed de-coating had maximum value for all parameters but seeds treated with fire had lowest value. Hence, the germination percentages under nursery condition were 85.8 and 2.5% for decoated and fire treated seeds, respectively. It was concluded that seeds from both provenances and seed size class germinated and were established equally; de-coating improved germination and early nursery performance; whereas, fire affected germination and early nursery performance negatively. Seed de-coating has to be done widely for the improvement of germination and early establishment of Olea europaea and further research is needed on the use of fire for breaking dormancy.

Knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting germination and growth of tree species is of paramount importance for enhancing the efforts towards afforestation. Hence, the prime objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of seed treatment methods, provenance and size on germination and early nursery performance of Olea europaea. The experiment was arranged in a factorial combination and laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Factor A was seed treatment methods (soaking in three levels of hot water, soaking in four levels of concentrated H 2 SO 4 , heating with fire, de-coating and control). Factor B was two seed provenances and factor C was two seed size classes. Interaction of seed size and provenance had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on all parameters. Different seed soaking method showed highly significant difference (p < 0.01) in all parameters. Seed de-coating had maximum value for all parameters but seeds treated with fire had lowest value. Hence, the germination percentages under nursery condition were 85.8 and 2.5% for decoated and fire treated seeds, respectively. It was concluded that seeds from both provenances and seed size class germinated and were established equally; de-coating improved germination and early nursery performance; whereas, fire affected germination and early nursery performance negatively. Seed de-coating has to be done widely for the improvement of germination and early establishment of Olea europaea and further research is needed on the use of fire for breaking dormancy.

One of the most significant environmental hazards threatening ecosystems is gully erosion. In this study, we applied two
bivariate statistical models—frequency ratio (FR) and index of entropy (IoE)—as well as a machine learning algorithm (RF) to
generate gully erosion susceptibility maps (GESM). The study was conducted in the Dodota Alem watershed of the Awash River
basin, covering 135 km². Our modeling utilized input data from field surveys, Google Earth, and secondary sources.
Geo-environmental factors such as land use and land cover, soil characteristics, altitude, slope, aspect, profile curvature, plan
curvature, drainage density, distance from roads, distance from streams, stream power index (SPI), and topographic wetness
index (TWI) were considered after a multi-collinearity test. Among these factors, distance from roads had the most substantial
impact on gully erosion susceptibility according to the RF model, while SPI played a crucial role in the FR and IoE models.
Approximately 60% of the watershed falls into the moderate or high susceptibility category for gully erosion using the FR and
IoE models, whereas the RF model projected the largest area in the very high susceptibility class. Validation results, based on the
Area Under Curve (AUC), demonstrated prediction efficiencies of 0.912 (FR), 0.880 (IoE), and 0.932 (RF). These findings can
guide decision-makers and planners in implementing effective soil and water conservation measures to mitigate the damage
caused by gully erosion. Additionally, this approach serves as a valuable reference for future research on gully erosion
susceptibility.

The green seeker sensor reading of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is highly related with leaf N content in quality protein maize (Zea mays). Mean yield components of quality protein maize were significantly affected by application of nitrogen rate in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons. Increasing N rate from 0 to 100 kg ha increased significantly all parameters of quality protein maize varieties. Significantly a taller 1 plant height, higher leaf area and leaf area index was recorded from 50-100 kg N ha than other treatments. Higher correlation between NDVI reading and leaf area were observed, with correlation coefficients of 0.46 and 0.47 at V4 and V6 growth stage in 2013 cropping season resulted in a good correlation between NDVI and leaf area. N application rates produced significantly higher increase up to 50-100 kg ha and small increase after 1 suggesting that the rate supplied sufficient N for maximum yield of maize. Significantly higher mean grain yield of quality maize varieties (AMH760Q and BH-545) was obtained between 50-100 kg N ha in both cropping 1 seasons. Better correlation coefficients of 0.36 and 0.60 in 2013 and 2014 cropping season between INSEY and mean grain yields of maize were observed, indicating that predicating grain yield with In Season Estimation of Yield of quality protein maize. The Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI) reading at V4 and V6 have 5 % and 1% positive meaningful correlation with grain yield (r=0.72 and 0.65), indicating, Normalized Difference Vegetative Index reading at V4 and V6 put positive impression in grain yield of QPM. In conclusion based on promising results validation of nitrogen rate for side dressing and N use efficiency of QPM varieties (AMH760Q and BH-545) production in the area is needed.

