280 Journal of the Japan Petroleum Institute, 56, (5), 280-287 (2013)

[Review Paper]

Hydrogen Production by Photocatalytic Water Splitting

Su Su Khine MA, Takashi HISATOMI, and Kazunari DOMEN

Dept. of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, JAPAN

(Received May 6, 2013)

Hydrogen gas as a fuel has the potential to alleviate the threat of global climate change and help to avoid vari-
ous undesirable effects caused by the mass consumption of fossil fuel. Photocatalytic water splitting has been
widely studied as a potential method to produce H2 from renewable solar energy. Photocatalysts that can operate
under visible light irradiation (λ400 n m), which forms the main part of sunlight, are highly desirable.
Successful two-step water splitting systems (Z-scheme) that operate with or without a reversible redox couple
have been reported for the application of visible light-driven photocatalysts. The Z-scheme system, which
mimics photosynthesis in green plants, consists of two photocatalysts, one for H2 evolution, and the other for O2
evolution. The Z-scheme process can utilize a wider range of visible light than the conventional one-step excita-
tion system because the energy required to drive each photocatalyst can be reduced. This review presents recent
research progress in the development of visible light-driven photocatalytic materials with a focus on Z-scheme
water splitting.

Keywords
Hydrogen production, Two-step water splitting, Z-scheme, Visible light, Photocatalyst

1. Introduction catalysts in order to effectively utilize the available

solar energy.
Recently, natural sources of energy have become Sunlight (AM1.5G) consists of three main compo-
increasingly important to provide alternative fuels for nents in terms of wavelengths: ultraviolet rays (λ
environmentally friendly, sustainable development. 400 n m), visible light (400 nmλ800 n m), and
Hydrogen, which has been proposed as the main energy infrared rays (λ800 n m), accounting for 4, 53, and
source of the future, could offer a solution to the threat 43 % of the solar energy, respectively. The theoretical
of global climate change and help avoid the undesirable maximum efficiency of solar energy conversion increases
effects caused by mass consumption of fossil fuels. with the wavelength. The maximum solar energy con-
Hydrogen is a clean energy carrier when used in fuel version efficiencies are calculated to be 2, 16, and
cells because only water is emitted as an oxidation 32 %, at 400, 600, and 800 nm, respectively, given that
product. Efficient, abundant and economical hydro- the quantum efficiency of photocatalytic water splitting
gen production will have important implications for the is unity2).
hydrogen economy. The growing interest in environ-
mentally benign and energy-saving technologies has 2. Photocatalytic Water Splitting
intensified developments in the field of distributed
hydrogen production. In particular, production of 2. 1. Basic Principles of Water Splitting on a
hydrogen using solar energy has attracted significant Heterogeneous Photocatalyst
attention as a key issue in the utilization of the sun as Photocatalytic overall water splitting is a simple
the most abundant source of renewable energy. chemical process in which hydrogen (H2) and oxygen
Photocatalytic hydrogen generation from water is one (O2) are produced from water by utilizing the energy of
of the attractive, environmentally friendly methods for light. This process is also called artificial photo-
harvesting solar energy 1). The photocatalytic splitting synthesis. The overall water splitting reaction is endo-
of water into hydrogen and oxygen using a powdered thermic with an increase in Gibbs free energy of 238 kJ
photocatalyst has become the subject of research, mainly mol –1. Theoretically, only solar energy (photons),
focusing on the visible light sensitization of photo- water, and a photocatalyst are needed for this process.
The chemical process of water splitting using a hetero-
To whom correspondence should be addressed. geneous photocatalyst is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
E-mail: [email protected] photocatalyst incorporates semiconductor material

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that act as active photocatalysts for water splitting have

