Articles by Torsten Hylén
Religion och Livsfrågor, 2023
This short paper (in Swedish) suggests an alternative model to essentialist conceptions of religi... more This short paper (in Swedish) suggests an alternative model to essentialist conceptions of religion in religion education in schools.
![Research paper thumbnail of Muhammad och migrationen till Abessinien: källor och metoder [In Swedish]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/97330078/thumbnails/1.jpg)
DIN – Tidsskrift for religion og kultur, 2022
SWEDISH ABSTRACT
Frågan om hur mycket vi kan veta om den historiske Muhammad har länge sysselsatt... more SWEDISH ABSTRACT
Frågan om hur mycket vi kan veta om den historiske Muhammad har länge sysselsatt islamhistoriker, och skapat hård debatt. Inte mycket har skrivits om forskningen och debatterna om Muhammad på svenska eller andra nordiska språk de senaste årtiondena. I denna artikel vill jag lyfta fram något av den internationella forskningen och visa på några av de källor och metoder som används för att bättre förstå islams tidigaste historia. Som exempel har jag valt att analysera traditionen om hur Muhammad skickade några av sina anhängare till Abessinien för att de skulle undkomma förföljelserna från de icke-troende i Mecka. Två typer av källor analyseras. Dels diskuterar jag några versioner av berättelsen om den Abessinska migrationen ur olika Muhammadbiografier. De äldsta versionerna av detta material kan daters till sekelskiftet 699–700, alltså 70–80 år efter den händelse som beskrivs. Under denna tid kan berättelserna om profeten och hans liv ha bearbetats mycket, och vi kan inte vara säkra på att de återger en historisk verklighet. Det materialet kompletteras i denna studie av en hadith som bara antydningsvis berör migrationen till Abessinien, men som visar på en mindre smickrande sida av förhållandet mellan migranterna och de som stannade kvar i Mecka, och därför kan antas bekräfta att migrationen ägde rum.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
The question about how much we can know about Muhammad as an historical person has engaged historians of Islam for a long time and created fierce debate. In Swedish or other Nordic languages not much has been written about this research and the related debates. In the present study, I want to draw attention to some of the international research and point at some of the sources and methods used to understand the earliest history of Islam. As an example, I have chosen to analyse the tradition about Muhammad’s sending of his companions to Abyssinia to help them escape from the persecution of the non-Muslims there. Two types of sources are analysed. Some versions of the Abyssinian migration from various biographies about Muhammad are discussed. The earliest of these can be dated to the turn of the eighth century CE; about 70–80 years after the events described. During this time, the stories about the Prophet would probably have been shaped by the interests of the later community, and we cannot be sure that they relate a historical reality. Therefore, this material is supplemented in the present study, by a hadith which only in passing refers to the Abyssinian migration, but which manifests a less flattering side of the relationship be-tween the migrants and those Muslims who stayed in Mecca. Thus, it can be concluded that it confirms that the migration actually took place.
Shii Studies Review, 2019
In this study the author examines some aspects of authority in the movement of the Shiʿite leader... more In this study the author examines some aspects of authority in the movement of the Shiʿite leader al-Mukhtār (d. 67/687). The notion of religious aesthetics as developed by Birgit Meyer is used as an analytical tool. It is argued that al-Mukhtār accomplished his political endeavour partly by introducing and controlling three "aesthetic forms" which functioned as "media" between the people and the deceased ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib: his claim to act on behalf of ʿAlī's son Ibn al-Ḥanafiyya, whom he called al-mahdī, "the rightly guided"; his call to revenge for the killing of ʿAlī's son Ḥusayn; and his exhibiting of a chair that he claimed had belonged to ʿAlī. The accounts of these three media, the author furthermore argues, have an historical foundation. Finally he holds that through these media al-Mukhtār was able to channel the needs and aspirations of many of the Shiites of Kufa into political action.