Maize farm fields were selected in two districts of western Showa, Ethiopia. Four representative maize fields were selected based on landforms and other physiographic attributes in humid highland and sub humid mid altitude areas of Toke Kutaye and Bako Tibe Districts. The objective was to characterize and classify the soils under maize production in Toke Kutaye and Bako Tibe Districts of western Showa, Ethiopia. Four soil profiles were opened and characterized. Pedons are formed under udic and perudic moisture and iso-thermic temperature regimes for both districts. The soils were very deep, well-drained reddish brown to dark reddish brown loamy sand to sandy clay loams, with thick reddish brown loamy sand top and sub soil for Bako Tibe and Toke Kutaye. Three pedons had clayey top and sub soils. The pH of surface soil ranged from 4.48-5.52 which was very strongly acidic to strongly acidic. The soil organic carbon contents of the topsoil and subsoil of the four pedons ranged from 2.07 to 2.69% and 0.35 to 2.85 %, which were rated as medium to high, but very low to high respectively. Both two highland pedons had CEC ranging from 20.06 to 54.17 cmolc kg -1 soil, which was rated as medium to very high, while in the two mid altitude pedons it ranged from 10.82 to 23.52 cmolc kg -1 soil CEC, which was low to medium. The total nitrogen levels ranged from 0.19 to 0.23% for topsoils, which was low to medium, and from 0.03 to 0.07 % for subsoils, which was very low. According to USDA Soil Taxonomy, the four pedons were classified as Typic Palehumults (Acrisols and Alisols according to WRB). The four pedons were different in physicochemical properties, indicating the need to characterize soils to give site-specific fertilizer recommendations for maize production.

The biological N 2-fixation in faba bean on subsequent nitrogen fertilizer requirement of highland maize varieties would be useful in the guiding application of additional nitrogen fertilizer in cropping sequence. Significantly higher mean leaf area, leaf area index, plant height, grain yield, thousand seed weight, dry biomass and harvest index of maze were obtained following faba bean precursor crop with nitrogen application. Interaction of faba bean precursor crop with rhizobium inoculation by maize varieties and nitrogen fertilizer was significantly differed in all the maize characteristics measured. Interaction of faba bean precursor crop with rhizobium inoculation and maize varieties significantly affected mean leaf area and leaf area index of maize varieties. Maize planted following faba bean precursor crop without rhizobium inoculation produced significantly higher mean grain yield at full recommended nitrogen fertilizer. Significantly higher mean grain yield of maize was obtained from the application of half recommended nitrogen fertilizer following faba bean precursor crop with rhizobium inoculation. The planting of faba bean varieties with and without rhizobium inoculation was improved N status of the soil and nitrogen fertilizer response maize varieties. Production of maize varieties following faba bean precursor crop without and with rhizobium inoculation by the application of half recommended nitrogen fertilizer were recommended for sustainable maize production in highlands of western Ethiopia.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most widely grown important crop in mid altitude areas of intensive maize-based cropping system of western Ethiopia. Agronomic management is the most important input for getting potential yield and high net returns in hybrid maize production. A field experiment was carried out on farmers&rsquo; field to find out the effect of varieties (four maize) and nitrogen fertilizer rate (55, 110 kg N ha-1) with one control on yield components and nitrogen use efficiency of different maize varieties in 2013 and 2014 cropping season. It was laid with randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. Mean grain yield, thousand seed weight, dry biomass and harvest index of maize varieties were significantly differed among farms and varieties of maize. Application of nitrogen fertilizer rates was significantly increased mean grain yield maize varieties. Interaction of maize varieties with nitrogen fertilizer rates was significantly affect...