a band gap energy that is too large to absorb visible
light, because the valence bands of the oxides mainly
consist of O2p orbitals with potentials of about 3 V
versus NHE (pH 0)5). Consequently, the band gap
energy of the oxides inevitably exceeds the 3 eV needed
to satisfy the thermodynamic requirement for water dis-
sociation that the band gap of the photocatalyst must
include the potentials of water reduction and oxidation.
For this reason, oxides have limited potential for photo-
catalytic solar energy conversion.
The recombination of electron-hole pairs should also
Fig. 1 Process of Photocatalytic Water Splitting Reaction on a
Heterogeneous Photocatalyst
be suppressed to achieve high efficiency in the photo-
catalytic reactions, instead of energy losses in the
generation of phonons or heat6). Efficient charge sep-
which has an electronic band structure. The highest aration and fast electron injection can be achieved by
occupied energy band is called the valence band (VB) modifying the photocatalyst surfaces with cocatalysts
and the lowest empty band is called the conduction that collect photoexcited carriers and catalyze the sur-
band (CB). These bands are separated by a band gap face redox reactions. However, such surface active
on the order of a few electron volts3). The process of sites may favor undesirable water formation from H2
photocatalytic water splitting using a semiconductor and O2 instead of water splitting, so strategies to sup-
photocatalyst consists of four main steps: (i) absorption press undesirable side reactions should be established.
of photons with energies greater than the band gap, (ii) Note that the rate of water splitting also decreases in the
charge separation of photoexcited electron-hole pairs in presence of Ar gas, although Ar is not involved in the
the bulk catalyst, (iii) migration of charge carriers from O2 reduction reaction. Apparently even an inert gas
the bulk to the surface of the catalyst, and (iv) simulta- can suppress the formation and desorption of bubbles of
neous reduction of H to H2 by electrons (Eq. (1)) and the product gases and enhance O2 reduction during the
oxidation of H2O to O2 by holes (Eq. (2)) at active sites overall water splitting reaction7). Side reactions such as
on the catalyst surface. Overall, two water molecules O2 reduction and H2O formation from H2 and O2 often
are split into two H2 and one O2 molecules via the trans- drastically reduce the rates of photocatalytic overall
fer of four electrons. As the numbers of electrons and water splitting. Therefore, it is important to develop a
holes involved in the surface redox reactions are the cocatalyst to avoid side reactions even in an ambient
same, the photocatalyst remains unaltered. atmosphere. In addition, (photo)corrosion of photo-
catalysts and loss of catalytic capability gradually
Reduction: reduce the photocatalytic activities8). Stabilization and
regeneration of photocatalytic systems should be care-
2H + + 2e − → H 2 (1)
fully considered for the use of photocatalytic systems in
Oxidation: practical applications.
2. 2. Half-reactions Using Sacrificial Electron
2H 2O + 4 h + → 4 H + + O 2 (2)
Donors and Acceptors
Overall reaction: The endothermic requirements of water splitting with
associated rapid recombination of photo-generated con-
2H 2O → 2H 2 + O 2 (3)
duction band electrons and valence band holes are diffi-
The feasibility of this optimum conversion reaction4) cult to achieve. Consequently, sacrificial reagents are
has been limited by two main factors: the band struc- often used in the initial stage of photocatalyst develop-
tures of known photocatalysts and the reaction efficiency. ment. Sacrificial reagents are employed in partial
The thermodynamic requirements are particularly strin- water splitting reactions (termed half-reactions/test
gent. The semiconductor photocatalyst should have a reactions) to determine the photocatalytic activity of a
small band gap to absorb as much light as possible. particular photocatalyst and to evaluate whether the
However, the photogenerated electrons can reduce H physicochemical properties satisfy the kinetic and thermo-
to H2 only if the potential of the conduction band is dynamic potentials required for H2 or O2 formation.
more negative than the potential of H2 evolution (0 V Such test reactions for H2 formation use methanol or
versus HE at pH 0). Likewise, photogenerated holes sulfide ions as the electron donors. These additives,
can oxidize H2O to O2 only if the potential of the rather than water, are oxidized irreversibly by the photo-
valence band is more positive than the potential of O2 generated holes in the valence band. The test reaction
evolution ( 1.23 V versus NHE at pH 0). Most oxides of O2 formation usually uses silver ions or iodate as