The concept of al-mahdi is an important theological idea in Shi'ism, its literary meaning being '... more The concept of al-mahdi is an important theological idea in Shi'ism, its literary meaning being 'the rightly guided'. In Twelver Shi'ism it has come to denote the hidden Imam who will one day return to redeem his followers and restore justice on Earth, and in that sense it is akin to the Christian idea of the Messiah. Among scholars of early Islam there is near-consensus on the view that the transition of meaning from its literal meaning 'the rightly guided' to an eschatological redeemer occurred with the Shi'ite rebel leader al-Mukhtar b. Abi 'Ubayd (d. 686), when he applied it to Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya, the son of 'Ali. In the present study I contest that view. I hold that while it can be established from the sources that Mukhtar probably spoke of Ibn al-Hanafiyya as al-mahdi, they do not support his use of this title in a messianic sense. This eschatological meaning can only be verified soon after his death. Finally, I argue that this question is methodologically rather than historically significant.
Intellectual History of the Islamicate World, 2018
The developing myth about the events at Karbala, as well as the image of al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī and th... more The developing myth about the events at Karbala, as well as the image of al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī and the cult connected with him, were important factors in the shaping of early Shiite identity. In this article, I argue that some of the earliest traces of this process are found in the account of the Tawwābūn, or Penitents, events which took place in the years immediately following the death of al-Ḥusayn at Karbala in 60/680. Important elements of this story originate at least as early as the late first/early eighth century. In the story we see the image of al-Ḥusayn in process of transformation from that of someone merely human to someone ascribed traits that transcend the human. In the same course of events, the story of his death at Karbala is in process of being elevated from a tragic story to a myth with its associated rituals.
Studia Islamica, 2017
Of the many studies of the emergence and early development of Shīʿism that have been made, remark... more Of the many studies of the emergence and early development of Shīʿism that have been made, remarkably few have seriously analysed the story of the Tawwābūn (‘Penitents’). Some scholars have explicitly stated, or at least intimated, that the story is early, and hence argued that it is important for understanding the emergence of Shīʿism. No substantial study has been made of the date of the story, however. In the present study, I will analyse a part of the story of the Tawwābūn—the visit to the grave of al-Ḥusayn—as it is given us by the historian al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923), who most probably faithfully renders the account by Abū Mikhnaf (d. 157/774). I will argue that at least this part of the story dates back to the end of the 1st century AH/beginning of the 8th century CE. Together with other indications for an old age, this supports the argument that much of the text, albeit not all of it, is indeed early.
This article is an analysis of the story of the killing of al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī at Karbala in 61/680... more This article is an analysis of the story of the killing of al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī at Karbala in 61/680, as it is presented by Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad b. Jarīr al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923). The main argument is that the notion of the divine covenant, which permeates the Qur'an, constitutes a framework through which al-Ṭabarī views this event. The Qur'anic idea of the covenant is read in structural/thematic continuity with the Hebrew Bible account of the covenant between Yahweh and the Hebrew people, which has, in turn, been traced back in its basic form to Late Bronze Era treaties between rulers and their vassals. The present study focusses on four speeches ascribed to al-Ḥusayn during the encounter he and his group had with the vanguard of the Kufan army led by al-Ḥurr. These are analysed in accordance with their use of Qur'anic covenant vocabulary. They are also categorised within the broader framework of the eight standard characteristics of Ancient West Asian and Biblical covenants, as presented by George Mendenhall and Gary Herion, which have recently been developed in a Qur'anic context by Rosalind Ward Gwynne. This article argues that al-Ṭabarī's Karbala narrative presents the pact of loyalty to al-Ḥusayn as a clear extension of the divine covenant.
![Research paper thumbnail of Essentialism i religionsundervisningen, ett religionsdidaktiskt problem [in Swedish]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/53604778/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Essentialist concepts of religion are common in the teaching of religion in schools and to a cert... more Essentialist concepts of religion are common in the teaching of religion in schools and to a certain extent also in the academic discipline of religious studies. In this article, a number of problems with essentialist perceptions of religion are discussed. In the first part of the article a thesis is maintained, according to which essentialist conceptions of religion or specific religions are too limited to be of value in the teaching of religion. This is done through examples of essentialist expressions on religion. The examples are grouped according to a typology of different kinds of essentialism. Two main categories, each with two sub-categories are identified. Thus, the category of essentialism regarding the substance of religion is divided into transcendental or theological essentialism (which presupposes the existence of a sacred power of some kind, the experience of which is the basis for religion), and core essentialism (where it is presupposed that certain ideas or concepts constitute religion as a general category or specific religions). Likewise, the category of essentialism regarding the function of religion has two sub-categories: positive and negative essentialism. These kinds of essentialism presuppose that religion or specific religions are inherently good or harmful respectively to human beings. Examples from each of these categories are given and discussed. In the second part of the article, Benson Saler’s open concept of religion is presented as an alternative to essentialist or bounded perceptions. It is based on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s idea of family resemblances and on prototype theory. In connection with this, it is argued that a certain kind of conscious ethnocentrism is needed as a point of departure in the study and teaching of religion. The metaphor of education as a journey from the familiar out into the unfamiliar and back again is suggested as a possible pattern for such teaching. Finally, some examples of non-essentialist ways to introduce religions are offered.
Chapters in books by Torsten Hylén
Africa as Method: A Handbook of Sources and Epistemologies. Dirar, Uoldelul Chelati and Karin Pallaver (eds.)., 2024
According to Muslim tradition, the Prophet Muḥammad sent some of his followers to Abyssinia to es... more According to Muslim tradition, the Prophet Muḥammad sent some of his followers to Abyssinia to escape from the persecution that he and his community experienced in Mecca. This first hijra (Arabic for “emigration”) is the first recorded instance of Muslims in Africa, and has become a story of great importance for many African Muslims, even today. The tradition relates how the Negus of Abyssinia received the Muslim emigrants well. He did not hand them over to the Meccan delegation that opponents to the Prophet had sent to bring them back. According to one tradition, the Negus even converted to Islam. The story is related, or alluded to, in two categories of sources that claim to describe the life of Muḥammad: the biographies of his life, and some of the ḥadīths, i.e. legal traditions said to record his sayings and doings. Modern scholars have debated to what extent these sources can be used in the study of the history of the Prophet; their positions range from total scepticism to more or less uncritical acceptance of the sources. In this study, two sources regarding the migration to Abyssinia are investigated, one from each of the above-mentioned categories: a letter describing the early work of the Prophet, purportedly written by the traditionist ʿUrwa b. al-Zubayr (d. 713), and a ḥadith about tensions between the migrants to Abyssinia and those who remained in Mecca. The conclusion is that there is reason to believe that the Abyssinian migration actually took place, although details, such as the dealings between the migrants and the Negus, are probably later additions to the story.
Den nya människan: Om mänsklighetens ständiga strävan att omskapa sig själv, red. T. Axelson och T. Hylén, Gidlunds, 2022
I detta kapitlel visas hur Islamiska statens (IS) propaganda under 2010-talets mitt var fylld av ... more I detta kapitlel visas hur Islamiska statens (IS) propaganda under 2010-talets mitt var fylld av föreställningar om tidens slut. Ett av IS-kalifatets främsta syften var att bereda vägen för den yttersta tiden, och den enskilda människan uppmanades att välja vilken sida hon eller han ville stå på när Guds dom föll över världen. Författaren lyfter fram IS tanke om den rättrogna muslimens främlingskap i världen: genom att ta ställning för det sanna islam och ”migrera” till kalifatet i både mental, och fysisk mening, skulle främlingskapet upphävas och människans liv bli äkta.
Perspektiv på islam: en vänbok till Christer Hedin, 2011
Dialogos Förlag Odengatan 3 6 113 51 Stockholm Tel 08 • 15 46 97 [email protected] www.dia... more Dialogos Förlag Odengatan 3 6 113 51 Stockholm Tel 08 • 15 46 97 [email protected] www.dialogosforlag.se Perspektiv p å islam E n vän bok t ill Christer H edin Susanne Olsson & Simon Sorgenfrei (red.) Första upplagan Första tryckningen © Dialogos Förlag 2011
SwePub titelinformation: Är Kerbela-dramat en myt?