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electron acceptors or electron scavengers to consume respectively21),25). The common feature of these
the photogenerated electrons in the conduction band. d0/d10-type photocatalysts is that the metal ions are in
The overall redox reactions in the presence of such sac- the highest oxidation state. There have been no
rificial reagents can be expressed as follows: reported cases of highly stable water splitting achieved
by materials consisting of metal ions with partially filled
Water reduction (H2 formation): d-orbitals (d1 to d9), regardless of whether the catalyst
is an oxide, nitride, or sulphide.
(i) CH 3OH + H 2 O → CO 2 + 3H 2 (4)
2. 4. Non-oxide Semiconductors as Visible Light-
2− 2−
(ii) SO 3 + H 2 O → SO 4 + H2 (5) driven Photocatalysts
Photocatalysts that function only under ultraviolet
Water oxidation (O2 formation): light will not allow photocatalytic water splitting as a
practical means of solar energy conversion, because
(i) 4 Ag + + 2 H 2 O → O 2 + 4 Ag + 4 H + (6)
ultraviolet light accounts only for 4 % of the energy of
− −
(ii) 2 IO 3 → 2 I + 3O 2 (7) solar irradiation. Therefore, considerable efforts have
been invested in developing photocatalysts which func-
Note that the reduction of iodate and the oxidation of tion under the less energetic but more abundant visible
iodide are reversible reactions. This reversibility is light, which accounts for nearly half of the incoming
utilized in redox shuttle mediators in Z-scheme water solar irradiation received at the surface of the earth.
splitting, as described in a later section. As mentioned in section 2. 1., the valence band of oxide
Even if a photocatalyst can reduce and/or oxidize semiconductors is more positive than the O 2 evolution
water separately, overall water splitting is not always potential. Therefore, the development of photocatalysts
possible to achieve, presumably because of rapid charge based on non-oxide semiconductors with narrower band
recombination and reve rse water formation in the gaps is required for efficient solar energy utilization.
absence of sacrificial reagents. Accordingly, half- One approach to decrease the band gap is to incorporate
reactions using sacrificial reagents are regarded as suit- N atoms into metal oxide structures through nitrida-
able test reactions to assess whether a semiconductor of tion21),25)27) , which is accomplished by heat treatment
interest has the potential to produce H2 or O2 under of the oxide precursors under NH3 flow at high temper-
light irradiation. ature. NH3 thermally decomposes at high temperature
2. 3. Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for Overall to form free radicals (H and N3–)29). As nitridation
Water Splitting progresses, these free radicals extract O from the oxide
The discovery of the photocatalytic splitting of water precursors and replace it with N. This process forms
on TiO2 electrodes by Fujishima and Honda in the early metal (oxy)nitrides. The incorporated N atoms form a
1970s resulted in the beginning of a new era in photo- new valence band consisting of hybridized N2p and
catalysis and prompted extensive research concerning O2p orbitals. Because the N2p atomic orbital has a
solar energy conversion9),10). In their pioneering re- more negative potential than the O2p atomic orbitals,
search, UV irradiation of a TiO2 single-crystal electrode the top of the valence band is shifted to a more negative
resulted in O2 evolution under an electrochemical bias, potential. On the other hand, the potential of the con-
associated with H2 evolution on the counter electrode. duction band edge, which consists of the d or sp orbitals
This important result prompted extensive work on photo- of metals, is largely unchanged by the substitution of N
catalytically active semiconductors, focusing solar for O. Consequently, the band gap energy of the cor-
energy conversion to produce H2 as a combustible fuel responding oxide is decreased whereas the conduction
from water. band level remains unaffected, resulting in a visible
By 2010, over 130 photocatalysts had been identified light-driven photocatalyst with band edge potentials
as active for the water splitting reaction (water oxida- suitable for overall water splitting. Note that the band
tion and/or reduction) in the presence of sacrificial structures of (oxy)nitrides are different from those of
agents11),12). These materials included ZrO213), tita- nitrogen-doped oxides, in that the N2p orbitals are
nates14),15), tantalates16),17), niobates18), metal nitrides19) 21), hybridized with O2p orbitals to form a thick and con-
phosphides22), and sulphides23),24). On the basis of the tinuous band. Generally, N atoms doped in an oxide
previously established characteristics of photocatalysts, form discontinuous impurity levels within the band gap
metal compounds with d0 ions (Ti4 , Zr4 , Nb5 , and because of the limited amount of doped nitrogen28),29).
Ta5 ) and d10 ions (Ga3 , In3 , Ge4 , Sn4 , and Sb5 ) Therefore, the visible light absorption of nitrogen-
are empirically accepted as having activity for photo- doped oxides is relatively weak and is often observed
catalytic water splitting. Photocatalysts based on tran- only as shoulder absorption.
sition metal cations with empty d-orbitals and typical Schematic band structures of Ta 2O5, TaON, and
metal cations with fully filled d-orbitals are called photo- Ta3N5 are shown in Fig. 230). During the nitridation
catalysts with d0- and d10-electronic configurations, process, the three O2– anions in the precursor Ta2O5 are

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Fig. 3 Energy Diagram of Two Approaches for the Water Splitting

Reaction: one-step, and two-step photoexcited water split-
Fig. 2 Schematic Band Structures of Ta2O5, TaON, and Ta3N5 ting (Z-scheme)
(Modified from30))

sufficient reaction efficiencies. Although overall water

replaced by two N3– anions, whereas the valence state splitting has not been achieved in the one-step excita-
of Ta5 is maintained. The top valence band of Ta2O5 tion scheme despite various modifications, presumably
consists of a O2p orbital which is located at ca. 3.4 V because of rapid charge recombination, correctly modi-
versus NHE. In contrast, the N2p orbitals of TaON fied TaON can split water into H 2 and O2 under visible
and Ta3N5 are incorporated in the valence bands, modi- light irradiation in the two-step excitation (Z-scheme)
fying the top of the valence bands to ca. 2.0 V versus system. These favorable results have opened up a
NHE for TaON and 1.5 V versus NHE for Ta3N5. range of possibilities for the modification of d0-type
The lower conduction bands of the three Ta-compounds (oxy)nitrides for use in the Z-scheme water splitting
mainly consist of empty Ta5d orbitals and are located at system.
s i m i l a r p o t e n t i a l s , –0.3 t o –0.5 V v e rs u s N H E .
Consequently, the light absorption spectra of TaON and 3. Two-step Photoexcitation Processes (Z-scheme)
Ta3N5 are expanded up to ca. 500 nm and 600 nm,
respectively, although light absorption by Ta2O5 is lim- 3. 1. Basic Principle
ited in the UV region. Therefore, the nitrided products There are two basic approaches for water splitting:
TaON and Ta3N5 have suitable band gap positions for the one-step and two-step photoexcitation schemes
the photocatalysis of water splitting. (Fig. 3). The Z-scheme system incorporates H2 and
In the last decade, substantial efforts have been made O2 evolution photocatalysts and usually a redox media-
to develop (oxy)nitrides and (oxy)sulphides as photo- tor. The two semiconductors with small band gaps are
catalysts for water splitting under visible light irradia- connected by reversible redox reagents. This photo-
tion. One excellent candidate is (Ga1–xZn x)(N1–xO x) catalytic system is inspired by green plant photosynthesis,
which is a visible light-driven d10-type (oxy)nitride photo- and has been termed the “Z-scheme”33), based on the
catalyst and has been successfully used in water split- similarities of the excitation and transfer processes of
ting through one-step photoexcitation31),32). Using the photoexcited electrons. The idea of Z-scheme
Rh2–yCryO3 loaded (Ga1–xZnx)(N1–xOx), a high apparent water splitting was originally proposed in the late 1970s
quantum efficiency of 5.1 % at 410 nm was obtained and early 1980s by Bard and associates, who developed
for overall water splitting, one of the highest efficien- a dual n-type semiconductor model for biological photo-
cies yet reported for photocatalytic water splitting under synthesis and a possible means of application to artifi-
visible light irradiation. However, the absorption edge cial systems33),34). Later, Fujihara et al.35) also con-
wavelength of (Ga1–xZnx)(N1–xOx) is located at 500 nm, structed a Z-scheme water splitting system using a
whereas highly efficient photocatalytic systems must TiO2-rutile photocatalyst and two redox mediators (Br2/
also absorb longer wavelength photons. This draw- Br– and Fe3 /Fe2 ).
back has motivated further research to identify potential A detailed schematic of Z-scheme water splitting is
candidates that could function under a wider spectrum. presented in Fig. 32),36), in which H2 and O2 evolution
Other (oxy)nitrides, including the d0-type (oxy) systems are connected by a shuttle redox couple (termed
nitrides TaON, Ta3N5, LaTiO2N, and ATaO2N (AC a, Red/Ox) in the solution. In the ideal scenario, both re-
Sr, Ba) with absorption edges at 500-600 nm (band gap duction of H to H2 and oxidation of redox mediators
energies of 2.0-2.5 eV), cannot catalyze water splitting, occur on the H2 evolution photocatalyst, while the re-
but can evolve H2 and O2 separately from solutions con- duction of redox mediators and oxidation of H2O to O2
taining appropriate sacrificial reagents21). This effect occur simultaneously on the O2 evolution photo-
possibly results from charge recombination due to in- catalyst37)41) . The advantage of Z-scheme water