Människor och makter 2.0: En introduktion till …, Jan 1, 2010
This article in Swedish is a short introduction to the concept of myth, mainly for undergraduate ... more This article in Swedish is a short introduction to the concept of myth, mainly for undergraduate students. It is published in the electronic book "Människor och makter 2.0: En introduktion till religionsvetenskap", ed. Jonas Svensson & Stefan Arvidsson, Halmstad: Högskolan i Halmstad, 2010.
Textbook Gods: Genre, Text and Teaching Religious Studies, ed. by Bengt-Ove Andreassen, James R. Lewis, Sheffield: Equinox, 2014, pp. 16-42.
Essentialist concepts of religion are common in the teaching of religion in schools and to a cert... more Essentialist concepts of religion are common in the teaching of religion in schools and to a certain extent also in the academic discipline of religious studies. In this article, a number of problems with essentialist perceptions of religion are discussed. In the first part of the article a thesis is maintained, according to which essentialist conceptions of religion or specific religions are too limited to be of value in the teaching of religion. This is done through examples of essentialist expressions on religion. The examples are grouped according to a typology of different kinds of essentialism. Two main categories, each with two sub-categories are identified. Thus, the category of essentialism regarding the substance of religion is divided into transcendental or theological essentialism (which presupposes the existence of a sacred power of some kind, the experience of which is the basis for religion), and core essentialism (where it is presupposed that certain ideas or concepts constitute religion as a general category or specific religions). Likewise, the category of essentialism regarding the function of religion has two sub-categories: positive and negative essentialism. These kinds of essentialism presuppose that religion or specific religions are inherently good or harmful respectively to human beings. Examples from each of these categories are given and discussed. In the second part of the article, Benson Saler’s open concept of religion is presented as an alternative to essentialist or bounded perceptions. It is based on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s idea of family resemblances and on prototype theory. In connection with this, it is argued that a certain kind of conscious ethnocentrism is needed as a point of departure in the study and teaching of religion. The metaphor of education as a journey from the familiar out into the unfamiliar and back again is suggested as a possible pattern for such teaching.
If you want a copy of the paper, please let me know. E-mail: [email protected]
![Research paper thumbnail of Shiitisk islam i vardande [in Swedish]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/41954998/thumbnails/1.jpg)
En profil i profilen: vänbok till Bo G Jansson
Innehållsförteckning MED BLICKEN MOT HISTORIEN Shiitisk islam i vardande: Myt, rit och identitet ... more Innehållsförteckning MED BLICKEN MOT HISTORIEN Shiitisk islam i vardande: Myt, rit och identitet | 3 Torsten Hylén Några nedslag bland Dalarnas runinskrifter | 21 Patrik Larsson DÄR SPRÅK OCH KULTURER MÖTS Religion i ett sekulariserat samhälle: Populärreligiositet i Sverige | 33 Liselotte Frisk Skriva på engelska: Forskares villkor, språkliga resurser och strategier under skrivandet av en vetenskaplig artikel | 51 Åsa Wedin, Jenny Rosén och Boglårka Stras%er Modersmål? Skönlitterära skildringar av att inte dela förstaspråk med sina föräldrar | 67 Maria M. Berglund Identitet och gestaltning av en katt som är ett barn (eller tvärtom): Ett exempel från en modern svensk barnbok och dess översättning till franska | 83 Charlotte Lindgren MÄNNISKOR OCH MÄNNISKOSYN I LITTERATUREN Sarkasmer och smädelser i Vilhelm Ekelunds författarskap | 103 Mattias Aronsson Manlighet och modernitet i Victoria Benedictssons äktenskapsromaner Pengar och Fru Marianne | 121 Eva Heggestad Litterär gestaltning i språkvetenskaplig belysning: Tre kvinnor -och en apa -i Darling River | 131 Catharina Nyström Höög KUNSKAP, SANNING, VERKLIGHET Faktion och metafiktion om stalintiden i Alexander Terechovs postsovjetiska roman Stenbron | 149 Julie Hansen Palimpsestiskt tänkande: Fakta, fiktion och audiovisuell konstruktion av upplevd autenticitet | 165 Tomas Axelson Vad betyder ordetpositivism? Försök till karaktäristik av ett tänkesätt | 179 Sverre Wide Författarpresentationer | 197
Conference presentations by Torsten Hylén
Symposium about Karbala, 2024
The paper is a summary of some of the ideas from a book that will be published at Edinburgh Unive... more The paper is a summary of some of the ideas from a book that will be published at Edinburgh University Press in 2025. As the time for this presentation was limited, I have skipped all the dense textual analyses that make up the core of the book, and just shared the main theoretical framework and some of the main conclusions.
Conference presentation, 2022
Paper presented at the BRAIS conference in Edinburgh, 6–7 June 2022.
The story of the killing of Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī at Karbalāʾ is of course one of the most important nar... more The story of the killing of Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī at Karbalāʾ is of course one of the most important narratives in Shīʿite Islam. In this paper, a very early phase in the development of this story into a Shīʿite myth will be discussed. It will be argued that in the story of the Tawwābūn (the Penitents) we can see some of the mechanisms of this process at work.
The paper will begin with a brief discussion of the concept of myth which leads up to a stipulated definition of myth: the term will be used to connote a narrative that is foundational to the world view and identity of a group of people. I will argue that the story of the Tawwābūn, at least the parts that are relevant in this context, date back to the beginning of the 2nd/8th century if not earlier. Finally, I will maintain that, in this early story we see how pre-Islamic stories are re-interpreted, and old rituals are filled with new meaning in accordance with the Karbalāʾ event and the Tawwābūn’s feeling of guilt concerning Ḥusayn’s fate. The story of the Tawwābūn thus testifies to the growing importance of the Karbalāʾ drama and the beginning of its development into a myth in the sense mentioned above.
Despite its importance for Shīʿites and other Muslims, the story of the death of Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī a... more Despite its importance for Shīʿites and other Muslims, the story of the death of Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī at Karbala in 61/680 is clearly under-researched. So, for example, except for Borrut (2015) hardly any of the previous studies made have compared different versions of the story and attempted to set a relative date to them. Such a study is necessary in order to map the development of the Karbalāʾ story and the image of Ḥusayn in the emergence of Shīʿite ideology. In this paper I will discuss the relative date of two important versions of the Karbala story related by Ṭabarī: one, relatively short and lacking in detail, is ascribed to Imam al-Bāqir (d. 114/732); the other, much longer and more detailed, is compiled by Abū Mikhnaf (d. 157/774). Studies in other fields, such as “historical Jesus-studies,” have shown that brevity and lack of details is not a certain criterion for old age of a version of a story; in order to ascertain the relative age of two versions, detailed studies have to be made and conclusions drawn from case to case. By comparing three passages in the two versions of the Karbalāʾ story: Ḥusayn’s encounter with al-Ḥurr; Ḥusayn’s attempt to negotiate with the enemy; and the killing of Ḥusayn’s baby boy, I hope to demonstrate that the version ascribed to al-Bāqir is indeed the older of the two, although its authorship cannot be established with certainty. I will also share some thoughts about the historicity of the events described in the three passages analyzed.