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splitting over one-step photoexcitation water splitting is

that a wider range of visible light can be used, as semi-
conductors with either water reduction or oxidation po-
tentials can be employed. Both H2 and O2 generation
from water can be independently studied by using sac-
rificial electron donors (for H2 generation) and electron
acceptors (for O2 formation). Indeed, Z-scheme water
splitting using optimized photocatalysts with high effi-
ciency in half-reactions can be feasible and beneficial.
On the other hand, the Z-scheme requires balanced photo-
catalytic activity of the H2 and O2 evolution photo-
catalysts. In addition, the number of photons required
to generate a certain amount of H2 is double that
required for one-step splitting. In addition to the in-
herent quality of the photocatalysts, several other fac-
tors affect the photocatalytic activity of Z-scheme water
splitting systems: pH, cocatalysts, and redox media-
tors40),42). First, the pH of the reactant solution is related
to the redox processes of both water reduction and oxi-
dation, as well as the zeta-potential of the H2 and O2
evolution photocatalysts40),42). Optimizing the pH can
improve the photocatalytic activity of Z-scheme systems
by a factor of two or more38),41),42). pH also has a direct
influence on the stability of the photocatalytic materials.
Second, the cocatalysts provide the sites for redox reac-
tions on the photocatalyst surface. Cocatalysts in a
Z-scheme process could facilitate charge transfer via
redox couples and, to some extent, prevent the thermo-
dynamically favorable reverse reaction of the redox
mediator25). Third, the redox mediator shuttles photo-
generated carriers between the H2 and O2 evolution
photocatalysts. The most commonly employed redox Fig. 4 Schematic Illustration of Various Z-scheme Water Splitting
mediators are the Fe3 /Fe2 or IO3–/I– redox couples. Systems Driven by Visible Light in the Presence of (a) IO3–/
The presence of a redox mediator is critical for driving I – and (b) Fe 3 /Fe 2 Redox Mediators Respectively
the electron relay efficiently. The efficiency of a (Modified from38))
Z-scheme water splitting system depends strongly on
the choice of suitable redox mediators. catalysts for both H2 and O2 evolution. Since the band
3. 2. Z-scheme Water Splitting Using Redox edge potentials and the band gap energies of semi-
Mediators (Fe3 /Fe2 or IO3–/I–) conductors can be modified by changing the composi-
Since the conception of the Z-scheme, both photo- tions, various photocatalysts can be active under visible
systems have been studied separately using different light. Z-scheme water splitting was achieved under
photocatalytic materials and effective redox media- visible light (λ420 n m) using suspended particles of
tors2),40),43)51) . Z-scheme photocatalytic water split- Pt-loaded SrTiO3 doped with Cr and Ta (H2 evolution
ting was first reported by Sayama et al. in 1997 using photocatalyst) and Pt-loaded WO3 (O2 evolution photo-
WO3 powder suspended in an aqueous FeSO4 solution catalyst) with an IO3–/I– redox pair37). These findings
under UV irradiation (λ200 n m)43). In this system, established the principles of Z-scheme water splitting
Fe2 is excited by UV light followed by photochemical under visible light using various H2 and O2 evolution
reduction of water to form H2 and Fe3 , while WO3 photocatalysts in the presence of IO3–/I– or Fe3 /Fe2
photocatalyzes water oxidation using Fe3 as an elec- redox mediators.
tron acceptor. Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show an overview of various
Another Z-scheme system consists of Pt-modified Z-scheme photocatalysis systems with IO3–/I– and Fe3 /
anatase TiO2 as the H2 evolution photocatalyst and bare Fe2 redox couples, respectively. The most effective
rutile TiO2 as the O2 evolution photocatalyst under UV system is (Pt/ZrO2/TaON)_(Pt/WO3) using the IO3–/I–
irradiation (λ300 n m) in the presence of an iodate/ redox couple with an apparent quantum yield of 6.3 %
iodide (IO3–/I–) shuttle redox mediator44). This pio- at 420 nm49), which is currently the highest apparent
neering Z-scheme for water splitting employed photo- quantum yield reported for a non-sacrificial visible

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Fig. 6 Mechanism of Two-step Photoexcited Z-scheme Water

Splitting Driven by Electron Transfer between H2 and O2
Evolution Photocatalysts Using Ru/SrTiO3:Rh and Co/Ir/
Ta3N5 in the Absence of Redox Mediator51)
Fig. 5 Forward and Reverse Reactions in the Two-step Photo-
excitation System (Z-scheme) (Modified from2),38))

absence of electron relay systems is highly desirable,

light-driven water splitting system. ZrO2/TaON loaded and can be achieved through interparticle electron trans-
with nanoparticulate Pt functions efficiently as the H2 fer from one side to the other, mediated by physical
evolution photocatalyst in combination with Pt/WO348), contact between the H2 and O2 evolution photocatalysts,
RuO2/TaON49), or Ir/TiO2/Ta3N550) as the O2 evolution respectively. Recently, Ru-loaded SrTiO3 doped with
photocatalyst in the presence of an IO3–/I– redox media- Rh (Ru/SrTiO3:Rh) achieved the functionality of a H2
tor, far outperforming the analogous Pt/TaON system48). evolution photocatalyst for Z-scheme water splitting
The range of wavelengths available for O2 evolution even without a shuttle redox mediator25),40). In this
has also been extended, resulting in water splitting with system, many metal oxide photocatalysts, active for O2
visible light up to 520 nm wavelength39),40). These evolution from aqueous AgNO3 solution but inactive in
Z-scheme systems consisted of Pt- or Ru-modified the presence of a redox couple, can be applied for the
SrTiO3 doped with Rh (H2 evolution photocatalyst) and O2 evolution function. When the H2 and O2 evolution
BiVO4 (O2 evolution photocatalyst), with electron trans- photocatalysts are photoexcited, H2 and O2 evolution re-
port between the two photocatalysts by an Fe3 /Fe2 actions occur at the respective photocatalysts, and elec-
redox mediator. tron transfer from one side to the other is mediated by
3. 3. Z - s c h e m e W a t e r S p l i t t i n g t h r o u g h physical contact. More specifically, interparticle elec-
Interparticle Electron Transfer without Redox tron transfer occurs from the conduction band of the O2
Mediator evolution photocatalyst to the donor function provided
The thermodynamically favorable reverse reaction is by Rh dopants in the forbidden band of SrTiO3:Rh, thus
a major obstacle to the use of redox mediators, despite allowing stoichiometric H2 and O2 evolution without
the vital effect of the redox mediators on Z-scheme water requiring an electron relay redox mediator system.
splitting. As illustrated in Fig. 5, the reverse reactions Among the metal oxide photocatalysts examined,
(indicated by the dotted lines) of the redox mediator BiVO4 was the most active component for O2 evolution
proceed readily over both photocatalysts and suppress in the redox-free Z-scheme system with SrTiO3:Rh,
the forward reactions (H2 and O2 evolution). Although achieving a solar energy conversion efficiency of
certain combinations of photocatalyst and redox media- 0.12 % under optimal conditions25),40). However, the
tor resulted in evolution of either H2 or O2 under light absorption band edge of the O2 evolution photocatalyst,
irradiation, gas evolution was terminated during the BiVO4, is located at ca. 520 nm. Efficient utilization
reaction because of the reverse reaction in most cases. of solar energy will require the replacement of BiVO4
Therefore, high-efficiency Z-scheme water splitting with another component with a wider absorption band
requires a photocatalytic system with high selectivity in the visible light region. Recently, a redox mediator-
for the forward reactions (indicated by the solid lines). free Z-scheme system was successfully constructed
The use of redox couples can also cause additional using Ir/CoOx/Ta3N5 (λ600 n m) in combination with
problems. Part of the visible light spectrum will be Ru/SrTiO3:Rh, which obtained a solar energy conver-
absorbed by a redox mediator with color, which absorbs sion efficiency of 0.013 % under simulated sunlight, as
some of the irradiated incident light. In addition, the shown in Fig. 651).
differences in favorable redox concentrations for the
individual photocatalysts makes the optimum perfor- Conclusions
mance of the respective photocatalysts difficult to iden-
tify. Thus, the construction of Z-scheme systems con- Photocatalytic water splitting using semiconductor
sisting of only H2 and O2 evolution photocatalysts in the catalysts under visible light may become an important

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