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Articles by Torsten Hylén
Frågan om hur mycket vi kan veta om den historiske Muhammad har länge sysselsatt islamhistoriker, och skapat hård debatt. Inte mycket har skrivits om forskningen och debatterna om Muhammad på svenska eller andra nordiska språk de senaste årtiondena. I denna artikel vill jag lyfta fram något av den internationella forskningen och visa på några av de källor och metoder som används för att bättre förstå islams tidigaste historia. Som exempel har jag valt att analysera traditionen om hur Muhammad skickade några av sina anhängare till Abessinien för att de skulle undkomma förföljelserna från de icke-troende i Mecka. Två typer av källor analyseras. Dels diskuterar jag några versioner av berättelsen om den Abessinska migrationen ur olika Muhammadbiografier. De äldsta versionerna av detta material kan daters till sekelskiftet 699–700, alltså 70–80 år efter den händelse som beskrivs. Under denna tid kan berättelserna om profeten och hans liv ha bearbetats mycket, och vi kan inte vara säkra på att de återger en historisk verklighet. Det materialet kompletteras i denna studie av en hadith som bara antydningsvis berör migrationen till Abessinien, men som visar på en mindre smickrande sida av förhållandet mellan migranterna och de som stannade kvar i Mecka, och därför kan antas bekräfta att migrationen ägde rum.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
The question about how much we can know about Muhammad as an historical person has engaged historians of Islam for a long time and created fierce debate. In Swedish or other Nordic languages not much has been written about this research and the related debates. In the present study, I want to draw attention to some of the international research and point at some of the sources and methods used to understand the earliest history of Islam. As an example, I have chosen to analyse the tradition about Muhammad’s sending of his companions to Abyssinia to help them escape from the persecution of the non-Muslims there. Two types of sources are analysed. Some versions of the Abyssinian migration from various biographies about Muhammad are discussed. The earliest of these can be dated to the turn of the eighth century CE; about 70–80 years after the events described. During this time, the stories about the Prophet would probably have been shaped by the interests of the later community, and we cannot be sure that they relate a historical reality. Therefore, this material is supplemented in the present study, by a hadith which only in passing refers to the Abyssinian migration, but which manifests a less flattering side of the relationship be-tween the migrants and those Muslims who stayed in Mecca. Thus, it can be concluded that it confirms that the migration actually took place.
Chapters in books by Torsten Hylén
If you want a copy of the paper, please let me know. E-mail: [email protected]
Conference presentations by Torsten Hylén
The paper will begin with a brief discussion of the concept of myth which leads up to a stipulated definition of myth: the term will be used to connote a narrative that is foundational to the world view and identity of a group of people. I will argue that the story of the Tawwābūn, at least the parts that are relevant in this context, date back to the beginning of the 2nd/8th century if not earlier. Finally, I will maintain that, in this early story we see how pre-Islamic stories are re-interpreted, and old rituals are filled with new meaning in accordance with the Karbalāʾ event and the Tawwābūn’s feeling of guilt concerning Ḥusayn’s fate. The story of the Tawwābūn thus testifies to the growing importance of the Karbalāʾ drama and the beginning of its development into a myth in the sense mentioned above.
Frågan om hur mycket vi kan veta om den historiske Muhammad har länge sysselsatt islamhistoriker, och skapat hård debatt. Inte mycket har skrivits om forskningen och debatterna om Muhammad på svenska eller andra nordiska språk de senaste årtiondena. I denna artikel vill jag lyfta fram något av den internationella forskningen och visa på några av de källor och metoder som används för att bättre förstå islams tidigaste historia. Som exempel har jag valt att analysera traditionen om hur Muhammad skickade några av sina anhängare till Abessinien för att de skulle undkomma förföljelserna från de icke-troende i Mecka. Två typer av källor analyseras. Dels diskuterar jag några versioner av berättelsen om den Abessinska migrationen ur olika Muhammadbiografier. De äldsta versionerna av detta material kan daters till sekelskiftet 699–700, alltså 70–80 år efter den händelse som beskrivs. Under denna tid kan berättelserna om profeten och hans liv ha bearbetats mycket, och vi kan inte vara säkra på att de återger en historisk verklighet. Det materialet kompletteras i denna studie av en hadith som bara antydningsvis berör migrationen till Abessinien, men som visar på en mindre smickrande sida av förhållandet mellan migranterna och de som stannade kvar i Mecka, och därför kan antas bekräfta att migrationen ägde rum.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
The question about how much we can know about Muhammad as an historical person has engaged historians of Islam for a long time and created fierce debate. In Swedish or other Nordic languages not much has been written about this research and the related debates. In the present study, I want to draw attention to some of the international research and point at some of the sources and methods used to understand the earliest history of Islam. As an example, I have chosen to analyse the tradition about Muhammad’s sending of his companions to Abyssinia to help them escape from the persecution of the non-Muslims there. Two types of sources are analysed. Some versions of the Abyssinian migration from various biographies about Muhammad are discussed. The earliest of these can be dated to the turn of the eighth century CE; about 70–80 years after the events described. During this time, the stories about the Prophet would probably have been shaped by the interests of the later community, and we cannot be sure that they relate a historical reality. Therefore, this material is supplemented in the present study, by a hadith which only in passing refers to the Abyssinian migration, but which manifests a less flattering side of the relationship be-tween the migrants and those Muslims who stayed in Mecca. Thus, it can be concluded that it confirms that the migration actually took place.
If you want a copy of the paper, please let me know. E-mail: [email protected]
The paper will begin with a brief discussion of the concept of myth which leads up to a stipulated definition of myth: the term will be used to connote a narrative that is foundational to the world view and identity of a group of people. I will argue that the story of the Tawwābūn, at least the parts that are relevant in this context, date back to the beginning of the 2nd/8th century if not earlier. Finally, I will maintain that, in this early story we see how pre-Islamic stories are re-interpreted, and old rituals are filled with new meaning in accordance with the Karbalāʾ event and the Tawwābūn’s feeling of guilt concerning Ḥusayn’s fate. The story of the Tawwābūn thus testifies to the growing importance of the Karbalāʾ drama and the beginning of its development into a myth in the sense mentioned above.
This paper will discuss the emergence of Shiʿite mourning rituals around the grave of Husayn b. ʿAli. After the killing of Husayn at Karbala’ in 61/680, a number of men in Kufa feel deep regret for their neglect to come to the help of the grandson of the Prophet. They gather and discuss how they can best make penitence for this crime. Eventually, they decide to take to arms and go against the Umayyad army – to kill those that killed Husayn, or be killed themselves in the attempt to find revenge for him. Thus, they are called the Penitents (Ar. Tawwābūn). On their way to the battlefield they stop at Husayn’s tomb at Karbala’, dedicating themselves to remorseful prayer, crying and wailing over the fate of Husayn and their own sin.
When the Penitents perform certain ritual acts, such as weeping and wailing over the death of Husayn, visiting his grave, asking for God’s mercy upon him on the Day of Judgment, demand blood revenge for him etc., they enter into already existing rituals in the pre-Islamic Arab and early Muslim context. That is, they enter into rituals that were traditionally performed at the death of a person. What is new is that the rituals that the Penitents perform have partially received a new content. As described, the rituals are performed out of loyalty towards Husayn and the family of the Prophet. The lack of loyalty in connection with the death of Husayn is conceived of as a sin that has to be atoned. Blood revenge thus becomes not only a pure action of revenge to restore honor, but equally an expression for true religious conversion and penitence.
Humphrey and Laidlaw argue that ritual actions in themselves are not bearers of meaning, but that they are filled with meaning by the performer. According to them, ritual actions are apprehensible, i.e. they can be, and should be filled with meaning, and the people who perform them try to do so within the context where the ritual is performed. The story of the Penitents is a clear example of mourning rituals as actions that survive from earlier times, but that are now filled with new meaning when they are performed in a new and developing movement with a different ideology. In later Shiʿism, these rituals are elaborated and become a main tenet of this form of Islam.
Torsten Hylén (Th.D.)
Dalarna University
Falun
Sweden
A portion of the text, called the “Text of Reference,” has been selected and thoroughly analyzed. In that analysis, a number of structural features such as codes, oppositions, mediations, and transformations has been identified and made the basis for a more cursory study of the rest of the story. An important structural feature that is detected in this way is the way the argument of the story is forwarded. By the transformation of metaphors into metonyms, the story attempts to make arbitrary relationships look natural and intrinsic. Such a relationship is that between water and blood—two liquids which are at times shed, at times withheld in the story. Husayn takes a mediating position in that he gives his water and his blood. He acts as mediator both in a negative sense (he establishes the basic Islamic opposition of good and evil), and in a positive sense (as religious guide he acts as a bridge between them).
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